11

66

Thinking and CultureThinking and Culture

22

Shared UnderstandingShared Understanding

Culture is based on shared understanding. Culture is based on shared understanding.

It thus requires thinking (for understanding) It thus requires thinking (for understanding) and communication (for sharing).and communication (for sharing).

Since language is so powerful for thinking Since language is so powerful for thinking and communication it is a powerful cultural and communication it is a powerful cultural medium.medium.

33

Computers can think faster and more Computers can think faster and more accurately than humans. accurately than humans.

Since they lack the motivation to think about Since they lack the motivation to think about specific things they are only tools in the need specific things they are only tools in the need to be used.to be used.

Human’s mind ought to chose among the Human’s mind ought to chose among the chaotic brew of sensory impressions.chaotic brew of sensory impressions.

44

People think about people much more than People think about people much more than any other things. any other things.

Most human thoughts are about social and Most human thoughts are about social and cultural life (cf. Dunbar on gossiping).cultural life (cf. Dunbar on gossiping).

The human mind is mainly used for the The human mind is mainly used for the purpose of participating in culture and purpose of participating in culture and society.society.

55

Four competing goals involved in Four competing goals involved in thinkingthinking

1. Truth (e.g. scientist).1. Truth (e.g. scientist).

2. Reach a particular conclusion (e.g. lawyer).2. Reach a particular conclusion (e.g. lawyer).

3. Speed: make quick choices.3. Speed: make quick choices.

4. Economy: not to work too hard.4. Economy: not to work too hard.

These goals are incompatible with each other. These goals are incompatible with each other. Thus they must compete.Thus they must compete.

66

Circumstances favor one or the other.Circumstances favor one or the other.

These goals don’t answer the question about These goals don’t answer the question about the purpose of thinking. They merely the purpose of thinking. They merely describe everyday conduct of thought. describe everyday conduct of thought.

Main purpose: allowing the interaction with Main purpose: allowing the interaction with others (cf. Dunbar on gossiping). E.g. people others (cf. Dunbar on gossiping). E.g. people read novel (about other people) rather than read novel (about other people) rather than scientific books. Novel are pseudo-scientific books. Novel are pseudo-gossiping…gossiping…

77

Thinking and cultural differencesThinking and cultural differences

Cultural variations are a minimal part of the Cultural variations are a minimal part of the importance of culture. What matters for importance of culture. What matters for evolution and adaptation is how cultures are the evolution and adaptation is how cultures are the same.same.

Evidence for cultural differences focus on Evidence for cultural differences focus on Eastern (Asian) vs. Westerns (European and Eastern (Asian) vs. Westerns (European and North American) thinking. North American) thinking.

The former think more holistically (seeing how The former think more holistically (seeing how things fits together) while the latter more things fits together) while the latter more analytically (focusing on things in isolation).analytically (focusing on things in isolation).

88

This difference probably originates in This difference probably originates in different social organizations. different social organizations.

Westerns societies were influenced by the Westerns societies were influenced by the Greeks who developed early notions of Greeks who developed early notions of democracy, freedom, and individuality. democracy, freedom, and individuality.

Asian societies were influenced by the Asian societies were influenced by the ancient Chinese civilization which ancient Chinese civilization which emphasized network beliefs, e.g. that people emphasized network beliefs, e.g. that people social roles existed in a structure of social roles existed in a structure of interdependent reciprocal social duties, ….interdependent reciprocal social duties, ….

Neither style is better overall.Neither style is better overall.

99

Intelligence allows culture to be the Intelligence allows culture to be the most powerful biological weaponmost powerful biological weapon

By sharing and transmitting information By sharing and transmitting information we’ve been able to outclass other species.we’ve been able to outclass other species.

But culture requires intelligence.But culture requires intelligence.

Intelligence refers to mental abilities. Intelligence refers to mental abilities. E.g.: processing information, learn and retain E.g.: processing information, learn and retain it, problem solving, …it, problem solving, …

1010

Intelligence allows to compete with other Intelligence allows to compete with other species and within the group (intelligent people species and within the group (intelligent people often do better).often do better).

Intelligence is mainly a single overarching Intelligence is mainly a single overarching factor: all mental abilities are interrelated.factor: all mental abilities are interrelated.

Intelligence is mainly genetically transmitted: Intelligence is mainly genetically transmitted: (e.g.: adopted children are more similar in IQ to (e.g.: adopted children are more similar in IQ to biological parents than to the adopted ones).biological parents than to the adopted ones).

1111

Environment and intelligenceEnvironment and intelligence

The environment doesn’t provide a positive The environment doesn’t provide a positive effect, but a negative one.effect, but a negative one.

Although parents cannot do much to increase Although parents cannot do much to increase a child’s intelligence they can do much to a child’s intelligence they can do much to decrease it.decrease it.

