( r.i'{lr":;Y

A Brief Historyof Ethnic Cleansing

Andrew Bell-Fialkoff

REVISITING THE SINS OF ANTIQUITYTnn Se nsrAN cAMpArcN to "cleanse" a territory of another eth-nic group, *M.. gruesome and tragic, is historically speaking neithernew nor remarkable. Population removal and transfer have occurredin history more often than is generally acknowledged. The centralaim of the Serbian campaign-to eliminate a population from the"homeland" in order to create a more secure, ethnicaltyhomogeneousstate-is in some ways as old as antiquity. Moreover, despitegreaterinternational attention and condemnation, such campaigns have onlyintensified in the late nineteenth and twentieth centuriis.

Despite its recurrence, ethnic cleansing nonetheless defies easydefinition. At one end it is virtually indistinguishable from forcede-migration andpopulation exchange while at the other it merges withdeportation and genocide. At the most general level, however, ethniccleansing can be understood as the expulsion of an "undesirable"population from a given territory due to religious or ethnic discrimi-nation, political, strategic or ideological considerations, or a combi-nation of these.

under this definition, then, the slow dispersal and annihilation ofNorth America's indigenous population was indeed ethnic cleansing.In their efforts to gain and secure the frontier, American settleis

fl

ANonew Bnll-FrnlKoFF, formerly a Research Fellow at the centerfor the study of small stares, is a doctoral candidate specializing in eth-nic conflict at Boston University.

Irro ]

ry'

rlp

A Brief His tory of E thrii C lrorring"cleansed" most Indians from their lands, even though the processwas slow and, until the nineteenth century, carried out mainly underprivate initiative. On the other hand, the removil, of thousands ofAfricans from their home continent, however harsh and despite thefact that it denuded manyregions of their original inhabitants, wouldnot be considered ethnic cleansing. The aim was to import a desiredslave population, not to expel any pafttcular group.

Ethnic cleansing has taken many forms. The lot..d resettlementof a "politicallyunreliable" population-one conquered and incorpo-rated into an empire yet still likely to rebel-dales from the eigirthc9n!v nc. That ptr.ii.. was revived, however, as late as the ,94Js inthe Soviet Union. As part of a general process toward greater homo-geneitywithin states that began in the Middle Ages, "ethnic" cleans-ing took on medieval notions of religious puriry targeting minoritiesof "nonbelievers," whether Catholic or Protestant, Musllm or Jew.with the profound secularization of the modern world, .l."rrrirrglater manifested itself in political ideology, namely as part of .o*lmunism and fascism.

Nationalism, too, as a kind of modern religion, contains quasi-spiritual aspects that lend to its most extreme manifestation a desireto 'purifi" the nation of "alieri' groups. The important differencebetween modern ethnic cleansing and the patterns established in theMiddle Ages is that in religious cleansing a population often had thechoice of conversion. In purely ethnic cleansing that option does notexist; a population must move or die.

FROM ASSYRIA TO SERBIAHrsronrcRr. coNTEXT should help illustrate ethnic cleansing'slong evolution, motivations and various expressions, as well

^, It,

return to Europe on the cusp of the zrst cenfury. Many of today's lib-eral democratic states have, at some point in their histories, conduct-ed campaigns to displace religious or ethnic minorities, events fromwhSh virtually no European nation has been exempt.

The earliest example was cleansing carried out by Tiglath-pileserrrl (7a5127 nc), the first Assyrian ruler to make forcediesettlement

FOREIGN AFFAIP.S . Summer rggJ Irrr]

Andrezt BeII-FiaIAofa state policy. Under his reign about half the population of a con-quered land would be carried off, and its place taken by settlers fromanother region. Tiglath's heirs continued this policy and, over thecenturies, so too did the Babylonians, Greeks and Romans, althoughnot always on the same scale and often for the prevailing economicreason of slavery.

Once these ancient empires had rent the organic links among eth-niciry belief and political citizenship, religion became the primarybasis of collective identity. In the Middle Ages cleansing was thusapplied primarily to religious, as opposed to ethnic, minorities, asmedieval Christianity attempted to impose orthodoxy on nonbeliev-ers. Despite prior episodes of religious suppression, such as earlyChristians in Rome or the persecution of non-Zoroastrians in Persiain the fourth century it was only during the Middle Ages that perse-cution of religious minorities became fully institutionalized for sub-stantial periods.

