2013 metcalfe, eich & miele 2013 metacognition of agency - proximal action and distal outcome

7/30/2019 2013 Metcalfe, Eich & Miele 2013 Metacognition of Agency - Proximal Action and Distal Outcome

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Experimental Brain Research

ISSN 0014-4819

Exp Brain Res

DOI 10.1007/s00221-012-3371-6

Metacognition of agency: proximal actionand distal outcome

Janet Metcalfe, Teal S. Eich & David

B. Miele


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Exp Brai Res

DOI 10.1007/s00221-012-3371-6

VOlItIOn

Metacognition of agency: proximal action and distal outcome

Janet Metcalfe Teal S. Eich David B. Miele

Received: 10 Sepember 2012 / Acceped: 5 December 2012

Spriger-Verag Beri Heideberg 2013

Keywords Meacogiio Agecy Coigecy

Oucome Moor coro

Introduction

Whie here is cosiderabe agreeme abou he impor-

ace o he cosruc o meacogiio o agecy, here

is much dispue abou wha i meas. As Gaagher (2007)

poied ou upo reviewig boh heories ad brai-imagig

experimes: there is o cosesus abou how o dee

he sese o agecy (p. 1). Some sources dee agecy as

he capaciy o a perso or eiy o ac i he word or

he capaciy, codiio, or sae o acig or o exerig

power (Wikipedia ad Merriam Webser, respecivey).

these views pu orh ha i is he proxima, acio-reaed

iormaio aoe ha coribues o our sese o agecy,

wih o meio o he cosequeces o he acio. Oher

views woud have he disa oucome aso be par o he de-

iio (Ascombe 2000; Va der We ad Kobich i press).

For exampe, Pacherie (i press) says ha agecy is he

sese ha we are i coro o our acios and their effects,

ha we are he doers o our deeds (emphasis added).

Dao (1965) disiguished bewee a basic ac ad he

eec o ha ac. As a iusraio o his disicio, Joseph

(2004) asks he reader o cosider wheher Boohs ac was

squeezig he rigger or kiig licoeves ha hap-

peed a diere imes. A more beig exampe woud be

a perso movig his or her ger o press a buo ha urs

o a igh. Is he acio over which he perso is he age

he pressig or he iumiaio? Give ha here ca be a

disicio bewee he moveme o he ger o press he

buo (a proxima acio) ad he igh urig o (a disa

oucome)he quesio we address here is: o wha exe

do each o hese coribue o he persos sese o agecy?

Abstract the cues coribuig o peopes meacogi-

ios o agecy were ivesigaed i wo experimes iwhich peope payed a compuer game ha ivoved ryig

o ouch, via a mouse movig a cursor, dowward scro-

ig Xs (Experime 1), or ryig o expode he dowward

scroig Xs (Experime 2). Boh experimes varied (a)

proxima acio-reaed iormaio by eiher iroducig

or o iroducig turbuece io he mouse coros ad

(b) disa oucome-reaed iormaio such ha ouched Xs

expoded eiher 100 or 75 % o he ime. Boh variabes

aeced peopes judgmes o agecy (JOAs), bu he eec

was diere. Firs, he decreme i eeigs o agecy was

greaer wih he proxima variabe ha wih disa variabe.

Secod, whie he proxima variabe aways had a arge

direc eec o JOAs, eve akig judgmes o peror-

mace (JOPs) io accou, JOPs compeey accoued or

he eec o he disa variabe i Experime 1, where he

isrucios were jus o ouch he Xs. Ad eve i Experi-

me 2, i which he isrucios were o expode he Xs, he

direc eec o he disa variabe o JOAs was sma. these

daa idicae ha hese wo cues exhibi diere psycho-

ogica proes. the proxima acio-reaed iormaio is a

diagosic cue o agecy idicaig he mach bewee oes

ow ieios ad acios. Iera moiorig o ieios

is ecessary ad so he se is impicaed. However, disa

oucome ca be argey moiored usig iormaio exer-

a o he age, ad sowhie i is used by peope o make

agecy judgmesi is a o-diagosic cue.

J. Mecae (*) t. S. Eich

Deparme o Psychoogy, Coumbia Uiversiy,

new York, nY 10027, USA

e-mai: [email protected]

D. B. Miee

Uiversiy o Maryad, Coege Park, MD 20742, USA


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Meacogiio o agecy resuig rom proxima acio

moiorig

Srawso (2003), quoig Davidso cocerig arge-

scae bodiy acio, says: We ever do more ha move

our bodies; he res is up o aure. Ahough Davidso

(2001) oes ha acs are oe rerospecivey ideied

by heir coseques, each such ac ca aso be describedas he more basic acio ivoved i movig our bodies.

Wha he oucome is, he, accordig o his view, is up

to nature, o he mover. Ahough he oucome may be

irisic o he reaso or he acio i he rs pace, he

perso has ageic coro over he moveme aoe, ad

o he oucome. I his argume is correc ad appies o

peopes acua eeigs o agecy raher ha oy o wha

hey shoud ee, he peopes sese o agecy shoud

deped oy o heir coro o heir proxima acios

(i.e., heir moor movemes), wih disa oucome vari-

abes (i.e. cosequeces o heir acios) beig irreeva

excep isoar as hey are direcy reaed o moiorigmoveme.

there is ie debae ha our voiioa moor acios

are he resu o moor ieios ad pas ha exer co-

ro over our musces. this moveme sysem appears o be

srogy reaed o peopes eeigs o agecy. there is a

cosiderabe ieraure ivesigaig siuaios i which he

doers appare movemes ai o correspod wih wha

was ieded. I hese sudies, heahy paricipas geer-

ay experiece a ack o agecy ad may aribue coro

o eiher radom circumsace or o aoher age (e.g.,

Chamiade ad Decey 2002; Farrer ad Frih 2002; Farrer

e a. 2003; leube e a. 2003; Weger e a. 2004; Basev

e a. 2006; Decey ad lamm 2007; David e a. 2008;

Farrer e a. 2008; Haggard 2008; Haggard ad tsakiris

2009; Speger e a. 2009).

