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360-degree feedback: A system of collecting feedback from all stakeholders of an employee’s work (e.g. superiors and peers) for the purpose of appraisal or development of the employee

action learning: Learning from actions or concrete experiences as well as taking action as a result of this learning

action research: A participatory, democratic process concerned with developing practical knowledge in the pursuit of worthwhile human purposes, grounded in a participatory worldview

alpha: Criterion for rejecting the null hypothesis in hypothesis testing

anthropology: The study of behaviour and beliefs of different cultures

assessment centre: An intensive series of multiple selection methods administered in a specific physical environment (testing centre), usually over several days

Australian and New Zealand Standard Classification of Occupations (ANZSCO): Formed by the merger of the Australian and New Zealand job classification systems. ANZSCO provides a hierarchical catalogue of the common jobs and their job descriptions within these two countries

autonomous work groups (AWGs): A group of employees with a substantial degree of collective autonomy who work together to achieve shared goals

autonomy: The amount of freedom and discretion you are given on the job

behaviour modification: Modifying behaviour by changing the environmental contingencies (reinforcements) that influence behaviour. (See also operant conditioning.)

behavioural approach to organisational design: Use of empirical findings to understand the culture-aspects of organisational structure and design

behavioural theory of leadership: Theory that attempts to explain leader effectiveness, especially acceptance of the leader by followers, as a function of the leader’s behavioural styles

behaviourally anchored rating scales (BARS): Graphic scales with different points on the scale that are behaviourally defined based on a prior analysis of critical incidents on the job

behaviour-orientated rating method: The assessment of employees on a set of behaviours identified in advance as being related to job performance

Big Five model of personality: Five broad domains or dimensions of personality used to describe personality in human beings. The Big Five are openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness and neuroticism

Big Five personality traits: The five key personality traits of extraversion, neuroticism, openness, conscientiousness and agreeableness

biodata: Information obtained from a job candidate concerning their demographic details and life experiences

boundaryless organisation: Ideal type of organisation in the era of information and communication technologies, where organisations are expected to break down the horizontal boundaries of departments and the vertical boundaries of hierarchy using ICT capabilities

bureaucracy: Ideal structure for organisations, which is characterised by specialisation and division of labour, qualification-based appointments to positions, hierarchical flow of authority and communication, clear rules and procedures and impersonal relationships

business ethics: The study of moral or ethical choices that can arise in the running of a business

career management: The process by which employees achieve their career goals with assistance from the organisation through various activities such as: clarifying one’s strengths, weaknesses, interests, competencies and values; developing strengths and competencies; establishing career goals based on competencies and interests and the availability of opportunities within the organisation; making plans for achieving such goals; and implementing them with organisational support

career path: The sequence of hierarchically higher positions available to a person joining an organisation at entry level

career planning: A systematic process by which employees select their career goals and the paths to these goals. This is often facilitated by the organisation, which helps employees to plan their careers in terms of their interests and capabilities within the context of the organisation’s needs and objectives

case study research: An intense analysis of one or more cases, where a case is often an organisation

causality vs. correlation: A correlation means that two variables are statistically associated with each other,

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whereas causality means that one variable is the cause of the other

centralisation: Degree to which the formal authority for decision-making is held by a few top-level positions in the organisation

chain of command: Principle that organisations should have an authority structure linking the topmost position to the lowest so that every employee is clear about whom to take orders from and whom to report to

classical approach to organisational design: An attempt to rationally justify (and substantiate with personal experiences and controlled studies) the lines of authority and communication in organisations based on functions, positions, roles and responsibilities

coaching: A process of developing the strengths of an employee and guiding him or her in the direction in which he or she is already moving, through one-on-one interaction and data-based feedback

cognitive ability tests: Tests of intelligence commonly consisting of mathematical abilities, reading comprehension, clerical skills, spatial skills and verbal skills

cognitive appraisal: One of the three core elements of the transactional stress theory. Cognitive appraisal is the individual’s evaluation of how stressful an event is to them personally

cognitive dissonance: This term was introduced by social psychologist Leon Festinger in 1957. It occurs when a person holds two cognitions (beliefs) that are inconsistent with or contradict each other, or when their espoused attitudes or values and behaviour do not match. This inconsistency creates a feeling of tension and discomfort in the person, which they try to reduce by either changing their behaviour or by modifying their cognitions

collective climate (or organisational climate): This is said to exist when there is a high level of agreement among organisational members in their perceptions of the environment that exists in their organisation

common method variance: Common method variance, which should be avoided if possible, refers to the shared variance among variables that is attributable to the use of the same method to assess the variables

communication: Refers to the process by which information is transmitted and understood between two or more people

competencies: The knowledge, skills and abilities of a worker

concurrent validity: Correlates the test scores and job performance of current job incumbents

confidentiality: Ensuring that the information supplied by participants is protected

conflict: Refers to a process that occurs when one party perceives another party to have negatively affected, or to be about to negatively affect, something that the first party cares about

conflict management: Refers to interventions that alter the level and form of conflict in ways that maximise its benefits and minimise its dysfunctional consequences

conscientiousness: A personality construct that reflects a desire to achieve (at work or elsewhere).Conscientiousness also embodies notions of consistency and dependability. Whereas achievement encompasses working hard, persistance and a striving to perform well, dependability refers more to being self-disciplined, reliable (in terms of work performance) and willing to abide by accepted norms and procedures

consideration: One of the two dimensions of leader behaviour. Refers to the extent to which the leader shows concern and facilitation for the followers’ needs and aspirations. Also called people-orientation

construct validity: Assesses the accuracy of a selection method in measuring the construct it claims to measure

