4.6 billion years ago q: from what materials is our solar system made? solar system formation
TRANSCRIPT
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4.6 billion years ago
Q: From what materials is our solar system made?
Solar System FormationSolar System Formation
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Long goneLong gone
Orogens and other topographical elevations are removed - a window into the Earth.
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Paleomagnetic polar wanderingPaleomagnetic polar wandering
The rocks point to magnetic poles over time - the relative movement of the apparent poles on different plates indicates movement
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Remember these?
Meteorites called carbonaceous chondrites
The juxtaposition of very high temperature components (chondrules and inclusions made of silicates) and very low temperature components (complex carbon compounds).
Building blocksBuilding blocks
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SegregationSegregation
Taylor, 2005
Density variation between stable phases in a gravitational field-
The Fe alloys head down, the silicates float.
Note solidification of silicates with depth.
Two types of materials?
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Ballentine, Science 296, 2002, 1247-1248
Then and nowThen and now
The dense stuff is at the center.
We have an atmosphere made of the light stuff (but not really light stuff).
How?
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The Moon shows evidence of heavy bombardment up to 3.8 Ga
Undoubtedly, the Earth is being impacted simultaneously – the impacts would make the surface of the Earth unsuitable for liquid water. Life is not likely to arise until frequent impacts cease.
Early EarthEarly Earth
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Recent evidence shows that the oldest materials on earth, Jack Hills Zircons, are 4.4 biliion years old.
These record crystallization temperatures in the 600-750 ºC range - implying wet magmatic conditions and the possible establishment of the hydrosphere.
NASA’s Earth Observatory
Or not…Or not…
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But prior to 4.4 Ga, there are a number of problems with the early Earth.
•Very hot
•Frequent inputs of high kinetic energy
•Weak atmosphere
•Sunlight reduced at surface
•No liquid water at surface (and little fluid water at depth)
•No complex organic molecules
All except last are reduced through gravitation and kinetics. The last is trickier although helped by cooling temperatures.
HotHot
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The upper mantle has a “depleted” composition. Crust + depleted mantle is roughly that of the lower mantle and chondrites
The lanthanides (La-Lu) are also known as the rare earth elements.The lanthanides (La-Lu) are also known as the rare earth elements.
ridge
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ContinentsContinents
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CratonsCratons
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North American StructureNorth American Structure
The shield is the oldest part of the continent
Primary continental material - it’s mostly metamorphosed or igneous.
Platform - largely the locus of layered sediments.
Orogenic belts - mountain building deformation
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CratonCraton
Assembly of the shield and sub-platform over a sequence of time
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Analyses of DNA make it suggest that all of life on Earth is related back to one single organism.
Chemically, we’re all very similar.
Domains of LifeDomains of Life
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24-515Figure 24.24
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In 1953, Miller and Urey conducted an experiment in which methane, ammonium, hydrogen, and water were subjected to an electrical discharge. After a week, 10-15% of C formed organic compounds, 2% as amino acids.
Suggests that a primitive atmosphere could produce life compounds.
Life chemistryLife chemistry
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Amino acids are a long way from proteins and nucleic acid
The next step is the subject of ongoing investigations.
One current theory: the RNA world
RNA has the ability to copy itself, modify as an enzyme, and bond with amino acids.
Many viruses proliferate with nothing more than RNA and protein (although few think viruses were the first life – too dependant on cellular life)
Secondary stepsSecondary steps
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Clay surfacesClay surfaces
James Ferris (RPI) has been able to assemble complex polymers (primitive RNA) compounds by activating simpler monomers on the surface of clays.
RNA (Ribonucleic acid) is present in all life forms, aids protein encoding, and can carry genetic information.
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Cyanobacteria from the Bitter Springs chert of central Australia, a site dating to the Late Proterozoic, about 850 million years old.
Early life: Cyanobacteria [P]Early life: Cyanobacteria [P]Early life: Cyanobacteria [P]Early life: Cyanobacteria [P]
Stromatolites - shallow marine algal mounds from the Cambrian as seen in Lester Park, near Saratoga Springs, NY.
The first fossils of bacteria are 3.2 Ga.
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Rock is 2.5 billion years old (found world wide from 3 - 1.8 Ga)
Dark: Hematite (Fe2O3)Red: Quartz (with iron)Yellow: Crocidolite (blue asbestosform)
The accumulation of iron as seafloor sediments is thought to result from early photosynthesis on the ocean surface
under N2 – CO2 rich conditions.
A lack of atmospheric O2 permits Fe ions in surface seawater – these bond with O2 produced by photosynthesis.
Meet BIF (Banded Iron Formation)Meet BIF (Banded Iron Formation)
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Oxygen and complex lifeOxygen and complex life
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24-507Figure 24.4
Scientists think that the first organisms (producers) depleted an initially CO2 rich atmosphere, enriching it in oxygen
Q: what process may have enriched O2 in the atmosphere?
