2011 loi brizzi georghiu new

8/3/2019 2011 Loi Brizzi Georghiu New

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New approaches to the experimentation on the impact of lithic

projectiles points

Cinzia Loi (*), Vittorio Brizzi (**)

(*) Dipartimento di Storia, Universit di Sassari

(**) Dipartimento di Biologia ed Evoluzione, Universit di Ferrara - Palaeoworking

Abstract

Traditional ballistic experiments, able to verify the macroscopic and microscopic results of

impact on lithic projectile points for comparison with the archaeological record, have been

carried out using carcasses or substitute targets placed at a variable distances, from 10 to 20metres. According to the authors, this practice has limitations. First, the effects of short-

range impacts have not yet been taken into consideration. In this case, the effect of

vibrational mechanics on impact generates transversal macro fractures that are generally

considered incidental in the literature. Second, modifications occurring immediately after

impact on a live target resulting from the wounded animal escaping, from transportation of

the carcass by hunters and from removal of the projectile from the animal have not been

considered.

The adopted experimental protocols have never been completely accepted and some basic

elements, such as criteria defining a firm bond between the projectile shaft and the armour,

have never been agreed.

A sample of archaeological remains found at the Neolithic site of Monte Santa Vittoria

(Mount Santa Vittoria), in Neoneli, has allowed the authors to investigate how macroscopic

diagnostic indexes on projectile points that are considered valid in the literature may be

integrated with those resulting from the application of the protocols mentioned above.

Keywords

Use-wear analysis, experimental archaeology, terminal ballistic, bow and arrow, impact

diagnostics, lithic projectile point

________________________________________


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(*) Department of History, University of Sassari

(**) Department of Biology and evolution, University of Ferrara, Paleoworking

Introduction

Experimental ballistics relating to the prehistoric period is carried out through the

simulation of hunting, specifically the moment of impact between projectile and prey, so as

to carry out comparative analyses with the archaeological record.

Fracture patterns on lithic artefacts have long been the subject of experimental and

theoretical studies. They have proved very useful in interpreting functional tools from an

archaeological, technological and behavioural point of view, with reference to their

production, use and abandonment (Ahler 1979, 1989, 1992; Callahan 1979; Dockall 1997).

Later, with the introduction of use-wear analysis, a significant frame of reference began to

be defined. It allowed damage on tips and margins to be examined by comparison of the

archaeological artefact and a specially replicated piece subjected to abrasion wear and

fatigue. Developed in Russia, thanks to Semenov (1964), this technique has been applied to

a vast collection of lithic material (Odell 1977; Keeley 1980; Vaughan 1985). Blind tests

carried out subsequently have provided excellent results (Keeley and Newcomer 1977;

Odell and Odell-Vereecken 1981).

Fundamental to this process is the investigation of functional aspects, in addition to the

morphological/cultural class. The typology of the artefact must be defined and its

membership in a use-category classified in function of wear traces. Experimental work

specifically devoted to impacts was developed mainly during the years after Semenov. Use-

wear traces on projectile tips are basically of two kinds: traces of abrasion and of fatigue.

Both are diagnostic of fracture mechanics of solid homogeneous structures under static or

dynamic loading (Cotterell, Kamminga and Dickson 1985).

The first (abrasion) refers to deformation of the surface of the object due to polishing,

flattening or blistering but does not correspond to a change in the macroscopic physical

shape of the artefact (Buckley 1981: 469-71). The second (fatigue) represents an actual

break, visible to the naked eye, which occurs when the mechanical strength of the material

which forms the artefact is overcome by impact force. These fractures are divided into


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longitudinal, lateral and distal transverse processes (snap fractures), crushing, step fractures

and spin-off fractures.

The traces, whether of abrasion or fatigue, are often associated and are observed in various

combinations dependent on how the tool is used, the consistency of the material and its

mechanical properties, the type of stress and its duration. In this work, we refer only to

fatigue traces.

From a morphological point of view, fatigue traces are divided into longitudinal, lateral

(burination), basal and transverse processes, while, in mechanical terms, these are classified

according to initiation and termination (cone fracture and bending fracture) (Figure1).

If the classification of macro-fracture impact summarised here (Figure 1), adopted by the

Ho Ho Committee (Ho Ho Nomenclature Committee 1979), is almost universally accepted

by scholars, in spite of the debate opened by Keeley (1980), Odell (1986), Vaughan (1985),

Newcomer, Grace and Unger-Hamilton (1987), a unique experimental protocol is still

lacking.