constructivist approach of personnel selection theories: The constructivist job selection theories recognise that the candidate participates in making the decision to accept a job appointment or not

consultative leadership: The leader makes the decisions after receiving input (information and suggestions) from subordinates

content validity: Assesses how realistically the content of a test or selection method represents the actual job in question

contingency approach to organisational design: Use of empirical findings to understand the influence of internal and external environmental factors on the structure and design of organisations

contingency graph: A graph used to plot the selection decision-making process

contingency theory of leadership: Theory that proposes leadership to be a function of the fit between a person’s qualities and the requirements of the situation. Also known as the situational theory

convergent validity: A test of validity which compares the ratings for the same job from different data sources (such as the results from different job analysis methods)

coping: Describes the individual’s attempts to reduce stress. Coping commonly includes behavioural or cognitive responses

corporate social responsibility (CSR): Societal obligations of business organisations that transcend


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generating satisfactory level of profits for their shareholders

correlation: The magnitude and direction of an association between two variables

criterion-related validity: Also known as validity. Criterion-related validity is the ability of a test or selection method to predict job performance (or any other criterion)

critical incidents method: The listing and analysis of incidents relating to effective or ineffective job performance with a view to assessing the worth of a job and/or the performance of an employee. It is employed in job analysis as well as performance appraisal

critical incident technique (CIT): A job analysis method that rates the behaviours exhibited within a job-specific situation

critical paradigm: A world view that reality involves changes, conflict, domination and emancipation

critical psychological states: The feelings and psychological experiences an individual is theorised to have when working in a job that is high in skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy and feedback

Cronbach’s alpha coefficient: A common statistical test of internal reliability. Test items are divided into all possible combinations of two groups, each group pair is correlated, and these correlations are averaged to produce one alpha coefficient

cross-cultural research: Cross-cultural research involves theory and empirical studies that concern whether and how national culture affects the phenomenon of interest

cross-functional team: A group of people who apply different skills, with a high degree of interdependence, to ensure the effective delivery of a common organisational objective

cross-sectional research design: A cross-sectional research design means that the participants are assessed at a single point in time

culture strength: The ‘strength’ of an organisation’s culture is reflected in the level of intensity with which values are held and the degree of consensus about assumptions, values and norms. A strong culture is one where there is a high degree of similarity (congruence) in the values endorsed by organisational members. This is sometimes referred to as a ‘tight’ (as opposed to ‘loose’) culture

curvilinear: Describes a relationship that is not linear—such as how both high and low job demands can cause stress

cynicism: Negative or indifferent attitudes directed towards patients/customers

decentralisation: Refers to the extent to which the formal decision-making authority in the organisation is with the positions responsible for implementing them

democratic leadership: The leader and followers jointly define the parameters of the decision process and outcomes, after which the group is empowered to make any decision within the specified parameters

departmentalisation: Basic structuring system for effectively coordinating the divided tasks in an organisation by regrouping them under some performance-related focus areas

dependent and independent variables: Dependent variables are consequences or effects (sometimes called outcomes), which are assumed to be caused by independent variables (sometimes called predictors)

descriptive statistics: Tools for summarising sets of empirical data including how scores are distributed, typical scores and dispersion of scores

Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT): Originally developed in the USA in 1935, the DOT is the first listing, classification and description of all jobs. It contains nine core occupational groupings of jobs

directive leader: In the context of the MIND framework, one who implements a set of given goals (often received from the bosses) through the enforcement of rules and procedures. Also known as the bureaucratic leader

division of labour: Dividing work into different skill units and assigning them to different individuals rather than having each individual do the whole job

divisional structure: Grouping of differentiated tasks in such a way that the business functions are separately organised for each (group of) product, customer, geography, profit centre and so on

downward communication: Consists of those messages sent from superiors to subordinates

education: A process of developing an individual’s full potential by imparting knowledge, skills and attitudes that would enable the person to manage his or her own life in emerging situations. It is broader than HRD, which is the preparation and development of the employee for coping with the emerging contingencies in his or her work–life situation

effective team: A team that produces outputs that meet or exceed standards of quantity, quality and timeliness of the team’s clients, while enhancing the wellbeing and satisfaction of its members and their capacity for working together interdependently

e-learning: The method of delivering instruction through computer- and internet-based technologies with a view to overcoming the constraints posed by distance, time and space, thereby reducing the cost of training

emic approach: Understanding a phenomenon within a culture from the same perspective as


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participants in the culture, thereby providing an ‘insider view’

emic–etic approach: A combination approach involving emic and etic strategies

emic research: Involves examining phenomena and issues without taking a prior position on what one expects to find in an effort to provide a description of people’s beliefs, values and behaviour, which is meaningful to the people themselves. This is also known as the ‘insider view’, as the researcher endeavours to understand how organisational members themselves perceive and interpret events occurring within the organisation. Typically, an emic approach does not include hypothesis testing.

emotional exhaustion: The core component of psychological burnout. A severe depletion of emotional resources

emotional intelligence (EI): Refers to the ability of a person to deal with his or her emotions, specifically the ability to perceive and express emotion, and to regulate emotion in oneself and others (also referred to as emotional quotient, EQ)

emotional labour: The regulation of felt and expressed emotion at work in the service of organisation goals

emotions: Intense feelings that are directed at someone or something, consisting of three components: response of the individual (involving physiological arousal), expressive behaviours and conscious experience

employee assistance programs (EAPs): Counselling programs for workers funded by their employer

employee development: The systematic effort initiated by an employer to develop the knowledge, skills and attitudes that are assessed to be necessary for the performance of an employee’s new or future responsibilities as anticipated by the employer or the employee

employee training: The systematic effort initiated by an employer to develop the knowledge, skills and attitudes required by an employee to perform a given task or job successfully

employees’ work wellbeing: Work wellbeing, part of an employee’s overall wellbeing, refers to wellbeing as employees perceive it to be determined primarily by work; it can be influenced by workplace interventions and includes concepts such as job satisfaction, job-related tension and job-related depression

empowering: To delegate authority, exercise flexibility regarding team decisions and provide coaching for members of the team

empowerment: The belief held by empowered employees that they can shape their work situation

equity: Perceptions of whether the outcomes obtained (rewards) match the individual’s inputs (contributions). (See also organisational justice.)