Forma modes o moor coro have had success i

accouig or peopes eeigs o agecy i reaio o

moor moveme. Woper ad coeagues (Woper 1997;

Mia ad Woper 1996; Woper e a. 1995), or exampe,

have proposed a brai-based ramework or moor coro

ha reaes i a aura way o peopes meacogiios

o agecy. this comparaor ramework was origiay

devised o expai how peope make e-graied correc-

ios o moor movemes. Accordig o he ramework,

whe peope have a goa (such as movig heir ger o

a paricuar spaia ocaio), hey geerae moor pas

based o heir ieios usig a iverse mode. they aso

geerae expeced cosequeces o he ieded acio

based o a copy o hese moor pas usig a orward

mode. Oce he moors pas are execued, a compara-

or mechaism evauaes he correspodece bewee he

acua ad prediced cosequeces o he acio. I here

is a mach, o moor adjusme is eeded (ad empora

bidig occurs, see, Haggard e a. 2002, as we as sig-

a aeuaio, see, Bakemore e a. 2000). I here is a

discrepacy, a siga is se o he moor sysem idica-

ig ha he moveme eeds o be adjused. noe ha his

mode depeds upo he perso havig a goa, bu he goa

is cocepuaized i erms o he proxima acio o he

disa oucome.

the compariso siga which fags wheher here wasor was o a discrepacy ca be used o iorm meacogi-

ive judgmes o agecy (JOAs) (Bakemore e a. 1999;

Bakemore ad Decey 2001). the discrepacy is used as

a cue idicaig ha somehig was iererig wih he

ieded acio: he perso was o i compee coro. For

exampe, i a earhquake occurred jus as he perso was

ryig o press he igh swich, he he persos expecaio

or his or her ow moor acios ad he resua moveme

ha occurred coud ai o mach. the discrepacy deeced

by he comparaor coud be ed io a coscious assessme

process, eadig o he perso cosciousy perceivig a ack

o smooh agecy.Simiary, Weger (2002) argues ha peope experi-

ece agecy whe a hough, which is cosise wih a

acio, appears i cosciousess prior o he acio ad

is o accompaied by oher cospicuous causes. this

view is compaibe wih resus showig ha primig o

he proxima goa ca ehace peopes eeigs o agecy

(see, e.g., Weger ad Wheaey 1999; Sao 2009; Weke

e a. 2010; Gesch ad Schuz-Bosbach 2011; Chambo

e a. 2012). Experimes ha have ivesigaed his

idea have ocused o proxima acio raher ha disa

oucomes.

Resus o severa ies o ivesigaio idicae ha he

coscious judgme o agecy is rerospecive o he acio

(see, e.g., Syozik e a. 2008). Fourere ad Jeaerod

(1998) showed ha peope ca correc heir acios wihou

expici kowedge o how hey did sosuggesig a dis-

sociaio bewee he moor correcio ad he coscious

kowedge. Kobich e a. (2004), oo, showed a dissocia-

io bewee he moor correcio process ad coscious

awareess o ha process. Miee e a. (2011) showed ha

whie he oie brai correaes o moveme discrepacy

were observed i he righ empora pariea jucio, here

was a separae rerospecive aerior roa correae ha

occurred whe peope were makig coscious JOAs. lau

e a. (2007) showed ha he judgme o ieio ca be

ierered wih by he appicaio o tMS afterhe moor

moveme is compeea dig ha is dicu o expai

uess he judgme process was rerospecive. these

resus a poi o he separaio o he oie processig

o he discrepacy ad is use i makig he rerospecive

JOA. Bu give ha JOAs are rerospecive, i is possibe

ha cues oher ha proxima acio-reaed iormaio

aec hem.


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Meacogiio o agecy resuig rom disa oucome

moiorig

I he rea word, acios have cosequeces. the igh goes

o whe he swich is pressed. lico died as a resu o

he rigger havig bee squeezed. theoriss ieresed i

se-ecacy, se-ume, ad we-beig aude o such

disa oucomes i reaio o agecy. this kid o agecyis hough o be cera o eecive ucioig ad mea

heah (Seigma 1975; Badura 1989, 1996, 2001; Deci

ad Rya 2000). By hese views, resposibiiy or ad

eeig o agecy over cosequeces is esseia. Bu whie

peope are abe o perceive diereces i oucome co-

igecies (Aoy ad Abramso 1979; Jekis ad Ward

1965), i is o cear wheher disa oucome variabes have

he same eec o peopes eeigs o agecy as do acors

aecig heir proxima coro o acios.

the rs quesio ivesigaed here is wheher disa ou-

comes gure a a io peopes JOAs: Ca hey be igored?

Ad, i o, how much uique variace i JOAs do heyaccou or whe coroig or judgmes o perormace

(JOPs) ad proxima acios? Raher ha aempig o

dee peopes meacogiio o agecy i a a priori ma-

er, his quesio is addressed empiricay by maipuaig

he probabiiy o a acio havig a paricuar eec ad

aso by maipuaig (across separae experimes) he goa

o he paricipas wih respec o ha eec. Perhaps peo-

pe assess heir ow agecy i erms o heir coro over

proxima acios aoe, ad disa oucomes do o maer.