Massacre and expulsion were the most common methods of reli-gious cleansing, which tended to targetJews, the only sizable minor-ity in most countries. Jews were thus expelled from England (tzgo),France (qo6), Hungary ft34g-ry6o), Provence ft394 and r49o),Austria (t4zr), Lithuania (t++), Cracow (r+g+), Porrugal ftag) adnumerous German principalities at various times. Spain was uniqueamong European cor-rntries because of its sizable Muslim population.Having "tried" massacre in 4gr, Spain expelled its Jews in 1492, thenits Muslims in r5oz, forcibly Christianizing the remaining Muslimsrn ry26 and finally expelling all Moriscos (converted N{uslims) in16og-r4.

In r53o the Confession of Augsburg had explicitly laid down theprinciple of religious homogeneity as the basis of political order.Cuius regio, eius religio meant in effect that medieval states irad begunto shape an orthodox citizenry. Thus by revoking the E,dict of Nantesin r685, France indeed initiated a process of "self-cleansing," as thou-sands of Protestant Huguenots fled once denied freedom of worship.In this way, the Confession can be considered the ideological corner-stone of modern cleansing, a process only possible in centraltzed,absolutist states capable of enforcing "purity."

Irrz] FOREIGN AFFAIRS .l/olumezz Na3

A Brief History ofEthnic CleansingAlthough still couched in religious terms, the first cleansings

based primarily on ethnic discrimination were carried out byEngland. In the r64os and r65os, when war and plague s-wept awayhalf the Irish population, England seized the opportuniry to expelmost of the remaining Irish Catholics from Ulster until, by 1688, 8opercent of their land was owned by English and Scottish Protestants.London's motivation was primarily strategic: toprevent Catholic Ireland from offeringCatholic Spain or France a base of operations.Displacement of the Irish population thuscompleted a kind of historical cycle, as cleans-ing returned to patterns formerlyestablished bythe Assyrians and Romans.

In North America, meanwhile, those sur-vivors of the sweeping removals of nativeAmericans conducted in the l83os were settledin the Indian Territory. Then the 186z Home-

Only in the nineteenrhcenrury did thecomplete destmctionof an ethnic groupmanifest itseHas thegoal of a state.

stead Act opened up much of the remaining Indian lands to whitesettlers. In the two decades after 1866 the federal government pro-ceeded to assign Indian tribes to reservations. Those previouslyunconquered-the Siotx, Comanche, Arapaho and others-resistedand were subsequently crushed.

It was only in the nineteenth century that the complete destruc-tion of an ethnic group manifested itself as the goal of a state, whenTurkey began directing cleansing efforts against Greeks andArmenians. Having come to view those minorities as enemies with-in, the Turkish sultan Abdul Hamid II encouraged Kurdish depre-dations on Armenian villages until hostilities grew into a veritablewar. By 1894 Tirrkish regular troops had joined with the Kurds, andabout 2oo,ooo Armenians were killed. In the r9r5 holocaust,Armenians lost an estimated r.5 million people-more than halftheirpopulation-as well as about 90 percent of their ethnic territory.Despite the strains brought about by the First World War, that geno-cide was clearly the continuation, on a larger scale, of ongoingTirrkish attempts to eliminate the entire Armenian population.

By the middle of the fwentieth century cleansing was indeed car-

FOREIGN AFFAIRS . Summel rgg7 [.t:]

Andrew Bel/-Fialkofried out on purely ethnic grounds, an outgrowth of paranoid fascistnationalism that viewed "alien" groups as a threat to ethnic "p*ity."It is with the Nazi campaigns against Jews that ethnic cleansingreached its height: annihilation. Although Jews had for centurieibeen the victims ofvarious forms ofreligious persecution, fwentieth-century nationalism lent Central and East European anti-Semitisma largely ethnic character.

The Nazi campaigns were an ethnic cleansing in the sense thattheywere intended to removeJews from territories of the Reich. TheGerman termJudenreinr "clean ofJews," which was used to designateareas from which allJews had been deported, testifies to this fact-. Butthe Holocaust was much more. It combined elements of deportation,expulsion, population transfer, massacre and genocide. In that way itwas "complete," truly a final solution. Altogether about six millionEuropeanJews were murdered betrween 1933 and 1945. About 25o,oooGypsies and an equal number of gays were also killed by the Nazis.