equivalent instruments: When measures of a construct developed in one culture mean the same (semantically equivalent), have the same frame of reference (conceptual equivalence) and are interpreted in the same way (scaling equivalence) in another culture

ethnography: A qualitative approach to research that involves observing and gathering in-depth information about participants, such as by becoming a member of the organisation

etic approach: Explicitly comparing a construct across cultures with an assumption that there is a shared frame of reference

etic research: Based on predetermined theoretical models and expectations (hypotheses) about relationships between variables and on the premise that there are universal issues that apply across organisational cultures. The purpose of such research is to evaluate the validity of theoretical frameworks which are intended to apply across cultures (in this case, organisational cultures). Such research often (but not necessarily) adopts a quantitative methodology. (For further information on the emic–etic distinction see www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/emic_versus_etic)

evaluation feedback: Evaluation to assess if the intervention is producing the intended effects

evidence-based management: Making management decisions and taking managerial action based on the best available research evidence (similar to the concept of evidence-based medicine)

executive coaching: One-on-one mentoring-based developmental efforts directed individually towards talented executives who are inhibited in their professional growth or transition or adjustment to changing environments because of behavioural or style deficiencies. It is carried out in different stages of diagnosis, intervention and feedback

experiment: In an experiment, the independent variable comes from the researcher or an exogenous event, and participants are randomly assigned to levels of the independent variable

external communication: Involves sending messages to the outside world about an organisation’s products or services and how these differ from the competition

external validity: Generalisability of findings across time, settings and people


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face validity: Assesses how realistic or relevant the candidate found a specific test or selection process to be

false negatives: One of the four selection decision-making outcomes: candidates not selected but who would have been successful at the job

false positives: One of the four selection decision-making outcomes: selected candidates who are not successful at the job

feedback about results: The availability of periodic feedback from supervisors and colleagues about your performance on the job

forced distribution: An appraisal technique that attempts to eliminate the severity, leniency and/or central tendency errors on the part of the rater by requiring the rater to place the ratees on a normal curve where a specified small percentage are rated as ‘excellent’, a similar percentage as ‘poor’ and a large proportion as average

formalisation: Degree to which an organisation has clearly defined rules, procedures and written documentation of events and processes

functional job analysis (FJA): A job analysis method based on the DOT that assesses the actual functions of a job and describes these functions via precise task definitions

functional structure: Method of grouping the differentiated tasks in an organisation on the basis of the similarity of the tasks or the similarity of the knowledge and skills involved

globalisation: The growing economic interdependence of countries worldwide through the increasing volume and variety of cross-border transactions in goods and services and of international capital flows, and also through the more rapid and widespread diffusion of technology

globalisation and organisation development: The leader makes the decisions without any input from the subordinates

goal clarity: Refers to how well the group understands its objectives

graphic rating scale: A method of obtaining continuous, rather than discrete, rating of employees on traits

great-person theory of leadership: Theory that proposes leadership effectiveness to be a function of a set of traits possessed by the individual. Also known as the trait theory

green management: The organisation-wide process of applying innovation to achieve sustainability, waste reduction, social responsibility and a competitive advantage via continuous learning and development, and by embracing environmental goals and strategies

that are fully integrated with the goals and strategies of the organisation

grounded theory: A popular approach to analysing qualitative research data in which researchers identify interesting themes to emerge from the data without preconceived ideas

group composition: The demographics of the group, such as age of the members, educational qualifications, skills and abilities of members and so on

group norms: Beliefs about appropriate behaviour in a work-group

hassles: Frequent and frustrating minor incidents that can cause stress

Hawthorne effect: The changes in performance or other behaviours that result from people knowing that they are the subject of study

high-performing organisation: An organisation that achieves financial results that are better than those of its peer group, adapts well to changes, continuously improves its core capabilities, and treats the employees as its main asset

human resource development (HRD): An integrated system of training, development and organisational development aimed at developing employees’ full potential in order to ensure individual, group and organisational effectiveness in emerging situations, irrespective of the possibility of their immediate use in the current job

hypothesis: A tentative solution to a research problem based on prior research, experience or theory

implementation feedback: Evaluation intended to guide the implementation of changes

improvement training: Training imparted to existing employees either to remove any deficiencies in their skills, knowledge and attitudes regarding the requirements of their current jobs or to prepare them for different jobs they would be required to perform on account of transfers, promotions and/or changes in the internal or external environment

incremental culture change: Occurs gradually and focuses on refining elements of the culture; it is typically used when the organisation is functioning relatively effectively, but its assumptions, values and norms need fine-tuning

in-depth interview: An interview in which participants report on their experiences or perspectives

individual differences: Refers to any enduring, rather than transient, characteristics on which individuals can be compared and contrasted

induction training: Orientation provided to new recruits in order to introduce them to the organisation’s