E.g.: abuse, sexual molestation, starvation, E.g.: abuse, sexual molestation, starvation, … all contribute to reduce IQs.… all contribute to reduce IQs.

1212

Evolution and IntelligenceEvolution and Intelligence

Intelligence is a wonderful all purpose tool, Intelligence is a wonderful all purpose tool, but evolution does not promote multipurpose but evolution does not promote multipurpose devices: it develop specific solutions to devices: it develop specific solutions to specific problems. specific problems.

Thus intelligence must have evolved as a Thus intelligence must have evolved as a specific solution to for specific problems of specific solution to for specific problems of special importance to cultural animals.special importance to cultural animals.

1313

Evolutionary Psychologists Cosmides & Toby Evolutionary Psychologists Cosmides & Toby argue that the thinking structure evolved argue that the thinking structure evolved specifically to deal with problems of social specifically to deal with problems of social exchange. exchange.

A system of exchange among strangers A system of exchange among strangers requires people to play their part. requires people to play their part.

But natural selfishness may prompt some to But natural selfishness may prompt some to take advantage without contributing. take advantage without contributing.

Thus the advanced cultural brain was likely to Thus the advanced cultural brain was likely to keep a special lookout for cheaters.keep a special lookout for cheaters.

1414

Cheaters detectorsCheaters detectors

One doesn’t reason equally well about all One doesn’t reason equally well about all problems even if they have similar logical problems even if they have similar logical structures. structures.

The human mind is not naturally inclined to The human mind is not naturally inclined to search for logical fallacies, but for the kinds of search for logical fallacies, but for the kinds of problems which violate the basic rules of social problems which violate the basic rules of social exchange. exchange.

It is naturally inclined to search for cheaters.It is naturally inclined to search for cheaters.

1515

This confirms the view that the mind evolved This confirms the view that the mind evolved for participation in cultural systems that rely for participation in cultural systems that rely on social exchanges.on social exchanges.

Intelligence couldn’t do much without relying Intelligence couldn’t do much without relying on language and meaning.on language and meaning.

1616

Brain and MeaningBrain and Meaning

Human thinking doesn’t reduce to the firing Human thinking doesn’t reduce to the firing of brain cells. of brain cells.

Cf. unconnected computer Cf. unconnected computer vsvs. connected . connected computer. computer.

With a computer connected to the net one With a computer connected to the net one can do much more. can do much more.

The brain allows its owner to participate in The brain allows its owner to participate in culture: this is what it is designed to do.culture: this is what it is designed to do.

1717

Meaning and language are social (abstract) Meaning and language are social (abstract) entities and we are designed to entities and we are designed to participate/exploit them.participate/exploit them.

Intelligence works together with meaning and Intelligence works together with meaning and language.language.

In that sense the brain was a prerequisite for In that sense the brain was a prerequisite for language. language.

On the other hand, once the brain reached the On the other hand, once the brain reached the required level, language greatly increased what required level, language greatly increased what it could do. In that sense language is a it could do. In that sense language is a prerequisite for enabling the brain to begins prerequisite for enabling the brain to begins fulfilling its potential (like the net with a fulfilling its potential (like the net with a connected computer).connected computer).

1818

Essence of meaningEssence of meaning

1. 1. ConnectionConnection: meaning connects things : meaning connects things (e.g. ‘flower’ connects a variety of (e.g. ‘flower’ connects a variety of

plants plants together)together)

2. 2. DistinctionDistinction: ‘flower’ distinguishes : ‘flower’ distinguishes flowers from flowers from other things in the world.other things in the world.

1919

The simplest of the thought involves making The simplest of the thought involves making a basic distinction or connection. a basic distinction or connection.

Pavlov’s dogs can make connections.Pavlov’s dogs can make connections.

But the average 16 year old has a vocabulary But the average 16 year old has a vocabulary of 40.000 words + other 40.000 words for of 40.000 words + other 40.000 words for names of people and idioms. names of people and idioms.

2020

Learning 80.000 words in 16 years = learning Learning 80.000 words in 16 years = learning 5000 words each year = learning 13 new 5000 words each year = learning 13 new words each day. On top of that one words each day. On top of that one learns/develops the grammar.learns/develops the grammar.

The real power of combining symbols The real power of combining symbols depends on language and can only exist in a depends on language and can only exist in a community of minds. community of minds.

This means that one must recognize other This means that one must recognize other minds: mindreading ….minds: mindreading ….

2121

Humans Humans quaqua Cultural Animals Cultural Animals

Humans are designed by nature to Humans are designed by nature to participate in a community.participate in a community.

This requires mindreading which is a specific This requires mindreading which is a specific aspect of human functioning.aspect of human functioning.

Importance of share attention (Tomasello): Importance of share attention (Tomasello): knowing oneself to be part of a group of knowing oneself to be part of a group of individuals who have similar minds is human-individuals who have similar minds is human-specific.specific.