The Germans also practiced cleansing through deportation alone,without (immediate) extermination; for instance the Germanizationof Polish territories incorporated into the Reich. Starting in Octoberrg3g

^t Gdynia, expulsion orders were often issued without warning

and implemented at night. Deportees were given between zo minlutes and two hours to collect what was usually limited to one suitcasecontaining personal effects. German authorities made no provisionsfor these deporte es e ither on thcir way to or in those Polish arees notincorporated into the Reich, where they were dumped. In the firsttwo years of German occupation i.z rnillion Poles and 3oo,ooo Jewswere transferred from these incorporated territories in the largest, butby no means only, cleansing implemented by the Germans.

Hitler also carried out a kind of reverse cleansing in his effort toconsolidate the Reich. Ethnic Germans (Volksdeutsche) were in effectcleansed from Eastern Europe as they were recalled and resettled inHitler's occupied territories, especially western Poland. By springrg42 more than Zoo,ooo Germans (and non-Germans claimingGerman origin) had been transferred from the Baltic states,Bukovina, South Tyrol and elsewhere, and resettled in territoriesHitler sought to Germanrze.

Itt+] FO RE I GN AFFAIRS . Volume zz No.3

A BriefHistory ofEthnic CleansingAfter Hitlert megalomaniacal efforts began to collapse, advanc-

ing Russian armies in turn forced most Germans back in their path.What ensued was the largest and most sweeping ethnic cleansing inhistory: the removal of over ten million Germans from EasternEurope. The final decision to remove German populations fromEastern Europe was taken by the United States, the U.S.S.R. andBritain on August 2, rg45, in Potsdam. It is impossible to give exactfigures, but it is estimated that neady rz million Germans werecleansed from Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania andYugoslavia after World War II. About z.r million of these died froma combination of war, hunger, cold and disease.

Germans were not the onlygroup slated for cleansing. The Czechgovernment, with Stalin's consent, expelled z5,ooo to 3o,oooHungarians by the end of ry45. For various reasons, tre czechgovernment later preferred to settle "the Hungarian problem"thro'"rgh population exchange. A ry46 agreement benveen Hungaryand Czechoslovakia allowed for the evenfual exchange of 3r,LooMagyars for 33,ooo Slovaks. After both countries were communizedthe exchange ceased.

Within its own borders, the Soviet Union also cleansed about6oo,ooo people from regions that had proved themselves "unreliable"in the war, such as the autonomous Kalmyk, the Checheno-Ingushrepublic and the Karachaev region in northern Caucasus. During thewar Crimean Tartars formally requested permission from Romania,the occupying power, to exterminate all Russians remaining in thepeninsula. When that request was denied, the Tartar Council orga-nized a mass slaughter on its own, killing berwe..r 7o,ooo *dr2o,ooo Russians. Consequently, Tartars too were transferred enmasse by the Soviets after the war.

Twentieth-century communist ideology introduced yet anothertype of cleansing, that of economic class. The destruction of proper-tied classes in Stalinist Russia or Maoist China bore all the markings,including vocabulary of an "ethnic" cleansing. Marx appliedChristian rejection of the Jew; once based on religion but during histime transformed into racialism, to class analysis and the eliminationof certain "parasitic" groups. In this way, the patterns of "selFcleans-

FOREIGN AFFAIP.S . Summer r99J ["s]

Andrean Bell-Fialkofing" established in the Middle Ages had returned yet again, this timemanifested in the modern totalitarian state's own mechanism forensuring "puriry" the purge.

THE BALKAN TRAGDDY: ACT IIEvnNr s r N Yuco s LAvrA cannotbe fullyunderstoodwithout theirhistorical antecedents. Especially in the Balkans, ongoing cycles oftragedy and atrocity remain historically fresh and provide not only thecontext but the basis for todayt brutal cleansing campaigns. Thegnresome events being played out in former Yugoslavia are merely thesecond act of a tragedy that opened in April r94r.