As oed above, oe ca make a compeig argume ha

oucomes shoud o maer, sice hey proceed by aure

ad o by he persos ow direc eors. Bu ha does o

e us wheher oucomes coribue or do o coribue o

he idividuasperception o his or her ow agecy. I hey

do aec peopes JOAs, he i may be asked wheher prox-

ima acio variabes ad disa oucome variabes make he

same coribuio o JOAswih he eec o perceived

perormace acored ouor wheher oe is more domi-

a ha he oher. Fiay, we may ask wheher hese wo

poeia cues o agecy have he same or diere psycho-

ogica sigaures?

A procedure was used whereby paricipas moved a

mouse o ouch dowward aig Xs ad avoid dowward

aig Os, as i pas research (e.g., Mecae ad Greee

2007). Wihi his paradigm, a umber o proxima vari-

abes, such as he iroducio o urbuece io he mouse

coros, have bee sudied (e.g., Mecae e a. 2010). the

ew variabe iroduced here was a disa variabehe prob-

abiiy (75 vs. 100 %) o he Xs expodig whe ouched.

I he 75 % codiio, whe he Xs aied o expode, hey

jus coiued o heir rajecory as i ohig had happeed

(hough, o course, he paricipa coud see ha he cursor

had ouched he arge). the 75 % oucome codiio was

desiged o decrease he probabiiy o he arge expod-

ig o he same eve ha he iroducio o he paricuar

amou o urbuece i our experime decreased peror-

mace. the maipuaio o oucome aowed ivesigaio

o he impac o he disa variabe o peopes eeigs o

agecy, whie, so ar as possibe, hodig heir behavior co-

sa by makig i impossibe or hem o kow i advace

wheher he paricuar X hey were abou o ouch woudexpode or o, ad aso by equaig as cosey as possibe

he disa eec (o exposio o he Xs) o he eec o he

proxima variabe (urbuece) o perormace.

the proxima variabe (which was crossed wih he

disa variabe as par o a acoria desig) was he pres-

ece or absece o urbuece i he coro o he mouse.

We have esed he eec o his maipuaio o peopes

JOAs exesivey i previous experimes. Addig urbu-

ece resus i decremes i peopes JOAsa cosise

dig i a experimes ad popuaios esed (Mecae

ad Greee 2007; Mecae e a. 2010; Miee e a. 2011),

excep paies wih schizophreia (Mecae e a. 2012).Experime 1 ad 2 varied oy i he isrucios give

o paricipas. I Experime 1, paricipas were isruced

o ocus o he proxima acio o ouchig he Xs ad were

aso od ha he disa oucome did o maer. this rs

experime aowed ivesigaio o wheher peope ca

igore he (highy saie) disa oucome i i is o par o

heir expici goa. I Experime 2, paricipas were od

o expode he Xs, ad so boh he acio ad he oucome

were reeva. the coras o he wo experimeswhich

were oherwise aikeaows ivesigaio o wheher a

expici ocus o he disa goa chages is ifuece o

peopes assessmes o heir ow agecy.

Experiment 1

Experime 1 was desiged o examie wheher peope

coud igore he disa oucome i hey were give a specic

goa idicaig ha i was he moor moveme ha was

crucia, o he oucome o ha moveme. Accordigy,

paricipas were expiciy isruced ha hey shoud be

cocered oy wih ouchig he Xs, ad o wih makig

hem expode. I peope coud discou he disa oucome i

makig JOAs, he he expecaio was ha JOAs woud be

aeced oy by he proxima acio (turbuece) maipu-

aio ad ha he oucome variabe woud have o eec.

Mehods

Participants

the paricipas were 21 Coumbia Uiversiy ad Barard

Coege sudes who eiher received course credi or pay


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or paricipaig. Daa rom 4 paricipas were eimiaed

rom he aayses. three were o-aive speakers, ad he

ourh was a aive Egish speaker who misudersood

(or did o read) he isrucios. Over hese 4 paricipas,

Os were ouched a average o 11.14, 8.81, 9.33, ad 9.90

imes per ria, ad Xs were ouched oy 2.38, 2.33, 1.48,

ad 2.05 imes. noe o he oher 17 paricipas (7 M, 10 F

bewee he ages o 18 ad 28, mea age: 20.12) reversedhe Xs (he his) ad Os (he ase aarms). the procedures

described here coormed o he guideies o he APA co-

cerig he proecio o huma subjecs ad were approved

by he Coumbia Iera Review Board.

Apparatus

A experimes were coduced o iMac compuers, each

o which icuded a mouse ad mouse pad. Paricipas

were esed idividuay.

Instructions

the isrucios give o paricipas were:

throughou his experime you are goig o pay a

game i which you wi use a mouse o move a box e or

righ. Your job is o ouch a o he Xs as hey come io

rage ad o avoid ouchig ay o he Os.

O ha o he rias, every X you ouch wi pop ad

make a soud. O he oher ha o he rias, he Xs wi

pop ad make he soud oy 75 % o he ime. 25 % o he

ime ohig wi happe eve i you ouched he X.

the compuer kows, ad is keepig rack o, wheher

you have ouched each X, regardess o wheher i produces

a poppig respose o he ouch or o. Wheher you acu-

ay ouched or o is wha he compuer wi compue as

your perormace. We are ieresed i wheher you, aso,

kow wheher you ouched he Xs or o, regardess o

wheher i popped.

You wi be asked o make a judgme o perormace

aer each ria, as we as a judgme o coro. Pease

make your judgme o coro based o how much co-

ro you e you had. Bu whe you make he judgme o

perormace, pease make i based o how may Xs you

acuay ouched (ryig o approximae wha he compuer

wi say is your perormace) ad disregard wheher he Xs

popped or o.

Here is a pracice ria.

