24.900 intro to linguistics lecture slides: semantics · definition: semantics and meaning . the...
TRANSCRIPT
![Page 1: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Semantics
1
These slides were produced by Hadas Kotek. http://web.mit.edu/hkotek/www/
![Page 2: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/2.jpg)
Sentence types
What is the meaning of a sentence?
The lion devoured the pizza.
Statement
2
![Page 3: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/3.jpg)
Sentence types
What is the meaning of a sentence?
Who devoured the pizza? Did the lion devour the pizza?
Question
3
![Page 4: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/4.jpg)
Sentence types
What is the meaning of a sentence?
Do your homework!
Command
4
![Page 5: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/5.jpg)
Sentence types
What is the meaning of a sentence?
It’s cold here …. Do you know what time it is?
Sentences might convey additional non-literal meaning
5
![Page 6: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/6.jpg)
What do sentences mean?
(1) The capital of Canada is Ottawa (2) The capital of Canada is Montreal
6
![Page 7: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/7.jpg)
What do sentences mean?
(1) The capital of Canada is Ottawa (2) The capital of Canada is Montreal
The meaning of a sentence is related to whether it is true or false (its truth value).
In the actual world: – (1) is True – (2) is False
7
![Page 8: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/8.jpg)
What do sentences mean?
BUT: This can’t be all, since the truth-values of sentences can change over time or situations
Reese is in room 20The cat is on the mat
8
![Page 9: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/9.jpg)
What do sentences mean?
We can grasp the meaning of a sentence without knowing whether it’s true or false.
The name of the person sitting closest to the door starts with a “D.”
9
![Page 10: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/10.jpg)
What do sentences mean?
We can grasp the meaning of sentences we’ve never heard before.
The furry cat ate the red jellybean
10
![Page 11: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/11.jpg)
Definition: Semantics and meaning
The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and a situation, to tell whether the sentence is true or false in the situation.
11
![Page 12: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/12.jpg)
Definition: Semantics and meaning
The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and a situation, to tell whether the sentence is true or false in the situation.
To know the meaning of a sentence is to know its truth conditions. – That is, we know what the world would have to look like in
order for the sentence to be true. 12
![Page 13: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/13.jpg)
How can we specify the meanings of infinitely many sentences in natural language?
The scary lion devoured the mushroom pizza that I ordered last night
Building a semantic system
13
![Page 14: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/14.jpg)
Observation: The interpretation of a sentence depends
on its syntactic structure. Different phrases make
predictable contributions to the meaning of a sentence.
The cat chased the rat
Building a semantic system
14
![Page 15: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/15.jpg)
Observation: The interpretation of a sentence depends
on its syntactic structure. Different phrases make
predictable contributions to the meaning of a sentence.
The cat chased the rat The rat chased the cat
Building a semantic system
15
![Page 16: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/16.jpg)
Observation: The interpretation of a sentence depends
on its syntactic structure. Different phrases make
predictable contributions to the meaning of a sentence.
The cat chased the rat The grey cat chased the rat The grey cat with the hat chased the rat
Building a semantic system
16
![Page 17: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/17.jpg)
Observation: The interpretation of a sentence depends
on its syntactic structure. Different phrases make
predictable contributions to the meaning of a sentence.
The cat chased the rat The cat chased the dog
Building a semantic system
17
![Page 18: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/18.jpg)
Observation: The interpretation of a sentence depends
on its syntactic structure. Different phrases make
predictable contributions to the meaning of a sentence.
The cat chased the rat The cat licked the rat
Building a semantic system
18
![Page 19: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/19.jpg)
Observation: The interpretation of a sentence depends
on its syntactic structure. Different phrases make
predictable contributions to the meaning of a sentence.
The cat chased the rat A cat chased the rat
Building a semantic system
19
![Page 20: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/20.jpg)
Definition: Compositional semantics
The principle of compositionality:
The meaning of a sentence depends
only on the meanings of its parts
and on the way that they are
syntactically combined.
20
Gottlob FregeThis image is in the public domain.Source: Wikimedia Commons.
![Page 21: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/21.jpg)
Definition: Compositional semantics
The principle of compositionality:
The meaning of a sentence depends
only on the meanings of its parts
and on the way that they are
syntactically combined.