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history, culture, goals, policies and so on. The choice of the content and methodology vary according to the level of the employee being inducted

inefficacy: A component of psychological burnout. A worker’s perception of his or her severe inability to do, or to improve, his or her job

inferential statistics: Statistics used to draw conclusions or inferences from the data

in-group: In the context of the LMX theory of leadership, refers to a small group of selected followers that a leader takes into his or her confidence for consultation for decision-making and partnership for implementation

initiating structure: One of the two dimensions of leader behaviour. Refers to the extent to which the leader shows concern for task-accomplishment. Also called task-orientation

institutionalisation: The process through which change-management capability is transferred to the organisation

Instructional Systems Design (ISD): A set of procedures involved in designing and implementing training programs in organisations, which will normally have four phases, namely: 1) needs assessment; 2) design and development of training programs; 3) delivery of training; and 4) evaluation of training

instrumental values: Beliefs about ways of achieving desired goals or end-states of existence

integrity testing: A test which assesses an applicant’s honesty; usually included to identify whether socially desirable (but untruthful) responses are being submitted

internal communication: Can flow downwards, through the organisational hierarchy; upwards, through the same chain of command; or laterally (horizontally), from colleague to colleague

internal reliability: The degree to which each test item assesses a construct. Test items that correlate highly together comprise a valid test

internal validity: Internal validity requires that (1) variations in the independent variable occur before variations in the dependent variable, and (2) there is a reasonable causal explanation between the variables with no plausible alternative explanations

interpersonal processes: Actions taken by members to manage interpersonal relationships, including motivation, conflict, participation and emotions

inter-rater agreement: A test of reliability which assesses the similarity of the data from different individual raters (such as incumbents, supervisors and other SMEs)

inter-rater reliability: Assesses the robustness of a selection method by correlating scores from two or more raters

intuitive leader: In the context of the MIND framework, one who derives new goals from one’s own holistic perceptions, hunches and gut feelings and gets them implemented through committed followers. Also known as the charismatic leader

ipsative tests: ‘Forced-choice’ tests, which assess an applicant’s personality by their preference of two (or more) answer scenarios

job analysis: Formally defining and describing a job

job characteristics: Important attributes of jobs that reflect how jobs are organised and which affect individual and organisational outcomes, such as job autonomy and job significance

job description: A concise summary of a job. Used to inform job applicants/incumbents of their core duties and responsibilities and as a basis for job selection

job design: The way that tasks, roles and responsibilities are structured and organised within a job or work role

job enlargement: Expanding the content of a job to include additional tasks, or increasing job variety

job enrichment: Increasing autonomy and decision-making responsibility in a job, such as allowing an individual to decide their work methods and timing

job evaluation: The monetary value of a job to the organisation. Used to inform decisions on salary and benefit levels

job incumbent: The worker employed in a job

job involvement: A cognition that refers to the extent to which individuals identify psychologically with their specific job, and the importance of their job to their image of themselves (self-concept), and their intention to engage in the job

job-oriented methods: A group of job analysis methods based on the assessment of the actual production or output of a job (rather than the skills of a worker)

job satisfaction: A pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job or job experiences

job simplification: An approach to work design stemming from scientific management in which jobs were designed to be as narrow and as mentally undemanding as possible

job specification: Similar to a job description, a job specification details the minimum acceptable skills and characteristics required by a job incumbent in order to perform the job effectively

key result areas (KRAs): Also known as ‘Key Performance Areas’ (KPAs) or ‘Key Performance Indicators’ (KPIs), these are critical tasks constituting the primary


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responsibilities of a job, failing which the job cannot be effectively performed

knowledge management (KM): A system that promotes a collaborative environment for capturing and sharing existing knowledge, creates opportunities to generate new knowledge, and provides the tools and approaches needed to apply what the organisation knows is required to meet its strategic goals

knowledge, skills, abilities and other characteristics (KSAOs): The characteristics needed by a job incumbent in order to perform the job effectively. KSAOs can include educational qualifications, personality traits and job-specific skills

laissez-faire leadership: The leader abdicates his or her rights and responsibilities and allows complete freedom to followers for making any decision they like

lateral or horizontal communication: The flow of messages between people who are at the same level in the organisational hierarchy

leader substitutes: Organisational systems that can stimulate, motivate and inspire superior performance by the employees without the active intervention of a leader

leaderless organisation: One in which the leader’s influence is all-pervasive without the personal visibility of the leader, and is created by building the right structure, systems, processes and culture in the organisation

leader–member exchange (LMX) theory of leadership: Attempts to highlight the subordinates’ role in provoking different types of responses from the leader towards them, resulting in the formation of an in-group and out-group among subordinates

leadership: Ability of a person to influence others towards the accomplishment of common objectives without using formal authority

leadership as attribution: Phenomenon by which observers attribute the success or failure of events to the person with maximum positional visibility in the situation (such as the CEO) and designate him or her as leader

leadership as framing: Proposes that leaders do not change anything but just state things in a different fashion, which then become acceptable to followers, who in turn act upon them towards successful implementation

leadership-in-charge: Leadership associated with positions and based on formal authority, hierarchy and centralised resources. Also known as centralised leadership

leadership-in-front: Leadership available at different levels of an organisation, operated through informal

networks and a fluid and flexible hierarchy with many power centres. Also known as distributed leadership

learning: The process through which people continually expand their capacity to create the results they truly desire, and learn how to learn together

least preferred co-worker: Scale used to measure the ‘people-orientation’ of leaders, where a favourable rating for the least preferred co-worker by the leader is treated as an indication of a high degree of people-orientation on the part of the leader

locus of control (LOC): A personality variable that reflects a person’s beliefs about whether it is he or she or external forces that are in control in a general sense. People who believe that they as individuals are in control are called internals, and people who believe that external forces such as luck, fate or other powerful forces are in control are called externals