Program

the reader eeds o imagie a 4.5-ich verica ae o he

compuer scree coaiig radomy scaered whie Xs

ad Os scroig vericay dowward a a cosa rae,

ad he paricipa usig he mouse o move a gray box

(or cursor) horizoay aog a rack ha spas he widh o

he ae oward he boom o he scree. touchig a X wih

he gray box usuay resued i he X fashig red ad he

disappearig. the fash was accompaied by a sharp, bu

o upeasa, soud simiar o ha o a crysa wie gass

beig sruck. However, 25 % o he ime i he 75 % oucome

codiio, a ouched X woud simpy pass hrough he bar as

i i had o bee ouched. Wheever a ase aarm was com-mied (i.e., a O was ouched), a boop soud occurred. Pas

experimes wih a simiar program (Mecae ad Greee

2007) showed ha i made o dierece wheher he Xs or

Os were desigaed as his, ad so i his versio Xs were

aways he desigaed arge. Whe eiher a X or a O go

o he boom edge o he ae, or whe a disappeared arge

viruay go o he boom, he program redrew i a he op

o he scree, bu i a radom posiio (horizoay) raher

ha i he same posiio i had previousy occupied. Oce

redraw a he op, i e dowward a he same rae as he

oher scroig Xs ad Os. the program aso recorded he

moveme o he mouse ad he posiio o he oscreecursor abou every 3458 ms (51 ms o average).

I he no turbuece codiios, here was o discrep-

acy bewee he cursor posiio ad he mouse posiio.

I he turbuece codiios, pseudo radom oise (50 o

50 pixes) was added o he posiio o he cursor each ime

he compuer program updaed he games graphica dispay

(abou every 3458 ms; 51 ms o average). A smoohig

ucio was empoyed so ha he moveme o he cursor

did o appear oo jerky.

I he 100 % codiio, he Xs expoded whe ouched

100 % o he ime. I he 75 % codiio, he Xs did o

expode whe ouched or a radomy deermied 25 % o

he cases. A rias were eiher i he 100 ad 75 % codi-

io, so ha o a rias he Xs expoded mos o he ime.

Procedure

Paricipas praciced boh payig he game ad makig

judgmes. Durig he pracice ria o he game, which

ased or 15 s, he Xs ured red upo beig coaced

100 % o he ime ad seemed o expode ad he disap-

pear as soo as paricipas ouched hem. the exposio

was accompaied by a peasa soud, much ike a crys-

a wie gass beig sruck. I paricipas did o ouch a

Xs, i simpy coiued o scro dowward pas he cursor

rack. I a O was ouched (a ase aarm), a so bok soud

occurred. O each ria, here were 15 Os ad 20 Xs.

Aer he pracice ria, paricipas made a JOA (i.e., a

judgme o how i coro hey e), oowed by a JOP

(i.e., a judgme o how we hey hough hey had doe o

he ria). these judgmes were made by movig a brighy

coored idicaor bar o he desired poi aog a ceary

marked visua aaog scae. the scae was coiuous ad


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Exp Brai Res

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he paricipas coud move he idicaor o ay poi aog

i. this idicaor bar was bue or he perormace judg-

mes ad red or he agecy judgmes. the ar e o he

bar was coded i our daa as 0; he ar righ was coded as

100, wih vaues i bewee beig assiged a proporioa

vaue o a iear scae. the experimeer checked o be sure

ha he paricipas udersood how he scaes worked by

havig hem repor wha each judgme mea, boh dur-ig he pracice ria ad a he ed o he experime. Aer

he pracice ria, he experimeer asked i here were ay

quesios, ad i here were, aswered hem. Oce he par-

icipas armed ha hey were ready o begi, hey hi

he coiue buo ad we hrough 20 rias o he game

(15 s each), whie makig JOAs ad JOPs aer each ria.

A he ed o he experime, paricipas were quesioed

abou wha hey had doe, debrieed, give credi or pay,

ad haked.

Design

the experime was a 2 2 acoria wihi-paricipas

desig. the proxima variabe was caed turbuece. I he

turbuece codiios, a radom discrepacy (described i

more deai beow) was iroduced bewee he paricipas

mouse movemes ad he moveme o he cursor o he

scree. I he no turbuece codiios, o discrepacy

was iroduced. the disa variabe was caed Oucome

(eiher 100 or 75 %). I he 100 % codiios, ouchig a X

produced a exposio 100 % o he ime. I he 75 % co-

diios, ouchig a X produced a exposio oy 75 %

o he ime. there were 5 rias i each o he 4 codiios.

these rias were bocked i a quasi-radom maer, such

ha a 4 codiios occurred beore he ex bock bega.

For mos aayses, daa rom he 5 rias i each o he 4 co-

diios were coapsed. the codiio i which here was no

turbuece ad he Xs expoded 100 % o he ime served

as a coro codiio (because paricipas were expeced

o repor maxima agecy uder hese circumsaces). I

was he same as a codiio used o assess he eecs o

agecy maipuaios i pas experimes.

the mos impora depede variabe was judgme o

agecy (JOA): How i coro did peope hik hey were?

Peopes judgmes o perormace (JOPs) were aso aa-

yzed: How we did hey hik hey perormed o he ask?We aso compued hi rae (as a measure o acua peror-

mace) ad expode rae (which, i he wo 75 % codi-

ios, diered rom hi rae). Sice pas research has show

ha ase aarm rae has ie eec o eiher judgmes

o agecy or perormace i his paradigm (see Mecae

ad Greee 2007), i is o repored. Fiay, he amou o

mouse moio o each ria was recorded, as was he posi-

io o he cursor a each ~3458 ms ierva (51 ms o

average) durig a rias. these variabes are o repored

here i deai, hough horizoa mouse moio is icuded

i he regressio aayses described beow.

Resus

Eec sizes are give as paria ea squared, which wi

be desigaed E, i he resus ha oow. A eecs ha

reachedp < .05 are repored. AnOVAs are based o meas

ha were compued by averagig across a ve rias i

each o he our codiios, or each paricipa.