Oxygenation of the atmosphereOxygenation of the atmosphere
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The existence of life deep in the ocean at extreme conditions has led many to conclude that early life may have used the heat of the Earth for energy
We are still a long way from understanding how life chemistry came together initially.
ExtremeExtreme
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http://projects.edtech.sandi.net/miramesa/Organelles/fossilbact.html
Cellular life
The oldest fossils – not much to look at, but appears to be a filamentous bacteria from 3.5 billion years ago.
It’s life, as we know itIt’s life, as we know it
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Archaea [D] (Archaea [D] (extremophilesextremophiles))Archaea [D] (Archaea [D] (extremophilesextremophiles))
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Changes in ice coverageChanges in ice coverage
End of Proterozic evidence suggests a very cold Earth surface.
Snowball Earth starts with ice on continents extending into the oceans
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SequencesSequences
There is more or less a global response to sea level (as a function of ice cover). Sedimentary layers show how the water covers inland (transgression) and recedes (regression)
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North AmericaNorth America
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Sea levelSea level
Keep in mind that the sea level fluctuation is best recorded by rises (more shelf). The rises are the result of less ice - therefore warmer global systems
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Making-closing and oceanMaking-closing and ocean
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20-424Figure 20.50
Oldest humanoid fossil 4.3 Ma
Oldest fossil plants 440 Ma
Oldest chordates 510 Ma
Oldest fossil green algea 530 Ma
Oldest shelled invertebrates 570 Ma
Oldest animal fossils (Vendian) Oldest fossil fungi 650 Ma
Oxygenated atmosphere 1.7 Ga
Oldest fossil organism 3.5 Ga
Oldest rock 3.9 Ga
Q: what is the significance of plants with respect to environment?
Geologic Time ScaleGeologic Time Scale
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The fossil record not only tells of the development of life, it speaks to the termination of organisms.
Extinction is when a type of organism (species) fails to appear past a certain time horizon in the fossil record, or ceases to exist in modern ecosystems.
Extinctions happen throughout time, but there have been six to seven points in earth history when a significant number of organism types became extinct.
650, 540, 510, 440, 340, 248, 65 million years
The cause of mass extinctions is not known, but most theories point to global catastrophe
Bolide impacts (likely for the K-T)
Large-scale volcanism
Rapid climate change
Slow magnetic reversals
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1.1 Ga1.1 Ga
Recall the mountain building event we called the Grenville Orogeny. The assembly of the super continent known as Rodinia formed these mountains.
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Grenville in North AmericaGrenville in North America
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650 Ma650 Ma
Very little land. However, all of the organisms are likely marine dwelling.
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Specialized cells apparently arose by 650 Ma, with the Vendian organisms. They look like casts of soft parts – but not much is known about these critters.
Fungi also arise at the same time. Fungi can be monocellular, colonial, or multicellular.
The one in the picture (right) is only 360 Ma from the Rhynie Chert, Scotland.
VendianVendian
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EventsEvents
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PaleozoicPaleozoic
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Starting at 570 and leading to 540 million years ago, life diversified. The number of fossils increases in the rocks, and they organisms have different morphologies. Many of these organisms have some relatives alive today
Segmented arthropods: trilobitesSpongesBryozoaCoralsBrachiopods
The reason is the source of serious scientific debate, but obviously linked to emerging (and possibly stabilized) thermal and chemical conditions in the ocean.
Cambrian explosionCambrian explosion
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514 Ma514 Ma
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Eukaryotes can be single cellular or multicellular. Specialized cells developed. Some cells in complex organisms can be quite complicated.
Sponges (poriphera) are animals
Note, sponges, are extensive in the fossil record, beginning 540 Ma – a hard skeleton made of calcite or quartz makes them incredibly durable.
Multicellular and skeletalMulticellular and skeletal
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458 Ma458 Ma
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Taconic orogenyTaconic orogeny
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Iapetus seafloorIapetus seafloor
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Plants are very close to algae in genetic structure
Algae are another organism that has its oldest fossils in the Cambrian.
Plants occur much higher in the record – 440 million years ago, and are found in rocks that formed on land.
Plants are simple to complex multicellular autotrophs. Key is the development of specialized cells to extract moisture, amino acids, nitrates, phophates, and minerals from soils (roots).
Some of the earliest fossils are fern-like in morphology
Note: modern land plant height is limited by gravitational constraints of lifting water.
Early PlantsEarly Plants
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Animals are heterotrophs – they need to eat autotrophs to get carbohydrates.
Until recently, fossil land animals were found to be all younger than fossil plants
However, a 470 Ma fossil of a millipede, discovered in 2004, is now thought to be the oldest land fossil. Either older land autotrophs existed or this millipede stayed close to the water.