longitudinal research design: In a longitudinal research design, variables are measured for the same individuals on at least two, but ideally more, occasions over time

machine bureaucracy: Structure characterised by high degrees of division of labour, departmentalisation, formal rules and procedures, narrow spans and tall hierarchies, rigid chains of command and communication, and centralised authority

management by objectives (MBO): A results-orientated appraisal system that sets specific goals and key result areas (KRAs) for each employee based on the overall goals of the organisation, and evaluates the employee’s performance against such KRAs so that the evaluation is based on the contribution of the employee to the organisational objectives rather than on his or her traits or behaviour

managerial grid: A 9-point, two-dimensional grid depicting task-orientation on the X-axis and people-orientation on the Y-axis, where the 9-9 position (combining high task-orientation with high people-orientation) is considered to be the ideal

managerial self-efficacy (MSE): Refers to managers’ beliefs in successfully accomplishing the specific managerial tasks that are applicable to different contexts

matrix structure: Grouping of organisational tasks in such a way that an employee would simultaneously belong to two teams under two different bosses, one functional and the other project

mean, median and mode: Measures of central tendency. The mean is the arithmetic average of scores, the median is the midpoint of scores, and the mode is the most frequently occurring score


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mechanistic structure: Rigid organisational structure characterised by highly specialised jobs, centralised authority, position-based status and respect, downward communication, conflict resolution by superiors, and employees’ loyalty to the larger organisational system

mediation: Mediating (or intervening) variables are intermediary variables between an independent and dependent variable. They help to explain ‘why’ the independent variable causes the dependent variable

mediator: The direct relationship between two variables may be strongly influenced by a third (mediating) variable. For instance, the direct relationship between job demands and strain may be exacerbated by an individual’s level of neuroticism. If levels of neuroticism decrease then the demand–strain relationship may also decrease

meditative leader: In the context of the MIND framework, one who derives new goals from a systematic analysis of the changes in the environment and implements them through rationally chosen people with the right qualifications and experience. Also known as the planning leader

mental models: Shared understandings (usually implicit) among members of a team regarding such matters as the team task, the role of each member and the abilities of members

merit pay: System of remunerating individuals on the basis of their performance contributions (outputs) rather than the amount of time on the job

meta-analysis: A quantitative analysis that estimates the direction and strength of association across a large number of studies

mission: A general statement that describes the reason for the group being constituted

moderation: Moderating variables change the strength of the association between an independent and dependent variable. They help to explain ‘when’ an independent variable causes the dependent variable

moderator variable: A third variable that affects the relationship between two variables

moral leadership: Influencing process that attempts to bring about moral values dealing with collectively desirable ends (transformational) or the means to achieve such ends (transactional)

negative affectivity (NA): The tendency to experience negative emotions generally, such as anxiety, depression and unhappiness, across a wide range of situations. Individuals with high negative affectivity tend to view the world in a negative manner and to focus predominantly on negative aspects of life

negotiative leader: In the context of the MIND framework, one who derives new goals from a consensus view of followers and gets them implemented through partitioned allocations of work and benefits among followers. Also known as the political leader

neuroticism or negative affectivity: Refers to a general lack of positive psychological adjustment and emotional stability. It is the opposite of emotional stability

neutralisers of leadership: Factors that counteract leadership behaviour and make it difficult for leaders to be effective, such as rigid and bureaucratic cultures, work systems and procedures in the organisation, constraints imposed by external stakeholders and so on

non-self-report measures: Measures obtained by means other than asking the participants in the study

non-verbal communication: The transmission of meaning from one person to another through means or symbols other than words

normal distribution: An idealised distribution of scores in which the most common scores occur in the middle with extreme scores being less common

normative decision-making style: Models and prescriptions about the suitability of different styles of decision-making for different situations developed on the basis of rational analysis rather than the findings of empirical studies

normative tests: Tests that ask respondents to rate their answers upon a Likert-type scale

nuisance variable: A nuisance (or confounding) variable is not of theoretical interest to the researcher, but is correlated with the independent variable in a study. This means a nuisance or confounding variable provides a competing explanation, other than the independent variable, for changes in the dependent variable

null hypothesis: The hypothesis to be challenged or rejected, such as the hypothesis of no difference

occupational health: In terms of study domains, occupational health includes all aspects of health and safety in the workplace and has a strong focus on the primary prevention of hazards

Occupational Information Network (O*NET): A web-based version of the DOT. Found at: www.doleta.gov/programs/onet

occupational stress: The study of psychological stress occurring within the workplace

off-the-job training: Training given to employees outside their workplace, which employs two broad categories of methods, namely: information presentation methods (e.g. lectures and internet-based resources) and simulation methods (e.g. cases and role-plays)


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online leadership: Ability to influence members of a virtual team using information technologies. Effective online leaders can read between the lines of written messages and identify the hidden emotional content in them and express appropriate emotions through the medium of written language

on-the-job training: Training provided to employees at the workplace, where the trainee is asked to perform the tasks associated with the job under the guidance of experts, usually chosen from among the senior staff of the organisation, suppliers of equipment, consultants and/or external trainers

operant conditioning: Modifying behaviour by altering the consequences of that behaviour (See also behaviour modification.)