The task of the semantics of a language is to provide
the truth-conditions of all the well-formed sentences in
that language, and to do so in a compositional way 21
This image is in the public domain.Source: Wikimedia Commons.
![Page 22: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/22.jpg)
Basic modeling
Mitzi is gray
Mitzi is a cat
Mitzi purred
We can define adjectives, nouns and intransitive verbs
as mathematical sets of individuals.
IP
NP
I’
purred
is gray
is a cat
22
![Page 23: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/23.jpg)
Basic modeling
Mitzi is gray
Mitzi is a cat
Mitzi purred
A set is a collection of objects.
Gray is the collection of all gray individuals.
Cat is the collection of all individuals who are cats.
Purred is the collection of all individuals who purred.
IP
NP
I’
purred
is gray
is a cat
23
![Page 24: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/24.jpg)
Basic modeling
Mitzi is gray
Mitzi is a cat
Mitzi purred
Mitzi is a member of the
set of individuals that are gray.
Mitzi Gray
IP
NP
I’
purred
is gray
is a cat
24
![Page 25: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/25.jpg)
Basic modeling
Mitzi is gray
Mitzi is a cat
Mitzi purred
Mitzi is a member of the
set of individuals that are cats.
Mitzi Cat
IP
NP
I’
purred
is gray
is a cat
25
![Page 26: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/26.jpg)
Basic modeling
Mitzi is gray
Mitzi is a cat
Mitzi purred
Mitzi is a member of the
set of individuals that purred.
Mitzi Purred
IP
NP
I’
purred
is gray
is a cat
26
![Page 27: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/27.jpg)
Modification
Mitzi [I’ is a gray cat ]
Mitzi is a member of the set of individuals who are gray
AND a member of the set of individuals who are cats.
Mitzi Gray AND Mitzi Cat
27
![Page 28: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/28.jpg)
Modification
Mitzi [I’ is a gray cat ]
Set intersection: The set that results from combining
two other sets
Mitzi Gray Cat
Cat Gray
28
![Page 29: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/29.jpg)
Modification
Set intersection can describe other adjectives too:
Mitzi is a gray cat
Gianni is an Italian waiter
T-Rex is a carnivorous dinosaur
This is a round ball
These are called intersective adjectives.
29
![Page 30: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/30.jpg)
Modification
Intersective adjectives conform to an entailment
pattern.
Mitzi is a gray cat
Mitzi is a cat
Mitzi is gray
30
![Page 31: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/31.jpg)
Modification
Intersective adjectives conform to an entailment
pattern.
Mitzi is a gray cat
Mitzi is a cat
Mitzi is gray
A entails B iff whenever A is true, B is true.
31
![Page 32: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/32.jpg)
Modification
There are also non-intersective adjectives:
George is a former president
This is a fake diamond
32
![Page 33: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/33.jpg)
Modification
There are also non-intersective adjectives:
George is a former president
This is a fake diamond
The entailment pattern doesn’t hold:
George is a former president
George is a president [not valid]
??George is former [not valid]
33
![Page 34: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/34.jpg)
Modification
There are also non-intersective adjectives:
George is a former president
This is a fake diamond
In fact:
George is a former president
George is not a president
George was a president in the past
34
![Page 35: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/35.jpg)
Connectives
Mitzi [I’ is gray and furry ]
Connectives can be described in set terms.
AND denotes set intersection
Gray Furry
Grey Furry
35
![Page 36: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/36.jpg)
Connectives
Mitzi [I’ is gray or black ]
Connectives can be described in set terms.
OR denotes set union
Gray Black
Gray Black
36
![Page 37: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/37.jpg)
Interim summary
Nouns, intransitive verbs, and adjectives can be
described using set intersection.
is a cat Cat
Mitzi is gray = Gray
purred Purred
37
![Page 38: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/38.jpg)
Interim summary
AND can also be described using set intersection.
Mitzi is gray AND furry = Gray Furry
OR can also be described using set union.
Mitzi is gray OR black = Gray Black
38
![Page 39: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/39.jpg)
More modeling
Proper names pick out individuals in the world.