Figure1


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Impact experimentations as described in the literature

The following summary (which brings together, chronologically, major documented

experiments) describes briefly the objectives, the number of projectile points and the kinds

of target used. It does not distinguish between experiments with lithic and organic points,

as the critical issues of the experimental protocol are generally the same.

Laboratory' experimentation should always simulate real situations in a controlled and

track-able manner. Analysing the methods used by each of these scholars, it appears that

artificial targets (seldom described in detail) and carcasses in various states of preservation

have been used in different ways and at different distances, as opposed to what is advised

above on protocol standardisation. In this summary, only Flenniken (1985) shoots obsidian

points (11) into live wild goats.

Tyzzer (1936), who was probably the first to experiment with different types of hafting and

various fastening systems, investigated the pattern of macroscopic fracture on nine cattle

bone tips shot with a bow into wood and soft soil. Ahler (1971), in trying to understand the

relationship between formal types and their associated function, carried out a small number

of tests on the impact of spears on the ground, while Van Buren (1974) used the ground,

grass and wood to test the penetration and precision of 270 spears armed with lithic tips.

Arnt and Newcomer (1982) experimented with 20 points of organic material shot with a

bow at fresh carcasses of sheep and simulated targets; Barton and Bergman (1982)

compared the impact damage of 17 Mesolithic tips on a deer carcass in an attempt to

identify differences between geometric microliths hafted solely with mastic, only with

binders and with both binders and mastics. Bergman and Newcomer (1983) studied the

fracture pattern of 26 lithic tips mounted on arrows resulting from impact on a simulated

carcass. Guthrie (1983) performed a comparative test between deer antler points and other

organic materials using 50 arrows shot from a compound bow at a moose carcass; Fischer,

Vemming Hansen and Rasmussen (1984) were the first to verify, both at a macroscopic and

microscopic level, the wear traces of 153 lithic points impacting on simulated carcasses,

fresh carcasses of wild boar, woven grass, fish, branches and tree trunks.

Flenniken (1985) studied the relationship between the fracture pattern and morphological

changes after the first use and recovery of 11 obsidian points on living wild goats while


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Flenniken and Raymond (1986) continued with the same objective using 30 obsidian

points, hafted as arrows, on trees, soft soil and undergrowth. Using a bow and spear-

thrower, Odell and Cowan (1986) released 80 projectile point (spears and arrows) on a

fresh dog carcass to verify the impact of different formal point types. Titmus and Wood

(1986) used sand, soft soil, bark and wood to study the relationship between different

techniques and wear traces on 34 obsidian points attached to spears. Woods (1988) used

sandy soil, gravel, bark and wood to investigate the relationship of form and function of

different obsidian points hafted on spears. Cox and Smith (1989) compared the fracture

patterns on impact of 21 knife blades and arrows on a fresh carcass of white-tailed deer.

Frison (1989) carried out a study of the impact of 7 Clovis points hafted on spears on an

elephant carcass. Stodiek (1990) investigated the effect that impact on deer carcasses had

on joint interfaces between shafts and 22 bone and antler points. Towner and Warburton

(1990) explored differences in wear traces between production and impact using obsidian

points hafted on spears on seasoned wood. Shea (1988, 1993) compared experimental

traces of use resulting from impact on carcasses of cows, horses, white-tailed deer, gazelle

and goat with archaeological evidence comprising more than 100 triangular points of

Middle Palaeolithic/Mousterian date. Cattelain and Perpre (1993) attempted to distinguish

between injuries resulting from the impact of armed points hafted on arrows and spears,

directing 100 shots against goat carcasses.

Chadelle, Geneste and Plisson (1991, 1993), in two sessions, used a bow and crossbow

(calibrated to simulate the kinetic energy of a spear-thrower) to compare fractures on more

than 400 lithic points resulting from impact on goat carcasses as a function of their size and

kinetic energy. Pokines (1993) studied 20 organic tips to observe the patterns of impact

indicators on a goat carcass. Knecht (1991, 1993a, 1993b) used 23 bone and antler points

hafted on spears in repeated shots at fresh goat carcasses arranged in correct anatomical

order, studying the morphology of the impacts of rejuvenated points, which allowed him to

identify the necessary parameters (the minimum quantity of energy to penetrate the skin of

a goat) to standardise testing; he then investigated the types of fracture on different areas of

impact (abdomen, vertebrae, ribs, pelvis, skull and jaw). Callahan (1994), in order to study

the properties of the system of fixing shaft and point, shot 32 points hafted on spears and

javelins at an elephant carcass. Finally, Knecht, in 1995, with a sample of 90 bone points,

released 302 shots at a cow carcass, maintaining the standards established during his 1993

experiment; however, the results have not yet been fully published (Knecht 1997).