organic structure: Flexible organisational structure characterised by relatively low specialisation of jobs, decentralised authority, competence-based status and respect, multidirectional communication, conflict resolution by interaction and dialogue, and employees’ loyalty to the project or work task group

organisational behaviour (OB): The systematic study of individuals, groups and organisations to create high-performing organisations that engender high levels of outcomes for all organisational stakeholders, including employees, shareholders and the community

organisational climate: Shared perceptions of organisational policies, practices and procedures, both formal and informal. It is indicative of the organisation’s goals and appropriate means of goal attainment

organisational commitment: The person’s feeling of identification with and attachment to his or her organisation. Three types of organisational commitment are generally recognised: affective commitment (identification with the goals and values of the organisation), normative commitment (a feeling of obligation towards the organisation) and continuance commitment (a desire to remain with the organisation due to the tangible benefits it provides or the lack of alternative job opportunities)

organisational communication: Includes external communication and internal communication

organisational culture: The basic assumptions, values, and norms shared by organisational members

organisational design: Process of creating or modifying the hardware (structure and systems) and software (vision, mission, goals, values and culture) of an organisation

organisational diagnosis: A collaborative process between organisational members and the OD consultant to

collect pertinent information, analyse it, and draw conclusions for action planning and intervention

organisational justice: Beliefs about the extent to which organisational procedures and processes (especially those which have an impact on employees) are fair and equitable

organisational structure: Formal arrangements in an organisation that define the tasks, positions, roles, responsibilities, groupings, departments, authority and reporting relationships, and communication channels

organisational theory (OT): Body of knowledge that deals with the inter-relationships among the internal components of an organisation as well as those among the external environmental factors and the internal components

organisation development (OD): A long-term effort, led and supported by top management, to improve an organisation’s visioning, empowerment, learning and problem-solving processes, through an ongoing and collaborative management of organisational culture—with special emphasis on the culture of intact work teams and other team configurations—utilising the consultant-facilitator role and the theory and technology of applied behavioural science, including action research

organisation development intervention: A set of sequenced actions intended to help an organisation increase its effectiveness

organisation development practitioners: Individuals who by virtue of their training and work experiences use OD knowledge, skills and attitudes to facilitate organisational change

out-group: In the context of the LMX theory of leadership, refers to the large group of followers that a leader excludes from consultation for decision-making and partnership for implementation

overall assessment rating (OAR): The sum of a candidate’s multiple selection scores, ranked relative to the other candidates

paired comparisons: An appraisal technique where a superior is required to compare each employee with every other employee in pairs and to compute each one’s overall rank based on the ranks received in pairs

paradigm: A world view about the nature of reality that shapes the way organisations are studied

parallel reliability: Also called equivalent forms reliability. Assesses the stability of scores across two or more versions of the same test or other selection method

paternalistic leadership: The leader makes the decisions with some consideration of subordinate concerns


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path–goal theory of leadership: Theory that a leader’s effectiveness is a function of a leader’s ability to set attractive goals to followers and facilitate the path towards the achievement of such goals

performance appraisal: The process of measuring an employee’s performance on the job, the data from which is often used for administrative as well as developmental purposes

performance management: A system of ensuring the expected performance from employees, through a process of clarifying expectations from work, setting measurable goals for each individual, developing capabilities for performance, evaluating individual performance and giving feedback and equitable rewards

personality: Refers to a relatively stable pattern of behaviour and consistency in thinking that leads to actions

person–organisation fit (PO fit): Term used to describe the congruence between individual and organisational goals; between individual preferences or needs and organisational systems or structures; and between individual personality and organisational climate

persuading: Involves managers securing the support of other top managers and influencing team performance

political science: The systematic study of political institutions and behaviour

pooled task interdependence: The tasks of each employee can be performed separately and independently but with everyone collectively contributing to the performance of the organisation and coordination achieved by standardisation

position analysis questionnaire (PAQ): A job analysis method in a survey format. It contains the six core categories of behaviour required by most jobs

predictive approach of personnel selection theories: The predictive job selection theories view the selection process as an objective entity to which the candidate must accommodate

predictive validity: Correlates a candidate’s test score against his or her actual future job performance

problem-solving and decision-making processes: The capability of the organisation to assess the current state of a problem, define alternative courses of action and take action to resolve the problem

prosocial behaviour: Consists of actions that are aimed to assist or help other people, for example, with their job performance

protean career management: The management of one’s career with reference to one’s life-goals rather than work-goals, where the primary responsibility for managing one’s career rests with the individual (not

the organisation), who would measure career success in terms of intrinsic learning and lateral movements through interesting jobs rather than through promotions

psychological capital (PsyCap): Positive state-like psychological resource capacities, which enable employees to face challenges and adversity in the workplace. The four PsyCaps that have been identified include self-efficacy, hope, optimism and resiliency

psychological climate: The individual’s subjective perceptions and experiences of their work environment. Psychological climates can vary between people in an organisation, especially if they occupy different roles

psychological contract: Refers to the beliefs that organisational members have about reciprocal rights and obligations between themselves and their organisation. There are two components: beliefs about what the organisation is obliged to provide to the individual (what it has promised to employees), and what the individual feels he or she is obliged to provide to the organisation. The psychological contract may incorporate elements that are not included in a formal (often written) contract, such as an individual’s expectation that he or she will be treated fairly by the organisation in terms of rewards and benefits (see the discussion of organisational justice in Chapter 6)

psychologically healthy workplace: A workplace that maximises the integration of worker goals for wellbeing and company objectives for profitability and productivity

psychology: The science that seeks to measure and explain human behaviour

p-value: Probability of obtaining a sample result at least as extreme as that observed, assuming the null hypothesis is true. A small p-value suggests evidence against the null hypothesis

qualitative research: A reflexive, participant-focused approach to research that relies on the researcher’s insights and inductive reasoning and tends to occur in natural settings

quasi-experiment: A quasi-experiment is the same as an experiment except that participants are not randomly assigned to levels of the independent variable

random assignment of participants to levels of the independent variable: In an experiment, participants are randomly assigned to levels of the independent variable, which means that nuisance variables are averaged out