John danced
39
![Page 40: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/40.jpg)
More modeling
Proper names pick out individuals in the world.
John danced
What does some boy refer to?
Some boy danced
40
![Page 41: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/41.jpg)
More modeling
Proper names pick out individuals in the world.
John danced
What does some boy refer to?
Some boy danced
What about no boy?
No boy danced
41
![Page 42: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/42.jpg)
Determiners
English has several additional determiners:
Some boy danced
No boy danced
Three boys danced
More than half of the boys danced
Every boy danced
42
![Page 43: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/43.jpg)
Determiners
How do we model determiners?
Some boy danced
No boy danced
Three boys danced
More than half of the boys danced
Every boy danced
43
![Page 44: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/44.jpg)
Determiners
How do we model determiners?
Some boy danced
No boy danced
Three boys danced
More than half of the boys danced
Every boy danced
NPs with determiners don’t refer to individuals.
Rather, determiners denote set relations.
44
![Page 45: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/45.jpg)
Determiners
Some boy danced
The intersection of the set of boys and the set of
dancers is not empty
Boy Danced
Boy
Danced
45
![Page 46: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/46.jpg)
Determiners
Some boy danced
Can there be boys who are not dancers?
Can there be dancers who are not boys?
Boy
Danced
46
![Page 47: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/47.jpg)
Determiners
Some boy danced
Can there be boys who are not dancers? Yes.
Can there be dancers who are not boys? Yes.
Boy
Danced
47
![Page 48: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/48.jpg)
Determiners
No boy danced
The intersection of the set of boys and the set of dancers is empty
Boy Danced =
Boy
Danced
48
![Page 49: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/49.jpg)
Determiners
No boy danced
Can there be boys who are not dancers?
Can there be dancers who are not boys?
Boy
Danced
49
![Page 50: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/50.jpg)
Determiners
No boy danced
Can there be boys who are not dancers? Yes.
Can there be dancers who are not boys? Yes.
Boy
Danced
50
![Page 51: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/51.jpg)
Determiners
Three boys danced
The intersection of the set of boys and the set of dancers contains three elements.
| Boy Danced | = 3
Boy
Danced
51
![Page 52: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/52.jpg)
Determiners
Three boys danced
Can there be boys who are not dancers?
Can there be dancers who are not boys?
Boy
Danced
52
![Page 53: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/53.jpg)
Determiners
Three boys danced
Can there be boys who are not dancers? Yes.
Can there be dancers who are not boys? Yes.
Boy
Danced
53
![Page 54: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/54.jpg)
Determiners
More than half of the boys danced
The intersection of the set of boys and the set of dancers contains more than half of all the boys.
| Boy Danced | > ½ | Boy |
Boy
Danced
54
![Page 55: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/55.jpg)
Determiners
More than half of the boys danced
Can there be boys who are not dancers?
Can there be dancers who are not boys?
Boy
Danced
55
![Page 56: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/56.jpg)
Determiners
More than half of the boys danced
Can there be boys who are not dancers? Yes (but...)
Can there be dancers who are not boys? Yes.
Boy
Danced
56
![Page 57: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/57.jpg)
Determiners
Every boy danced
The set of boys is a subset of the set of dancers.
Boy Danced
Boy
Danced
57
![Page 58: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/58.jpg)
Determiners
Every boy danced
Can there be boys who are not dancers?
Can there be dancers who are not boys?
Boy
Danced
58
![Page 59: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/59.jpg)
Determiners
Every boy danced
Can there be boys who are not dancers? No.
Can there be dancers who are not boys? Yes.