Hit rate

the mai eec o turbuece was sigica, F(1,16) =

131.53, MSE = 55.19,p < .001,E= .89, such ha hi rae

was higher wih o urbuece ha wih urbuece. neiher

he eec o Oucome, or he ieracio bewee Oucome

ad turbuece was sigica. these resus are preseed

i he e pae o Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Hi rae or Experime 1 ad 2. A hi was credied i he

paricipa ouched he X, regardess o wheher i expoded or o.

noe ha he oy dierece bewee he experimes was ha i

Experime 1: touch, paricipas were od ha heir goa was o

ouch he Xs ad avoid he Os, ad ha i did o maer wheher

he Xs expoded or o, whereas i Experime 2: Expode,

paricipas were od ha hey shoud expode he Xs. I he 75 %

oucome codiio, he Xs expoded oy 75 % o he ime, whereas

i he 100 % oucome codiios, hey aways expoded whe

ouched


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1 3

Explode rate

Figure 2, e pae, shows he raes a which he Xs

expoded. there was a mai eec o turbuece, such ha

he expode rae was higher i he codiios wih no tur-

buece ha turbuece, F(1,16) = 102.99, MSE = 52.01,

p < .0001,E= .87. there was aso, o course, a mai eec o

Oucome such ha he expode rae was higher i he 100 %as compared o he 75 % codiios, F(1,16) = 292.18,

MSE = 24.07, p < .0001, E= .95. there was a ierac-

io bewee turbuece ad Oucome, F(1,16) = 6.35,

MSE = 48.99, p= .023, E= .28. the wo codiios i

which perormace was decremeed by diere meas

turbuece 100 % ad no turbuece 75 %were com-

pared. there was o dierece i expode rae bewee

hese wo codiios, t(16) = 1.35,p= .19, .s.

Judgments of agency

As is show i Fig. 3, e pae, here was a mai eec oturbuece, F(1, 16) = 114.39, MSE = 213.19,p < .0001,

E= .88, o peopes JOAs. the eec o his proxima

variabe o JOAs has bee oud may imes beore ad

was usurprisig. More imporay i he prese coex,

eve hough peope were od o igore he cosequeces o

heir acios, here was aso a sigica mai eec o he

disa variabe, Oucome, F(1,16) = 19.51, MSE = 36.29,

p < .0001,E= .55. Peope e more ageic i he 100 %

ha he 75 % codiios. there was o ieracio bewee

turbuece ad Oucome. the ac ha here was a mai

eec o Oucome idicaes ha despie he eaborae

isrucios eig peope ha oy touching he Xs ma-ered ad ha i did o maer wheher hey expoded or o,

peope were uabe o igore he disa variabe.

JOAs were compared i he no turbuece-75 % codi-

io ad he turbuece-100 % codiiocodiios wih

equivae perormace. the JOAs were much higher i he

no turbuece-75 % codiio (69.74) ha i he turbu-

ece-100 % codiio (38.32), t(16) = 8.48,p < .0001.

Judgments of performance

JOPs are show i he e pae o Fig. 4. Uike he pa-

er show i Fig. 1 or he hi rae, he JOPs ook ioaccou wheher or o he X expodedhe disa variabe.

I addiio o a mai eec o turbuece, F(1,16)= 94.81,

MSE = 125.58, p < .0001, E = .86, here was aso a

mai eec o Oucome, F(1,16) = 21.75, MSE = 49.67,

Fig. 2 Expode rae was credied oy i he ouched X expoded, or Experimes 1 ad 2

Fig. 3 Judgme o agecy (JOA) or Experime 1 ad Experime 2 give as a proporio rom 0 o 1


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1 3

p < .0001,E= .58, ad a ieracio bewee turbuece

ad Oucome, F(1,16) = 5.29, MSE = 34.53, p= .035,

E= .25.

Regression analysis

Fiay, o examie he poeia acors ha impaced JOAs,

we submied each paricipas judgmes o a separae

wihi-paricipa regressio aaysis i which JOPs, tur-

buece, Oucome, he turbuece Oucome ieracio,

ad oa Moveme (i.e., he umber o pixes ha he par-

icipa moved he mouse o he e or o he righ o each

ria) served as simuaeous predicors. JOPs ad Move-

me were icuded so ha we coud esimae eecs o tur-

buece ad Oucome ha coud o be expaied i erms

o perceived perormace or mouse moio. turbuece

ad Oucome were coras-coded, wih .5 idicaig u

agecy (i.e., a absece o urbuece or a 100 % exposio

rae) ad .5 idicaig decis i agecy (i.e., he presece

o urbuece or a 75 % exposio rae). Aer coducig

he wihi-paricipa regressio aayses, we submied he

resuig bea coecies o a series o oe-sampe t-ess

(see lorch ad Myers 1990). As show i Fig. 5, e pae,

he eecs o JOP, b*mea= .58, t(16) = 10.58, p < .001,

ad turbuece, b*mea=.41, t(16) = 7.23,p < .001, were

sigicay diere rom zero, whereas he eecs o

Oucome, b*mea=.01, t(16) = .43, p= .67, he turbu-

ece Oucome ieracio, b*mea=.03, t(16) = 1.36,

p= .19, ad Moveme, b*mea= .02, t(16) = .61,p= .55,

were o diere rom zero.

Discussio

Experime 1 idicaed ha peope coud o igore he

disa variabe i makig heir JOAs, eve whe he saed

isrucios idicaed ha exposio oucomes were irre-

eva. However, he eec o he disa variabe o JOAs was

sma, ad i appeared o be mediaed eirey by he eec

ha i had o peopes JOPs. the regressio aayses idi-

caed ha he chage i JOAs associaed wih he Oucome

variabe was ikey due o chage i JOPs. JOPs hemseves

have bee show here, ad i pas research (Mecae e a.