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reciprocal task interdependence: Tasks related to a particular performance outcome are fully dependent on one another and therefore can be coordinated best by mutual adjustment

regression analysis: An approach for investigating the linear association between several independent variables and one dependent variable

relating: To move back and forth between the team and the larger organisation in order to build trust, improve communication and care for team members

relational job design: Restructuring work so that job incumbents can connect in meaningful ways with the beneficiaries of their work, such as the end user

reliability: Degree to which measurement scores are free from random error, or error that comes from unknown sources

reporting officer: The officer (often the immediate superior) who has the responsibility for appraising an employee

resiliency: The positive psychological capacity to rebound or ‘bounce back’ from adversity, uncertainty, conflict, failure or even positive change, progress and increased responsibility

restriction of range: Restriction of range occurs when the sample data is not obtained across the full range of the independent or dependent variables

results-orientated rating method: The assessment of employees on the extent to which the expected results are achieved

reviewing officer: The higher-level officer (higher than the reporting officer) who has the responsibility for reviewing and approving/modifying the appraisal given by the reporting officer

revolutionary culture change: Can be dramatic and sudden, involving a radical overhaul of cultural norms and values, and sometimes personnel; this kind of change may be required when the organisation is not functioning effectively, is losing market share or is not meeting its stated goals and objectives

safety attitudes: Individual beliefs and feelings about specific objects or activities relevant to safety

safety behaviour: Includes aspects such as safety compliance, safety participation and safety violation

safety climate: A term used to describe shared employee perceptions of how safety management is being operationalised in the workplace. Safety climate also refers to perceptions of the policies, procedures and practices relating to safety

safety outcomes: Tangible events or results, such as accidents, injuries or fatalities

scientific management: Systematic analysis of the elements of work through ‘time-and-motion study’ in order to identify the most efficient method of work and to train and incentivise workers accordingly

scientific method: The systematic study of observable events and their impact on other events in order to attribute cause and effect and draw conclusions based on evidence

scouting: Providing information from the larger organisational context to self-directed team members who may not be privy to such information (e.g. policy for hiring a new member)

selection ratio: The ratio of the number of jobs available relative to the number of applicants

self-concept: An organised collection of beliefs about the self, which refers to the perception of oneself as a person with physical appearance, desires, values, goals, personality, abilities and social roles

self-efficacy: Refers to belief in one’s capabilities to organise and execute the course of action required to produce given attainments

self-esteem: Refers to one’s overall assessment of one’s worth as a person

self-managing team: A group of interdependent individuals that can self-regulate their behaviour on relatively whole tasks (also called self-directed teams)

sequential task interdependence: Tasks related to a particular performance outcome are arranged in a series, where each task is dependent on the completion of the previous one

simple structure: Structure characterised by a minimum number of departments, wide spans of control, low formalisation and centralised decision-making

situational leadership theory: Theory that believes leadership to be a function of the fit between a person’s qualities and the requirements of the situation, with the additional connotation that the situational model, is used for describing the need for leaders to change their styles with the changes in the followers’ level of work-related maturity. Also known as the contingency theory

skill variety: The range of activities and abilities required for task completion

social psychology: A discipline at the intersection of psychology and sociology that studies individual beliefs, attitudes and behaviours in settings where other people are present

sociology: The study of the social interactions of human beings, groups and societies

sociotechnical systems: Systems based on the idea that greater productivity in a work unit can be


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accomplished through the ‘optimisation’ of the social (i.e. human) and technical subsystems embedded in the work unit

span of control: Number of subordinates directly reporting to a superior officer, where a narrow span would result in a tall hierarchy and a wide span in a flat hierarchy

specialisation: Identifying clearly definable work modules and focusing on them to develop narrow areas of expertise, leading to division of labour

spillover effect: Occurs when the experiences in one part of life (such as at work) are transferred to other aspects of life (e.g. family life). Spillover effects can be positive (e.g. satisfaction at work spills over into overall life satisfaction) or negative (e.g. job-related strain is transmitted into life off the job)

standard deviation: An important measure of dispersion that describes the spread of scores around the mean

standardisation: Extent to which uniform processes and practices are ensured in the organisation either through written rules and procedures or through unwritten norms and values

strategy: The way an organisation uses its resources to gain and sustain a competitive advantage

stress management interventions (SMIs): Formal programs adopted by an organisation to address occupational stress. These typically contain three levels of intervention: stressor reduction, stress management training and employee assistance programs

stress resistance: The ability of individuals to be unaffected by stress

structured interview: A carefully planned interview consisting of standardised, ordered questions, several interviewers (raters) and a specific scoring scheme

subject matter expert (SME): A person with knowledge and expertise of the job; typically the job incumbent or the incumbent’s supervisor

survey and field study: A survey uses probabilistic sampling in cases selected from a larger population using rules of probability, whereas a field study uses a convenience sample. In both cases, the independent variable typically comes from the participants themselves

system-4 management: Name given to the ‘participative’ style of management, as it comes at the fourth stage in the evolution of management styles (after ‘exploitative authoritarian’, ‘benevolent authoritarian’ or ‘paternalistic’ and ‘consultative’ styles)

task identity: The ability to see a ‘whole’ piece of work

task interdependence: Tasks in which team members depend on one another for information and resources

task significance: The impact of your work on others

task structure: Refers to how the group’s work is designed, to how much control the members of the group can exercise on matters such as task assignment, work methods, fixing production goals. The amount of control can vary from very high (where members of the work-group have a lot of say) to very low (where members have no say)