Only about fifty years ago-that is within the lifetime of an indi-vidual-Croatian nationalists carried out massacres of Serb civiliansin a Nazi puppet state comprising most of today's Croatia andBosnia-Herzegovina. The Ustashi, as these nationalists were known,regarded Croatia's more than two million Serbs as a threat to nation-a-l integrity. The Croatian minister of education, for example, speak-ing at a banquet in June r94r, remarked that "one-third of the Serbswe shall kill, another we shal1 deport and the last we shall force toembrace the Roman Catholic religion and thus meld them intoCroats." This policy was officially enunciated later the same monthby the governor of western Bosnia, Viktor Gutich. In a speech atBanya Luka, Gutich urged that the ciry and all of Croatia, be "thor-oughly cleansed of Serbian dirt."

What followed was less a cleansing than a wholesale massacre.The list of atrocities is staggering and seemingly endless. In oneinstance, in August r94r in the sma1l Bosnian town of Sanski Most,rwo thousand local Serbs were killed in three days of executions. Inother villages Serbs were rounded up and burned in their churches.Those trying to escape were gunned down. Others were killed alongditches and then buried, or dumped into rivers. So many corPse s werethrown into the Danube in the summer of ry4r that German author-ities were forced to close the river to swimming. Some atrocities defrbelief. The Croatian ftihrer, Ante Pavelich, is supposed to have shownthe Italian author Curzio Malaparte a 4o-Pound basket of human

Irt6] FOREIGN AFFAIP-S . Volumezz No.3

ffi'A Brief His tory of Et/tnic Cleansing

eyes gouged from his Serbian vjctims. Befween M^yand Octobertg4r it is estimated that the ustashi kilii L-.*.r, 3oo,ooo and34o,ooo Serbs.The extermination of serbs was

_part of a wider campaign byGermany and rts alries. Hungarian, *rio ";."p;i ;arts of yugoslaviamassacred the serbial nonur"ation ofrwo hgJ;rdges on the serbianorthodox christmar in-;"n,rrry tnir,

"r J ru?.i

"lrrrr* 15, oo o s erbsandJews in Novi sad, the ,^piiillrvopoJi;;. d;", 2,ooaof thesewere thrown arive into holes in the rrlrrn- n^;;.. Burgarians tooobliterated several vila_ges in southern serbia. atrog.rher about750'ooo serbs, 60,ooo Jem and, z5,ooo Glpsies were annihilated.others were expelr.d. i., , .1.r, e*ampr" of .r."rrring, Burgariauprooted r2o,ooo serbs, and Hung uy 7o,ooo, from their portions ofoccupied Yugoslavia. The deportees were given z4 hours,notice andallowed one suitcase and "bout six dollars.When the Croatran.atmy finalJy surrendered in May ry45, theBritish promotly turned over their prisoners to MarshalJosip Tito,sPartisans. Th.' croats *.r. i-*ediately marched south intoYugoslavia. some 5,ooo were shot just within ,rr. u"ra.rs of slovenia,and over the next fery days un udiitio"d ;;,;;;;r. killed. serbsmarched several "death columns"

"..o::.l_h.'country on foot, denyingtheir prisoners either food or warer. vilage*;;ig rne roure wereforbidden to offer the croat, fooi o, arinri,-^.J^",rrrse who couldnot compiete rhe journeywere shot. The ".;.;;;;1., of croats whodied is uncertain, but itis estimated at about roo,ooo. such was theSerbian revenge.

To some tlir ho'rors of a harFcenfury ago may seem remote orunreal, but to many in the Balkans these ,ir"iiii.r^JJ*^i. vivid to thisday. One Serb in ten died in that wa6 T:g"lly every family lost some_one, and many of the survivors are still living. Thus even before theco un try collapsed, popuration transfer, *.r. ?ir.rr*a ",.r."rir.ii i"the Yugoslav media. fn ,99, the popul* S.rUi"n

_rg.rirr. Nin fea_tured an article about (uoru"tru-y) popuratior, .*.ir.nge betweenserbia and croatia. Bosnia

""a rr";ira'(a serb.;;t;r. in croatia),it said, would remain.in yugosravia. serbs l;;;l; areas with acroatian majorirywould r.r.ir. in vojvod;;.;;?;er areas whereFORE IGN AFFA IRS . Summer rgg3 Lrrzl

Andreu Bell-FialAofthe Serb component had to be strengthened. Croats from Bosnia andIGajina would setde in Croatia in houses abandoned bv the Serbs.The Nin article appeared along with the fust violeni clashes inCroatia, which started in Palcrac on March r, r99r. Already at that