2222

Recent studies (Decety and Co.) show that Recent studies (Decety and Co.) show that babies as young as 3 months recognize babies as young as 3 months recognize between light movement as humans and between light movement as humans and random light movements. random light movements.

If so the brain has an innate capability and If so the brain has an innate capability and tendency to read intention into the behavior tendency to read intention into the behavior of others.of others.

Primates don’t share knowledge deliberately. Primates don’t share knowledge deliberately.

They lack the capacity to recognize that They lack the capacity to recognize that communicative behaviors are intended to communicative behaviors are intended to share some useful information.share some useful information.

2323

Humans tend to find patterns and Humans tend to find patterns and connectionsconnections

It helps to predict events and thus to It helps to predict events and thus to exercise control. exercise control.

Humans even tend to find patterns and Humans even tend to find patterns and connection when there are none.connection when there are none.

Hence, superstition and magical thinking.Hence, superstition and magical thinking.

E.g. people refused to wear a sweater that E.g. people refused to wear a sweater that had supposedly been worn by Hitler even if it had supposedly been worn by Hitler even if it was clean etc.was clean etc.

2424

ExpectanciesExpectancies

Are one of the most basic units of thought.Are one of the most basic units of thought.

We share them with animals: rats that We share them with animals: rats that receive food every time a light fires come to receive food every time a light fires come to expect food once the light fires.expect food once the light fires.

People spend more time analyzing event that People spend more time analyzing event that violate expectancies. violate expectancies.

2525

These violations operate as an important These violations operate as an important alarm calling the conscious system into alarm calling the conscious system into action.action.

Emotions are also affected by expectancies. Emotions are also affected by expectancies.

People react with stronger emotion when an People react with stronger emotion when an event is unexpected.event is unexpected.

2626

SimplifyingSimplifying

In our thinking we tend to simplify and use In our thinking we tend to simplify and use dichotomies (good/bad, to blame/not to dichotomies (good/bad, to blame/not to blame, ….) even if there are degrees of blame, ….) even if there are degrees of goodness/badness, ….goodness/badness, ….

Part of the simplifying process is required by Part of the simplifying process is required by the decision making, which is often the decision making, which is often dichotomous (buy this item or not, accept dichotomous (buy this item or not, accept that job or not, ...).that job or not, ...).

2727

Reality, especially social reality, is essentially Reality, especially social reality, is essentially probabilistic. probabilistic.

Yet people prefer the black and white Yet people prefer the black and white categories. categories.

Many errors (e.g. the betting fallacy—after 4 Many errors (e.g. the betting fallacy—after 4 head you still get 50% probabilities of a head you still get 50% probabilities of a head) can be understood as the failing to head) can be understood as the failing to appreciate how probability works.appreciate how probability works.

2828

Thinking and SelfThinking and Self

A great deal of thinking is linked to the self. A great deal of thinking is linked to the self.

This goes with the desire people have to feel This goes with the desire people have to feel well of themselves and the desire to be well well of themselves and the desire to be well regarded by others. regarded by others.

Cf. self-esteem and belongingness.Cf. self-esteem and belongingness.

2929

Self-deception Self-deception

It’s the desire to maintain a favorable image It’s the desire to maintain a favorable image about oneself (it goes with self-esteem).about oneself (it goes with self-esteem).Main patterns:Main patterns:

1. 1. taking credit for success while refusing taking credit for success while refusing blame blame for failure,for failure,

2. 2. be selective about feed back,be selective about feed back,

3. 3. memory distorting by searching it in a memory distorting by searching it in a biased biased fashion,fashion,

4. 4. self-evaluation against select targets.self-evaluation against select targets.

3030

The average person ends up regarding The average person ends up regarding him/herself above average.him/herself above average.

Everyone is above average.Everyone is above average.

Depressed people see the world more Depressed people see the world more accurately, while healthy happy people accurately, while healthy happy people distort it.distort it.

Distortions of self-knowledge also concern Distortions of self-knowledge also concern relationships: people tend to believe that relationships: people tend to believe that their relationships are strong and good.their relationships are strong and good.

3131

Why people overestimate their good qualities?Why people overestimate their good qualities?

Probably because nature installed the pattern Probably because nature installed the pattern of emotional reaction as our continuous of emotional reaction as our continuous striving for acceptance, but human being have striving for acceptance, but human being have found a shortcut to feeling good. found a shortcut to feeling good.

Thus instead of actually becoming a good Thus instead of actually becoming a good person one merely convinces oneself of being person one merely convinces oneself of being good.good.

3232

Since people daily behavior is organized Since people daily behavior is organized toward the pursuit of good emotions and the toward the pursuit of good emotions and the avoidance of bad ones, people often take avoidance of bad ones, people often take shortcuts when they can get these positive shortcuts when they can get these positive feelings on the cheap.feelings on the cheap.