2012) o ifuece JOAs direcy. Ahough he direcio o

causaiy cao be deiivey ierred rom his aayses,

Fig. 4 Judgme o perormace (JOP) or Experime 1 ad Experime 2 give as a proporio rom 0 o 1

Fig. 5 Mea beas or each predicor icuded i he wihi-paricipa regressio aayses or Experime 1 ad Experime 2


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Exp Brai Res

1 3

i is pausibe ha he highy saie exposio o he Xs

resued i perceived perormace diereces bewee he

100 ad 75 % codiios. Peope may have hough, a eas

some o he ime, ha hey had o ouched he Xs ha e

hrough wihou expodig. I is ikey ha i was hese per-

ceived perormace diereces, i he oucome codiios,

ha aeced paricipas JOAs, raher ha he disa vari-

abe havig a direc eec o JOAs.

Experiment 2

Ahough he compuer program i Experime 2 was ide-

ica o he program i Experime 1, he objecive give

o he paricipa was o jus o ouch he arge Xs, bu

raher, o expode hem. Because he isrucios shoud

have made he disa oucome maipuaio more saie o

paricipas, we expeced a more direc eec o disa ou-

come o JOAs. Isoar as he eec o he 75 % codiio

o expode rae was o abou he same magiude as ha ohe turbuece codiio o expode rae, i Experime 1,

we were i posiio o evauae heir reaive coribuio.

Mehods

Participants

the paricipas were 23 Coumbia Uiversiy or Barard

Coege udergraduaes, a o whom were aive Egish

speakers, who paricipaed eiher or pay or or course credi.

two paricipas were ru bu eimiaed, as recommeded

by he experimeer who ra hem, beore ookig a heir

daa. Oe was eimiaed because he od he experimeer

ha he had auomaicay ad ieioay used he idei-

ca raig or he JOA ad JOP o each ria. the secod

was eimiaed because she said she had missed a compee

ria because she had bee disraced. the mea age o he

remaiig 21 paricipas was 22.93, ad 6 were mae, 10

emae, ad 5 did o aswer he geder quesio.

Apparatus, program, procedure, and design

these were ideica o Experime 1.

Instructions

Paricipas, a he ouse o he experime, read he o-

owig isrucios: throughou his experime, you are

goig o pay a game i which you wi use he compuer

mouse o move a box e or righ. Your job is o ouch he

Xs o expode hem as hey come i rage ad o avoid

ouchig ay o he Os. A he ed o each 15 s o payig

his game, you be asked o make a judgme o how i

coro you e durig he pas 15 s o pay, ad a secod

judgme o how good your perormace was. the, you

go o o he ex ria.

Resus

Hit rate

As is show i Fig. 1, righ pae, here was a mai eec

o turbuece such ha hi rae was higher i he no tur-

buece codiios ha i he turbuece codiios,

F(1, 20)= 207.92, MSE = 48.49,p < .0001,E= .912. the

probabiiy o ouchig a X was sighy, bu sigicay,

beer i he 100 % codiios ha i he 75 % codiios,

F(1, 20) = 5.88, MSE = 32.12, p= .025, E= .23. this

eec, whie sma, was uexpeced because he paricipas

coud o have kow i advace wheher ay paricuar X

woud expode or o.

Explode rate

As ca be see rom Fig. 2, righ pae, he expode rae was

greaer i he no turbuece as compared o he turbuece

codiios, F(1, 20) = 160.72, MSE = 38.29, p < .0001,

E= .89. I was aso greaer i he 100 % codiios ha

i he 75 % codiios, F(1, 20) = 543.55, MSE = 30.08,

p < .0001,E= .97. there was aso a ieracio bewee

turbuece ad Oucome, F(1, 20) = 31.29, MSE = 20.68,

p < .0001, E= .61. A aemp had bee made o equae

he expode rae i he no turbuece-75 %, ad he turbu-

ece-100 % codiios, ha is o equae he perormace

decremes wih hese diere ways o impairig peror-

mace. there was a dierece bewee hese wo, however.

the expode rae was higher i he turbuece-100 % codi-

io (.63) ha i he no turbuece-75 % codiio (.52),

t(20) = 5.72,p < .0001.

Judgments of agency

As is show i Fig. 3, righ pae, here was a mai eec o

turbuece, F(1, 20) = 128.56, MSE = 214.19,p < .0001,

E= .87, such ha JOAs were higher i he no turbuece

ha he turbuece codiios. there was a mai eec

o Oucome, F(1, 20) = 38.18, MSE = 73.77, p < .001,

E= .66, such ha JOAs were higher i he 100 % codi-

ios ha i he 75 % codiios. there was aso a ier-

acio bewee turbuece ad Oucome, F(1,20) = 6.16.

MSE= 46.31,p= .02,E= .24, as show i he gure.

to ivesigae wheher turbuece or Oucome impaced

more o peopes assessmes o agecy, JOAs i he no

turbuece-75 % codiio were compared o hose i he

turbuece-100 % codiio. Ahough he expode rae was

higheri he turbuece-100 % codiio (.63) ha i he


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Exp Brai Res

1 3

no turbuece-75 % codiio (.52) (despie our eors o

equae hem), peopes JOAs were sigicay loweri he

turbuece-100 % codiio (36.66) ha i he no turbu-

ece-75 % codiio (61.29), t(20) = 7.11,p < .0001.


As is show i Fig. 4, righ pae, here was a mai eeco turbuece o JOPs, F(1,20) = 114.48, MSE = 101.03,

p < .001,E= .85. there was aso a mai eec o Oucome,

F(1,20) = 50.96, MSE = 47.82,p < .0001,E= .72, ad o

ieracio.