team cohesion: An emotional bond that develops among members as they work together as a team

team diversity: The degree to which objective or subjective differences exist between group members

team functioning: Cohesiveness of the work-group

team goals: A specification of the quantity, quality and timeliness of team outcomes

team potency: The extent to which members of a group believe that they can be effective as a team across tasks (e.g. selling) or contexts (e.g. problem-solving)

team strategy: A road map that will guide a team from its current state to a future desired state

team structure: Modular organisation that breaks down the barriers of large departments and pushes decision-making to the level of teams

team training: The method of training employees, who have to work together to achieve a common goal, through group activities that involve collaboration and coordination

teams: Are comprised of: a) two or more individuals who b) socially interact (face-to-face or, increasingly, virtually); c) possess one or more common goals; d) are brought together to perform organisationally relevant tasks; e) exhibit interdependencies with respect to workflow, goals and outcomes; f) have different roles and responsibilities; and g) are together embedded in an encompassing organisational system, with boundaries and linkages to the broader system context and task environment

terminal values: Beliefs about goals or end-states of existence that an individual feels are important to achieve. They may be personal goals (e.g. career achievement) or societal goals (e.g. world peace). (See also instrumental values.)

test–retest reliability: A test of reliability which compares the same results conducted at two (or more) time periods. Thus the results of a test at Time 1 should be highly similar to (significantly correlated with) the results of the same test at Time 2

theory: Theory in organisational behaviour involves the statements and logical ideas that explain the relationships among a set of constructs


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training evaluation: The complex process of assessing the costs and benefits of training programs for the individual as well as the organisation, for which a variety of criteria (e.g. reaction and learning) and research designs (e.g. single or multiple groups pre-test/post-test) are used

training needs assessment (TNA): A systematic analysis of the learning inputs to be provided to employees so that the organisation achieves its performance objectives and the individuals their career objectives, where the analysis is normally done at three levels—organisational, job or task and individual—through a variety of formal and informal methods such as interviews, surveys and questionnaires, observations, focus groups and examination of documents

traits-orientated rating method: The assessment of employees on a few personality traits identified in advance as being related to job performance

transactional leadership: Ability of a leader to influence followers towards more effective performance of their current jobs, where the appeal is generally to the lower-order needs of the followers

transformational leadership: Ability of a leader to influence followers towards acceptance of new value systems and the accomplishment of new visions, goals and objectives, where the appeal is normally to the higher-order needs of the followers

traumatic events: Rare but critical incidents, often involving violence and/or death

true negatives: One of the four selection decision- making outcomes: candidates not selected but who would not have been successful at the job

true positives: One of the four selection decision-making outcomes: selected candidates who are successful at the job

Type 1 and Type 2 errors: Incorrectly rejecting the null hypothesis (Type 1) and failing to reject an incorrect null hypothesis (Type 2) are two errors that need to be considered in statistical tests

Type A personality: A set of characteristics that includes being impatient, excessively time-conscious, insecure about one’s status, highly competitive, hostile and aggressive, and incapable of relaxation

typology: Literally means the study of types, grouping elements together on the basis of their common characteristics. In anthropology, typologies have been developed of different cultures, based on their similar and different characteristics. Various typologies of organisational culture have also been constructed to categorise organisations that are similar to each other

in their assumptions, values and norms. This exercise can lead to the development of taxonomies of major organisational characteristics

unity of command: The principle that an employee should have only one superior to report to, so as to avoid the employee receiving conflicting orders and priorities and/or the opportunity for shirking work under the pretext of executing orders from other superiors

upward communication: The flow of messages from the lower levels of the organisation to the upper levels

validity: A statistical technique to assess if a test measures what it was designed to measure (such as job performance) or to assess how much the test results make sense (are valid) in comparison with other results, such as comparing (correlating) self-report job performance with objective work output

variable: A variable is a characteristic of an object or event that can take on two or more values, such as age or personality. A variable can be conceptual (a construct) or operational (scores from a measure of the construct)

verbal communication: Includes any oral or written means of transmitting meaning through words

virtual organisation: Uses others’ organisational resources rather than creating its own. Consists of a core team of techno-managers who produce and sell products or services making use of the outsourced facilities of others. Also called a network structure

virtual team: A group of interdependent members who work together on a common task while they are geographically separated

vision: A mental image of a possible and desirable future state which articulates a view of a realistic, credible, attractive future for the organisation, a condition that is better in some important ways than what presently exists

visioning: The process through which organisational members develop a viable, coherent, shared picture of the products and services that will be offered by the organisation in the future

weighted application form: An application form with a structured scoring system which scores (weights) the question responses differently, according to the job requirements

wellbeing: An index of life evaluation, emotional health, physical health, healthy behaviours, work environment and basic access

work ethic: Refers to a belief in the value and importance of work. Until recently this was also referred to as the


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Protestant work ethic, due to its emphasis on working hard. In more global terms, work ethic means a commitment to work in general

work motivation: A cognitive process that determines the direction, intensity and persistence of behaviour (performance) in the workplace

work sample test: A test consisting of a sample of the actual work to be conducted in the job

worker-oriented methods: A group of job analysis methods based on the assessment of the worker’s skills and behaviours (KSAOs) that are required to perform

a job (rather than the actual process or outputs of a job)

work–life balance: The interaction of an employee’s work and non-work areas of life

workplace emotions: Are physiological, behavioural and psychological episodes experienced towards an individual or object that create a state of readiness

Zeitgeist theory of leadership: Theory that believes in the power of the ‘spirit of the times’ to create a leader out of any available person irrespective of his or her qualities


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