Boy
Danced
59
![Page 60: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/60.jpg)
Determiners summary
All the sentences we have seen have the structure:
Det(A)(B)
Some(Boy)(Danced)
Three(Boy)(Danced)
More than half(Boy)(Danced)
No(Boy)(Danced)
Every(Boy)(Danced)
60
![Page 61: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/61.jpg)
Determiners summary
All the sentences we have seen have the structure:
Det(A)(B)
Some(Boy)(Danced) Boy Danced
Three(Boy)(Danced)
More than half(Boy)(Danced)
No(Boy)(Danced)
Every(Boy)(Danced)
61
![Page 62: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/62.jpg)
Determiners summary
All the sentences we have seen have the structure:
Det(A)(B)
Some(Boy)(Danced) Boy Danced
Three(Boy)(Danced) | Boy Danced | = 3
More than half(Boy)(Danced)
No(Boy)(Danced)
Every(Boy)(Danced)
62
![Page 63: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/63.jpg)
Determiners summary
All the sentences we have seen have the structure:
Det(A)(B)
Some(Boy)(Danced) Boy Danced
Three(Boy)(Danced) | Boy Danced | = 3
More than half(Boy)(Danced) | Boy Danced | > ½ | Boy |
No(Boy)(Danced)
Every(Boy)(Danced)
63
![Page 64: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/64.jpg)
Determiners summary
All the sentences we have seen have the structure:
Det(A)(B)
Some(Boy)(Danced) Boy Danced
Three(Boy)(Danced) | Boy Danced | = 3
More than half(Boy)(Danced) | Boy Danced | > ½ | Boy |
No(Boy)(Danced) Boy Danced =
Every(Boy)(Danced)
64
![Page 65: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/65.jpg)
Determiners summary
All the sentences we have seen have the structure:
Det(A)(B)
Some(Boy)(Danced) Boy Danced
Three(Boy)(Danced) | Boy Danced | = 3
More than half(Boy)(Danced) | Boy Danced | > ½ | Boy |
No(Boy)(Danced) Boy Danced =
Every(Boy)(Danced) Boy Danced
65
![Page 66: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/66.jpg)
Properties of determiners
All the sentences we have seen have the structure:
Det(A)(B)
All the determiners we have seen so far put restrictions
on members of set A, but not on members of set B.
A B
AB not: AB
66
![Page 67: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/67.jpg)
Properties of determiners
All the sentences we have seen have the structure:
Det(A)(B)
Are there determiners that put restrictions on set B?
A B
AB not: AB
67
![Page 68: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/68.jpg)
Properties of determiners
All the sentences we have seen have the structure:
Det(A)(B)
For example, every-non(A)(B)
blarg boy danced
= every non-boy danced
That is: A− B
68
![Page 69: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/69.jpg)
Properties of determiners
All the sentences we have seen have the structure:
Det(A)(B)
For example, Reverse-mth(A)(B)
blick boys danced
= more than half of the dancers are boys
That is: | A B | > ½ | B |
69
![Page 70: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/70.jpg)
Conservativity
Natural language determiners only “care” about elements that satisfy their first argument.
Det is conservative if Det(A)(B) Det(A)(AB):
every(boy)(danced) conservative
= every boy danced
= every boy is a boy that danced
every-non(boy)(danced) non-conservative
= every non-boy danced
≠ every non-boy is a boy that danced [*] 70
![Page 71: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/71.jpg)
Conservativity
Natural language determiners only “care” about elements that satisfy their first argument.
Det is conservative if Det(A)(B) Det(A)(AB):
more than half(boy)(danced) conservative
= more than half of the boys danced
= more than half of the boys are boys who danced
Reverse-mth(boy)(danced) non-conservative
= more than half of the dancers are boys
≠ more than half of the boys who danced are boys [*] 71
![Page 72: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/72.jpg)
Conservativity
Universal: All natural language determiners are
conservative.
Therefore: no language has a simple determiner that means
every-non or Reverse-mth
blarg boys danced Does not exit!
= every non-boy danced
blick boys danced Does not exit!