Before full-scale warhad even begun

early stage-before Croatia had even declaredindependence, before full-scale war had evenbegun-about zo,ooo Serbs fled Croatia, mostfor Voivodina.

about 2o,ooo Serbs Massive population transfers swelled asfled from Croatia. lghting intensified among Yu-goslavia's varioustactions. By the beginning of rygz there were

r58,ooo refugees in Serbia alone, the vastmajority ethnic Serbs. Within one month of Bosnia's declaration ofindependence on March 3, 1992, some 42o,ooo people had fledBosnia orwere forced from their homes. According tb thi u.N. HighCommissioner for Refugees, by the end of that Jirly the number-ofdisplaced persons had reach ed 2.5 million. By Augusi one-third of allSerbs who had resided in Croatia had left; the number of ethnicCroat refugees was estimated at about ro percent of that republic'scrggt population. There were also 5o,ooo ethnic Magyars who fledto Hungary.

While there are indeed extraordinary numbers ofpeople who havebeen displaced, not all of them have been technila[y "cleansed."From the very start, fear itself created large numbers of refugees.There are thus those who fled "voluntarif' [k. the initial 2o,oooSerbs who "moved" to Vojvodina. There are others who, once theirtowns were taken by enemy forces, were simply too afraid to stay.Such was the evacuation ofJajce, which fell in october rggz,whoie25'ooo survivors went to Travnik. These people are technically "vol-untary" refugees, but the line separating them from the cleansed hasworn increasingly thin.

The thousands who have been forced to leave their towns by par-tisans in the war, especially those made to leave even after .n

"tL" hrt

been militarily secured, belong unequivocally to the category of eth-nic cleansing. These people are removed for ethnic and stiategic con-siderations and are clearly victims of cleansing campaigns. In the

Irr8] FOREIGN AFFAIRS . Yolumezz No.3

A BriefHistory ofEthnic Cleansingsanjakr for instance, some To,ooo Muslims out of a prewar popula-tion of zoo,ooo were terrorized into fleeing their homes. In anothercase, Serb guerrillas encircled the village of T.tr"li.i, cut off allcom-munications and went door to door, throwing out everyone theycould find before setting the village afue. This was a "gentie,'clearrsiing; no one was known to have been killed or raped. oiten those car-ryng out a cleansing loot all they can find-rv sets, washingmachines, bicycles. Cleansing thus has economic motivatiorr.

",

*.[].

These campaigns to create ethnically homogenous regions are, inthe history of ethnic cleansing, unique in only afew re[ards. First,much ethnic cleansing has been carried out not by regular govern-T.ttj tlgops but rather_by iregular civilian forces. This is ferhapsinevitable in what may be considered a "civil" war. But the fact alsoltt.rjr to the verypersonal nature of the animosities in many areas ofthe Balkans, with some families resuming feuds that *er. frozensince the end ofWorld War II. Civilian fighters have carried out whatthey understand to be their "d*ry as patriots," sometimes committingatrocities on their own initiative, even if awareof higher-level, officiJand semiofficial encouragement and expectations.

Another "innovation" has been the creative use of prisoner ofwarcamps. While the men are held in camps, the women

^.. presented

with an ultimatum: the prisoners will be released onlyiffamfies agreeto leave the territory. Some 5,ooo Muslim families from Bi"hac"expressed" such a desire, according to Bosnian Serb authorities, andsigned kinds of affrdavits to that effect. In August rggz, Croats andMuslims estimated at Zo,ooo the number of pr"isoners held by Serbsip sgme 45 camps; serbs claimed that 4z,ooo compatriois weredetained rn 2r camps, where 6,ooo prisoners had died. Since theSerbs control most of Bosnia, they are in a position to conduct muchof their cleansing in this manner.