The conversion from water to land (or vice versa) is a difficult one
Most (but not all) aquatic heterotrophs organisms extract oxygen from water*, and autotrophs carbon dioxide from water. Most land heterotrphs extract oxygen from air.
Life is largely made of water, and therefore is similar in density. Most organisms are boyant in water (and not in air). Gravity is more of a factor on dry land.
*the attempt to extract oxygen from water in organisms that extract it from air is the phenomena known as drowning.
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425 Ma425 Ma
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SilurianSilurian
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Closing IapetusClosing Iapetus
Recall that the Taconic orogeny slaps an linear string of volcanoes (an island arc) onto the eastern end of Laurentia (proto-North America). The closure of the Iapetus results in the Acadian orogeny.
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Acadian-Caledonian orogenyAcadian-Caledonian orogeny
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390 Ma390 Ma
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Devonian - age of the fishesDevonian - age of the fishes
Fish fossils become abundant and exhibit a diversity - jawless, jawed, and bony.
Sharks are first found here
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Forming PangaeaForming Pangaea
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Appalachian orogenyAppalachian orogeny
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Appalachian sectionAppalachian section
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356 Ma - Mississippian356 Ma - Mississippian
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Carboniferous forestCarboniferous forest
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306 Ma - Pennsylvanian306 Ma - Pennsylvanian
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255 Ma255 Ma
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PermianPermian
Permian rocks record less swampy environments - in parts of North America, lots of oxidized sandstones.
Large lizard fossils, like Dimetron, date from this time.
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The end of the world occurred 248 million years ago - the Permian extinction
Ninety to ninety-five percent of marine species were eliminated as
a result of this Permian event.
Gone:•fusulinid foraminifera•trilobites•rugose and tabulate corals•blastoids
Reduced•bryozoans•brachiopods•ammonoids•Sharks•bony fish•eurypterids•echinoderms
WhyThis was a long time ago - some ideas•Global cooling/sea level drop•Pangea formation•Glaciation - global dehydration•Intense volcanism
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Making wayMaking way
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MesozoicMesozoic
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237 Ma237 Ma
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Begin the time of the DinosaursBegin the time of the Dinosaurs
Early dinosaurs - often small like Ceolophysis.
Success at adapting to the variable climates of the mesozoic.
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Gondwanaland splitsGondwanaland splits
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The dry westThe dry west
Western North America during the Jurassic is very dry.
Navajo sandstone - massive unit with dune x-bedding
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195 Ma195 Ma
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JurassicJurassic
Dinos get larger - more diverse. An arms race of sorts between the predators and the prey.
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152 Ma152 Ma
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North America in the late JurassicNorth America in the late Jurassic
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94 Ma94 Ma
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Exotic terranesExotic terranes
In assembling North America we’ve seen the incoporation of chains of andesitic volcanoes in the Taconic orogeny - and here again in the early K with what will become the Klamath orogeny.
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Add-ons to the westAdd-ons to the west
This modification accounts for the extent of continental growth.
How might this compare with continental destruction?
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K warm seasK warm seas
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66 Ma66 Ma
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The K-T boundaryThe K-T boundary
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In contrast, the Cretaceous extinction was a mild event
Sixty percent of all species were eliminated as a result of this
Permian event.
Clay layers from this boundary typically include enriched iridium.
The prevailing theory for this extinction involves bolide impact at the Yucatan Peninsula - the Chicxalub
structure.
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Earth!
million years without a single mass extinction6 5
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50 Ma50 Ma
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Orogeny in the modern EarthOrogeny in the modern Earth
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Subduction to strike-slipSubduction to strike-slip
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Western extensionWestern extension
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14 Ma14 Ma
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Morphology
DNA deviations
Repetition
Successful changes
Perhaps evolution is best attempt of organisms to find lowest energy form over time (like any chemical phase)?
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24-514Figure 24.17
Q: how old is mankind’s direct ancestors? Where did humanoids first develop?
Ancestors of humansAncestors of humans
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Spencer Wells
the y-chromosome is a parcel of DNA, passed on from father to son, basically unchanged for generations save random mutations.
By looking at modern individuals y-chromosome DNA, a migration path for H. sapiens is revealed.
Q: What would have prompted this migration at 50,000 years?
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Last Glacial MaximumLast Glacial Maximum
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PrecessionPrecession
Result of oblate shape and the moon
Axis wobble with a 26,000 year period
Vega will be the North Star in another 12,000 years
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Milankovitch Cycles
One potential cause of glaciation – coincidence of earth’s motion variations precession, rotational axis, orbital eccentricity
Milankovitch Cycles
One potential cause of glaciation – coincidence of earth’s motion variations precession, rotational axis, orbital eccentricity
21.5-24.5o 41 kyr Low-high 100 kyr
One precession per 23 kyr
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Humans are relative new comers to life on this planet.
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Humans are relative new comers to life on this planet.