= more than half of the dancers are boys
72
![Page 73: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/73.jpg)
An application: Explaining entailment patterns
John sings and John dances
.⇒ John sings and dances
Some boy sings and some boy dances
.⇏ Some boy sings and dances
73
![Page 74: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/74.jpg)
An application: Explaining entailment patterns
John sings and John dances
.⇒ John sings and dances
John
S D
74
![Page 75: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/75.jpg)
An application: Explaining entailment patterns
Some boy sings and some boy dances
.⇏ Some boy sings and dances
75
![Page 76: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/76.jpg)
An application: Explaining entailment patterns
Some boy sings and some boy dances
.⇏ Some boy sings and dances
S D
B
76
![Page 77: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/77.jpg)
An application: Explaining entailment patterns
Some boy sings and some boy dances
S D
B
77
![Page 78: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/78.jpg)
An application: Explaining entailment patterns
Some boy sings and some boy dances
S D
B
78
![Page 79: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/79.jpg)
An application: Explaining entailment patterns
Some boy sings and some boy dances
S D
B
79
![Page 80: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/80.jpg)
An application: Explaining entailment patterns
Some boy sings and dances
S D
B
80
![Page 81: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/81.jpg)
An application: Explaining entailment patterns
Some boy sings and dances
S D
B
81
![Page 82: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/82.jpg)
An application: Explaining entailment patterns
Some boy sings and some boy dances
.⇏ Some boy sings and dances
A entails B iff whenever A is true, B is true.
We can find a situation where A is true but B is false.
Hence, A does not entail B
82
![Page 83: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/83.jpg)
The definite article
What is the meaning of the definite article?
Some cat purred
Every cat purred
The cats purred
83
![Page 84: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/84.jpg)
The definite article
What is the meaning of the definite article?
Some cat purred Cat Purred =
Every cat purred
The cats purred
84
![Page 85: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/85.jpg)
The definite article
What is the meaning of the definite article?
Some cat purred Cat Purred =
Every cat purred Cat Purred
The cats purred
85
![Page 86: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/86.jpg)
The definite article
What is the meaning of the definite article?
Some cat purred Cat Purred =
Every cat purred Cat Purred
The cats purred ?
86
![Page 87: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/87.jpg)
The definite article
What is the meaning of the definite article?
Some cat purred Cat Purred =
Every cat purred Cat Purred
The cats purred ?
At first glance, the has a meaning similar to every
87
![Page 88: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/88.jpg)
The definite article
We might define the as:
The cats purred Cat Purred
88
![Page 89: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/89.jpg)
The definite article
We might define the as:
The cats purred Cat Purred
Does this work in this context?
89
![Page 90: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/90.jpg)
The definite article
We might define the as:
The cats purred Cat Purred
Does this work in this context?
Context: There are three cats.
Every cat purred
The cats purred
#The cat purred
90
![Page 91: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/91.jpg)
The definite article
The cat purred
The expression the cat presupposes:
− Existence: there exists a cat
− Uniqueness: there is exactly one (relevant) cat
91
![Page 92: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/92.jpg)
The definite article
The cat purred
The expression the cat presupposes:
− Existence: there exists a cat
− Uniqueness: there is exactly one (relevant) cat
When there is exactly one relevant individual in NP,
the returns that individual.
the cat defined iff there is one cCat. Returns c.
92
![Page 93: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/93.jpg)
Presuppositions of the
The presuppositions of the definite often spring into
existence, even if they weren’t known beforehand.
I forgot to feed the cat this morning
93
![Page 94: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/94.jpg)
Presuppositions of the
The presuppositions of the definite often spring into
existence, even if they weren’t known beforehand.
I forgot to feed the cat this morning
You will accommodate the fact that I have a cat.
94
![Page 95: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/95.jpg)
Presuppositions of the
The presuppositions of the definite often spring into
existence, even if they weren’t known beforehand.
I forgot to feed the cat this morning
You will accommodate the fact that I have a cat.
If no one objects to what I said, the assumption that I
have a cat will be added to the common ground of
our conversation.
95
![Page 96: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/96.jpg)
Accommodation
How easy it is to accommodate depends on the
plausibility of what I said.
96
![Page 97: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/97.jpg)
Accommodation
How easy it is to accommodate depends on the
plausibility of what I said.
Context: We are at my house and you hear some
scratching noises outside.
(1) The cat is at the door.
(2) The giraffe is at the door.
(3) I keep a giraffe here. The giraffe is at the door.
97
![Page 98: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/98.jpg)
Accommodation
Normally, we assume that speakers intend to say things
that are grammatical, relevant, and – often – true.
In the closet, you will find the blue coat
98
![Page 99: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/99.jpg)
Accommodation
Normally, we assume that speakers intend to say things
that are grammatical, relevant, and – often – true.