There is also overwhelming evidence of mass rape perpetratedagainst mostly Muslim, but also Croat, women. The

-number of

wom_en raped is estimated to range from 3o,ooo to 5o,ooo. Althoughrape-has long be-en a concomitant ofwar, organized rape is fairly raie.In the Second World War, for instan.", Jrp".r.se authorities kld-napped thousands of Korean and Filipino women to serve in army-

FOREIGi.I AFFAIP.S , Summel rgg7 Irtq]

Andrezts Bell-Fialkofrun brothels. In Yugoslavia thousands of women, many of themminors, have also been interned in rape camps. Female r.r.rg.., i"*testified to this and other mistreatm.nt,

"rrd large numbers of these

reports have been documented. The pattern of Jpe is too consistentandwidesprgad to be dismissed

"r piopug and,aoi *.r. lapses in thediscipline of individual soldietr. sf*. Serbian fighters craim they

were ordered to. rape: just as they were also orderld to kill (,,,oJi-4" prisoners) in order to ,,toughen,themselves up..

It is possible that, at least initially, rape **, ,ro, intended as aninstrument of ethnic. cleansing. As in marry*"rr, rape may have beenviewed with a blind .y., p.i-itted in otd., to ,,toost morale,, or"reward" the soldier or to inflict lasting humiliation and demoralizethe-enemy. cleansing per se may have b-een an unintended effect. Butas $9 stigma of rape was seen to be effective in driving awaywomenand their families from the lands that serbs sought to conquer, rapeindeed became a new and gruesome weapon in t-he

"ncient!.rirr.rifethnic cleansing.

SOURCES AND CONSEQUENCES OF CLEANSINGTsn F.RCES THAT DRrvE such atrocities are of course larger andfar less scientific than "simple" strategic motivations. The atitudesand emotions that define the relationr b.t*..n different peoples areextrao.rdinarily complex. Discrimination and prejudi.. prorlde thethread that ties together the long history of ,.ilgious and ethniccleansing.

In the Balkans, too, bigotry has fuered the fighting on all sides.Y|il.. grudgingly acknowlidging that croats hau"e

"

hi"gh., standarJof living*that they are in effect more "European'-Sirbs may dis-miss them as effete or submissive, a people that has willingly r.rv.dstronger Austrian or German masters. Lik.*ir., serbs *"ry ,.g"rdBosnian Muslims as the descendants of slavic ',turncoats,' who Ln-verted to Islam under Turkish rule, a time when it was mosr oppor-tune. In contrast, the perception is passed among Serbs th.-r.1,0.,that they are a heroic, independent and virile m..] a tenacious fight-ing people who were among the first to throw ofr 4oo y."ri of

Ir zo] FORE IGN AFFATRS . VotumeTz No.3

A Brief History ofEthnic Cleansingottoman domination. These historic feats, as well as Serbiat well-established claims to statehood, entide it to lead the other (oftenungratefirl) South Slavs, who in turn regard the Serbs as domineer-ing brutes seeking continually to impose their will and to infuse nas-tiness into their relations with other peoples.

The hollowness and exaggeration of these claims are revealed aseach side will alternately emphasize their common roots when itindeed suits its purposes. Before the war, for example, when the Serbsstill hoped to keep Bosnia in Yugoslavia, themedia frequently highlighted similarit:l ylrl The difficulty ofthe Muslims, while Croats often stressed thatBosnia had been part of historical Croatia and bridging prejudicewillthat most Bosnian Muslims were originally of only be compoundedCroatian descent. L..,

The difficuiryofbridgingprejudice will only oy this wellspring ofbe compounded by the wellspring of fresh fresh arrocities.atrocities that this latest Balkan war provides.Particularly troubling, if the abuse is indeed as widespread as report-ed, is how a generation of "half-breed" children, spawned ofrape and"corrupted" with the blood of another ethnic group, will be reieivedand cared for among populations that will have concluded a brutalwar in which the puriry and indeed the very survival, of nationalitieshas been held so consciously in the fore.

Ultimately, whe ther compelled by deliberate anemprs ar cleansingor by the "voluntary" flight of refugees, the processes that have shiftled thousands of lives in the Balkans will accomplish the same end.W"r, prejudice and a desire, finally, to be left in peace will have trans-fo^rmed the peninsula into a land more closely resembling other partsof Europe that have already undergone their own tragii upheavals.The Balkans too may become a patchwork of ethnically disiinct ter-ritories. With no sizable minorities left within any srate and with thewarring factio ns s ecurely walled off b ehi nd "nation al " bo undarie s, thebest that can be hoped for is that the motors of conflict will be dis-abled and the fatal cycles of violence that have marred Balkan histo-ry will finally have reached their end. e,

FOREIGN AFFAIRS. Summer 1993 Irzr]