Self-deception and inflated self-esteem fall in Self-deception and inflated self-esteem fall in the category of shortcuts.the category of shortcuts.

3333

Evolutionary psychology perspectiveEvolutionary psychology perspective

We deceive ourselves in order to deceive We deceive ourselves in order to deceive other people better (Alexander & Trivers).other people better (Alexander & Trivers).

Quest for statusQuest for status

It is finely built into our psyche.It is finely built into our psyche.

People in all cultures want to wow their People in all cultures want to wow their neighbors to rise in local esteem. neighbors to rise in local esteem.

3434

Avoidance of ridiculeAvoidance of ridicule

As high public esteem can raise genetic As high public esteem can raise genetic reward, lover public esteem can be reward, lover public esteem can be genetically calamitous. Hence we try to avoid genetically calamitous. Hence we try to avoid being ridiculed. being ridiculed.

Paranoia may be a high pitch of this motive. Paranoia may be a high pitch of this motive.

A drop in status carries a cost.A drop in status carries a cost.

3535

Self advertisement in social circlesSelf advertisement in social circles

It often involves deception, i.e. over self-It often involves deception, i.e. over self-evaluation, self-inflation.evaluation, self-inflation.

E.g.: tendency to attribute success to our skills E.g.: tendency to attribute success to our skills and our failure to circumstance, luck, enemy, and our failure to circumstance, luck, enemy, ….….

Honesty of evaluation is beyond the reach of Honesty of evaluation is beyond the reach of most mortals. (Wright. 1994.most mortals. (Wright. 1994.The Moral AnimalThe Moral Animal))

3636

Low self-esteemLow self-esteem

Evolved as a way to reconcile people to Evolved as a way to reconcile people to subordinate status when reconciliation is in subordinate status when reconciliation is in their genetic interest.their genetic interest.

A way to show/behave submissively so one A way to show/behave submissively so one isn’t erroneously perceived as a threat and isn’t erroneously perceived as a threat and treated as such.treated as such.

A way to keep people from aspiring to more A way to keep people from aspiring to more than they can attain. than they can attain.

3737

Truth and honesty are never favored by Truth and honesty are never favored by natural selection. It simply doesn’t care, i.e. natural selection. It simply doesn’t care, i.e. it doesn’t prefer honesty or dishonesty.it doesn’t prefer honesty or dishonesty.

““Like a lawyer, the human brain wants Like a lawyer, the human brain wants victory, not truth; and, like a lawyer, it is victory, not truth; and, like a lawyer, it is sometimes more admirable for skill than for sometimes more admirable for skill than for virtue” (Wright. 1994: 280)virtue” (Wright. 1994: 280)

There’s an evolutionary advantage of moral There’s an evolutionary advantage of moral self-advertisement.self-advertisement.

3838

MemoryMemory

The huge size of human memory is another The huge size of human memory is another indication that we are cultural animals. indication that we are cultural animals.

We need a big memory because the cultural We need a big memory because the cultural world provides a great deal of information; world provides a great deal of information; far more than the physical world humans far more than the physical world humans inhabits. inhabits.

E.g. knowing people in our group, their E.g. knowing people in our group, their habits, relations, …habits, relations, …

3939

Long-term memory Long-term memory vsvs. working memory. working memory..

The former encompasses information that can The former encompasses information that can be retrieved over long period of time, while the be retrieved over long period of time, while the latter includes the immediate memory at work.latter includes the immediate memory at work.

Elaboration of information, processing of Elaboration of information, processing of information and interpretation allow information and interpretation allow information to be stored in the long term information to be stored in the long term memory.memory.

4040

Since we process information differently we Since we process information differently we remember and describe the same event remember and describe the same event differently. differently.

Since children lack the acute capacity to Since children lack the acute capacity to process information, the are memory process information, the are memory amnesiac. amnesiac.

Memory works on reconstruction on the basis Memory works on reconstruction on the basis of bits of information: it is the realm of what-of bits of information: it is the realm of what-must-have-been rather that what was.must-have-been rather that what was.

4141

Memory mistakesMemory mistakes

1.1. Memory fades.Memory fades.

2. 2. People fail to pay attention to some People fail to pay attention to some details.details.

3. 3. Information may be in memory but Information may be in memory but people fail people fail to retrieve it.to retrieve it.

4242

4. 4. Memory may be misattributed.Memory may be misattributed.

5. 5. Memory can be vulnerable to Memory can be vulnerable to suggestion, so suggestion, so people may remember people may remember something that never something that never happened.happened.

6. 6. Memory can be distorted by biased Memory can be distorted by biased factors.factors.

Memory distortion operates in favor of Memory distortion operates in favor of self-esteemself-esteem