Regression analysis

We agai submied each paricipas judgmes o a separae

wihi-paricipa regressio aaysis. As show i Fig. 5,

righ pae, he eecs o JOP, b*mea= .53, t(16) = 9.88,

p < .001, turbuece, b*mea=.41, t(16) = 6.79,p < .001,

Oucome, b*mea=.11, t(16) = 4.05, p= .001, he tur-buece Oucome ieracio, b*mea= .05, t(16) = 2.12,

p= .05, ad Moveme, b*mea=.04, t(16)= 2.23,p= .04,

were a sigicay diere rom zero. thus, i coras

o he previous experime, he Oucome maipuaio

had a sma bu sigica eec o paricipas JOAs.

Imporay, hough, his eec was subsaiay smaer

(ess egaive) ha he eec o Oucome, t(16) = 4.16,

p < .001.

Discussio

the oucome variabe had a sigica eec o peopes

JOAs whe hey were assessed i he mos sraighorward

wayby askig peope how i coro hey e. How-

ever, eve wih his simpe evauaio o meacogiio o

agecy, he disa variabe had a smaer eec o peopes

JOAs ha did he proxima variabe. Furhermore, ahough

simpe JOAs were aeced by he oucome variabe, whe

a regressio aaysis was coduced, he direc eec o he

Oucome variabe was surprisigy sma: turbuece had a

much arger eec ha Oucome o JOAs.

Compariso o Experime 1 ad Experime 2

Because he oy dierece bewee he wo experimes

was i he paricuar paricipas icuded (rom he same

sude popuaio) ad he isrucios give o hem abou

wheher heir goa was o ouch he Xs or o expode hem,

i was decided o compare he wo experimes direcy.

to his ed, we coduced a ew se o AnOVAs wih

paricipas rom boh sudies ha icuded Experime

(1 vs. 2) as a added acor. As such, we were ieresed i

he wo- ad hree-way ieracios bewee he proxima

acor, he disa acor, ad he experime versio. the

direc coras bewee experimes aows us o ivesi-

gae wheher cerai paers were more proouced whe

he objecive was o expode he Xs compared o whe

he objecive was jus o ouch hem. Because paricipas

were o radomy assiged o oe experime versus he

oher, he resus o hese aayses shoud be eaivey

ierpreed.

Hit rate

Boh he mai eecs o turbuece ad o Oucome ha

had bee sigica i he separae experimes were, o

course, sigica (F(36)= 330.87, MSE= 51.47,p < .001,

E= .90 ad F(36)= 7.51, MSE= 26.49,p= .009,E= .17,

respecivey). there was o mai eec o Experime o

hi rae, or were here ay ieracios ivovig Experi-

me (a Fs < 1).

Explode rate

the mai eecs o turbuece ad Oucome were sig-

ica i he joi daa, as expeced (F(36) = 257.34,

MSE = 44.39, p < .001, E= .88 ad F(36) = 797.72,

MSE= 27.41,p < .001,E= .96, respecivey). there was a

mai eec o Experime, F(1,36)= 5.97, MSE= 147.13,

p= .02,E= .14, ha was quaied by a ieracio bewee

Experime ad Oucome, F(1,36) = 19.61, MSE = 27.41,

p < .0001, E= .35. A dierece i he Expode rae was

oud i boh o he 75 % Oucome codiios (turbuece

ad no turbuece) ha was sighy ower i Experi-

me 2 ha i Experime 1 (t(36) = 2.78, p= .009 ad

t(36) = 4.33,p < .001, respecivey).

Judgments of agency

Agai, as expeced, he mai eecs o turbuece,

F(1,36) = 241.25, MSE = 213.75, p < .0001, E= .87,

ad Oucome, F(1,36) = 53.50, MSE = 57.11,p < .0001,

E = .59, were sigica i he combied aaysis, as

was he ieracio bewee turbuece ad Oucome,

F(1,36)= 6.63, MSE= 40.79,p= .01,E= .16). the mai

eec o Experime was o sigica, F(1,36) = 1.25,

p= .27.

Oucome ieraced wih Experime, such ha here

were arger decreases i JOAs i he 75 % codiios

whe he isrucios had bee o expode he Xs (i

Experime 2) ha whe he isrucios were o sim-

py ouch he Xs (i Experime 1), F(1,36) = 4.33,

MSE = 57.11, p= .045,E= .11. thus, he isrucios

o eiher jus ouch or o expode he Xs maered o

exacy he maipuaio (oucome) ha was argeed by

he isrucios.


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Exp Brai Res

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the mai eecs o turbuece ad o Oucome were sigi-

ca i he joi aaysis (F(1,36)= 209.25, MSE= 111.94,

p < .001, E= .85 ad F(1,36) = 67.85, MSE = 48.64,

p < .001, E= .65 respecivey), as was he ieracio

bewee turbuece ad Oucome, F(1,36) = 322.42,

MSE= 48.71,p= .01,E= .16. there was o mai eec oExperime; however, uike wih JOAs, oe o he ier-

acios ivovig Experime were sigica (a Fs < 1).

thus, whie he eec o Oucome o JOAs was greaer i

Experime 2 (whe he goa was o expode) ha i Exper-

ime 1 (whe he goa was jus o ouch), Oucome had he

same eec o JOPs i he wo experimes.

Regression analysis

to deermie wheher he eecs o JOPs, turbuece,

Oucome, he turbueceOucome ieracio, ad Move-

me diered bewee experimes, we submied hecorrespodig beas o a series o idepede-sampes

t-ess. the resus showed o dierece i he eec o

JOPs, t(36) = .61, p= .54, or turbuece, t(36) = .05,

p= .96, bewee experimes. However, here was sigi-

ca dierece or Oucome, t(36) = 2.35,p= .03, ad he

turbueceOucome ieracio, t(36)= 2.43,p= .02, as

we as a margia dierece or Moveme, t(36) = 1.72,

p= .10.