In the closet, you will find the blue coat
Suppose that after I said this sentence, you open the
closet and find only a black coat.
99
![Page 100: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/100.jpg)
Accommodation
Normally, we assume that speakers intend to say things
that are grammatical, relevant, and – often – true.
In the closet, you will find the blue coat
Suppose that after I said this sentence, you open the
closet and find only a black coat.
You may assume I just got the color confused.
100
![Page 101: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/101.jpg)
Accommodation
Normally, we assume that speakers intend to say things
that are grammatical, relevant, and – often – true.
In the closet, you will find the blue coat
Suppose that after I said this sentence, you open the
closet and find only a black coat.
Or you might assume you got the color confused and
it’s really a dark blue coat. 101
![Page 102: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/102.jpg)
Accommodation
We use a similar process to choose the meaning of
ambiguous sentences.
102
![Page 103: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/103.jpg)
Accommodation
We use a similar process to choose the meaning of
ambiguous sentences.
Successful lawyers and linguists are always rich
103
![Page 104: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/104.jpg)
Accommodation
We use a similar process to choose the meaning of
ambiguous sentences.
Successful lawyers and linguists are always rich
a. [Successful lawyers] and linguists are always rich
b. Successful [lawyers and linguists] are always rich
104
![Page 105: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/105.jpg)
Accommodation
We use a similar process to choose the meaning of
ambiguous sentences.
Successful lawyers and linguists are always rich
a. [Successful lawyers] and linguists are always rich
b. Successful [lawyers and linguists] are always rich
Since (a) is obviously false, you’ll normally conclude
that I meant (b).
105
![Page 106: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/106.jpg)
Accommodation
We use this process to assign implicit parameters in a
way that would make sentences true.
Everybody in the room is taller than me
106
![Page 107: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/107.jpg)
Accommodation
We use this process to assign implicit parameters in a
way that would make sentences true.
Everybody in the room is taller than me
Context: There are four people in the room; you, me,
and two other people who I don’t know.
a. You: We are brothers.
b. You: We are four, so we can play bridge.
107
![Page 108: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/108.jpg)
Accommodation
Sometimes we can’t accommodate a presupposition.
I forgot to feed the cat this morning!
I forgot to feed the giraffe this morning!
108
![Page 109: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/109.jpg)
Accommodation
Sometimes we can’t accommodate a presupposition.
I forgot to feed the cat this morning!
I forgot to feed the giraffe this morning!
The TA is sitting in the front row
Uniqueness is violated!
The king of France is bald
Existence is violated!
109
![Page 110: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/110.jpg)
Conclusion
The king of France is bald
Modeling using sets: We defined intransitive verbs, nouns and adjectives as sets of individuals.
IP
NP
I’
is bald
110
![Page 111: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/111.jpg)
Conclusion
The king of France is bald
Modeling using sets: We defined connectives (and, or) and determiners (some, every, no, three, more than half) as relations between two sets.
111
![Page 112: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/112.jpg)
Conclusion
Compositionality: We calculated the meaning of sentences from the meaning of their parts and the syntactic structure they were in.
112
![Page 113: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/113.jpg)
Conclusion
Compositionality: We calculated the meaning of sentences from the meaning of their parts and the syntactic structure they were in. The meanings we calculated derived the truth conditions of the sentences.
113
![Page 114: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/114.jpg)
Conclusion
Compositionality: We calculated the meaning of sentences from the meaning of their parts and the syntactic structure they were in. The meanings we calculated derived the truth conditions of the sentences. When combined with a context, we yield a truth value
114
![Page 115: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/115.jpg)
Conclusion
Finally, we discussed the definite article and its presuppositions.
The king of France is bald
Existence
Uniqueness
115
![Page 116: 24.900 Intro to Linguistics Lecture Slides: Semantics · Definition: Semantics and meaning . The semantic competence of a speaker: The ability, when presented with a sentence and](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062602/5ed79de7dff44a19a36e8b72/html5/thumbnails/116.jpg)
MIT OpenCourseWarehttp://ocw.mit.edu
24.900 Introduction to LinguisticsFall 2012
For information about citing these materials or our Terms of Use, visit: http://ocw.mit.edu/terms.