Conclusion

the resus o hese experimes idicae ha he oucome o

a ac has a impac o peopes JOAs. I paricuar, whe

he osesibe goa was o expode he Xs ad someimes

hose Xs aied o expode (as i Experime 2), peope

said ha hey e ess i coro ha whe he Xs aways

expoded. this decreme i eeigs o agecy was aso

observed whe he objecive was oy o ouch he Xs (as

i Experime 1), hough o a esser exe. Bu ahough he

disa oucome variabe did aec JOAs, is eecs were dis-

sociabe rom hose he proxima acio variabe ifuecig

moor coro. Firs, he disa variabe had a much smaer

eec o peopes JOA ha did he proxima variabe. Bu,

more imporay, whe he eec o peopes perceived per-

ormace was acored ou, he proxima variabe si had

a arge eec o peopes meacogiio o agecy, whie

he disa variabe had oy a sma eec, i Experime 2,

ad o eec, i Experime 1. thus, ahough simpe JOAs

were aeced by he disa oucome, his eec appears o

have argey bee mediaed by decreases i perceived per-

ormace ha resued rom he Xs aiig o expode whe

ouched. Whe he disa oucome was o he goa, is

eec o agecy appeared o be eirey mediaed hrough

is eec o perceived perormace. Presumaby, he expo-

sio o he Xs made i easier or he perso o reaize ha

hey had ouched he Xsheir proxima goa. Oy whe

heir goa was expiciy coeced o he disa maipua-

io, ha is, whe he saed goa was o expode he Xs, did

he disa maipuaio direcy aec JOAs. Ad eve he,

he eec was sma.these resus provide suppor or he idea ha disic-

ivey diere cues coribue o peopes JOAs. Some o

hese cues are diagosic o peopes rea coro over heir

movemes ad idicae i a veridica way ha hey are he

doer o heir deeds. Ohers are o-diagosic o heir ow

causa roe as he acor (Mecae i press).

Oe o he diagosic cues ha has requey bee oud

o have a eec o agecy is he discrepacy bewee he

persos ieded ad acua moor movemes. the use

o his discrepacy has bee described by he comparaor

mode ad has much suppor i he ieraure. the proxima

variabe i he prese experimes (i.e., turbuece) pickedup o his cue. there is ie o o discrepacy i he no

turbuece codiios, whereas here is presumaby a arge

discrepacy i he turbuece codiiosa discrepacy

associaed wih righ emporopariea jucio acivaio i

a MRI sudy coduced usig his paradigm (Miee e a.

2011). Cosise wih our pas research, peope used urbu-

ece cues i he prese experime o make JOAs. Furher-

more, urbuece cues are diagosic because uder orma

circumsaces he cocordace bewee oes ow iera

ieio ad oes ow moiored exera acs is highy

predicive o wheher he se was he source o he acio.

noaby, oo, paies wih schizophreia aied o use such

proxima cues i a previous experime usig his paradigm

(see Mecae e a. 2012, ad see Syozik e a. 2010 or

a simiar cocusio)hey showed amos o idicaio

ha urbuece disruped heir sese o agecy (as evauaed

by regressios simiar o hose repored here).

the paies, however, were o radom i heir JOAs.

Wha hey used was heir percepio o perormacehe

same variabe ha appears o uderie much o peopes

resposes o he Oucome variabe i he prese experi-

mes. Regressio aayses o he poeia cues ha co-

ribue o peopes sese o agecy i he schizophreia

sudy idicaed ha percepio o perormace was used

boh by peope wih schizophreia ad by heahy coros.

I is jus ha schizophreics used only his source o ior-

maio, whereas heahy coros aso used proxima acio-

reeva iormaio.

Cosise wih pas resus, he digs preseed here

aso impicae JOPs as beig cera o peopes JOAs.

Ahough peope udoubedy ee ou o coro whe a

oucome is o as good as hey expeced or (as he secod

experime preseed here shows) whe a oucome is o


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Exp Brai Res

1 3

highy coige o heir behavior, perormace is o a

cue ha uiquey species he idividua as he source o

he acio. I he erm agecy is ake o idicae he exe

o which he idividua is resposibe or wha happeed,

or he exe o which he se was impicaed, perceived

perormace is moo wih respec o his resposibiiy. I

is o ecessary or he perso o ake ay acio a a o

be abe o assess perormace. Ideed, someoe ese coudhave bee payig he game ad he perormace assess-

me coud si be accurae. Simiary, whie i was eces-

sary i he prese experimes or he Xs o be ouched i

order or exposios o occur, he persos successu acio

o ouchig did o esure a exposio.

I cocusio, hese resus idicae ha he chage i

JOAs due o oucome variabes is psychoogicay dissocia-

be rom he chage due o discrepacy deecio. Proxima

variabes such as urbuece, ha are associaed wih basic

acios, appear o aec our meacogiio o agecy o a

greaer exe ad i more direc ways ha disa variabes

ha are associaed wih he cosequeces o our acio ihe word, hough we experiece a oss o coro i boh

cases. Give ha a behaviora dissociaio exiss, i woud

be ieresig o ivesigae eura diereces i paies

suspeced o reacig diereiay o hese wo compo-

es, ad by ivesigaig wha shoud purporedy be

diere brai acivaio paers (see, e.g., tricomi e a.

2004) evoked by hese disic cues o agecy.

Acknowledgments We woud ike o hak Parick Keedy, Kare

Key, Greg Jese, Rache Burris, ad he members o Meaab, or

ivey discussios ad or hep i coducig ad programmig hese

experimes.

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