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Experimentation process: material and procedural variables

If neglected, the material and procedural factors mentioned can invalidate the experimental

process (Figure 2). First, they concern reconstruction of the weapon system, i.e. bow-and-

arrow or spear-thrower and dart (a reverse engineering procedure), that determines the

impact dynamic. Neglecting at the early stages the variables resulting from the choice of

one weapon system rather than another can lead to a wrong or useless data-collection (Kooi

and Bergman 1997, Brizzi 2005).

The difference is evident in the macroscopic and microscopic impact and post-impact

effects on the projectile tip and on animal tissue of shooting at carcasses rather than live

game. The effect is influenced by dynamic parameters; for example, the motion of the prey

could be of the same magnitude as that of the projectile. More critical is the post-impact

phase, in which the projectile continues to act within the body cavity through the movement

of the prey (the shock of the arrow striking natural obstacles) (Odell and Cowan 1986:

202). The presence of the projectile or any part of it in the wound immediately after impact

creates more complex wear traces on the projectile surface than those found during

repeated shots on inanimate carcasses. Also, in the post-mortem recovery phase, the action

of transporting the carcass, combined with possible attempts by the hunter to remove the

arrow from the body, produce fatigue and abrasion traces on the point that are quite

different from those resulting from the linear motion of a projectile striking a target. Such

variation could, in many cases, affect the validity of an experiment, when fractures

generated experimentally are compared with those evident in the archaeological record.

The choice of distance from which to shoot is also a fundamental factor due to differences

in the mode of impact, point fatigue and test target characterisation. Another limitation of

ballistic testing concerns the lack of data from shots carried out over short and very short

distances, a situation likely in hunting, where the hunter releases the arrow against prey

driven by, for example, a dog or another human. Under these conditions, the dynamic

components of the arrow (vibration mode) change considerably the forces acting on the

projectile point at impact. The resulting wear traces are likely to significantly complicate

the resulting pattern. Also, shooting at short range (d


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traces on impact points resulting from forces generated in this particular phase of the

trajectory (initial acceleration). The impact over short distances is very different, from a

dynamic point of view, from shooting at medium range (10


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Figure 2: Boston Matrix on procedural and material importance

in the experimentation process

Experimenting on live animals is clearly an ethical problem! However, an increasing

number of hunters today use bows legally during the hunting season. Since 2002, the

writer, in collaboration with several American and European bowhunter associations and

the NBEF (National Bow-hunting Education Foundation), has worked - in the context of

the TIPS project (Terminal Impact Projectile Study) - on the processing of data collected

through the use, by these associations, of a hunting experimental protocol proposing

specific behavioural and instrumental standards. The projects activities are coordinated

through a controlled-access web extranet. In Italy, the network is the Palaeoworking-

Italian Association for Experimental Archaeology and Primitive Technology, involving

several researchers connected to different university laboratories, whose task is to provide

the hunters with information and tools and to process the data collected by them.


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If this procedure, which follows the guidelines ofoutcome driven analysis, were adopted

in the different experimental processes concerning the terminal ballistics, it would allow a

holistic and decisive approach to the problems mentioned above. Regarding such

arguments, Ashby (1996: 1-4) wrote:

Penetration data collected from real shots, into real tissues, is not a static measurement.

Outcomes differ from shot to shot, as the uniformity of tissues encountered change. In the

real world it is impossible to control all the variables, and one does not wish to do so.

Those variables do exist. They will be encountered. The scholar of abstract science will

cite that this testing methodology includes too many variables, but it is precisely because of

the multitude of variables that it is necessary. When dealing with infinitely complex

variables, only outcome driven information analysis, from a multiplicity of data, provides

usable results. This is why the medical community commonly uses outcome driven

studies.

It is clear that, if the impact of the projectile is with the ground, a rock, a tree or a shrub, the

problem does not exist.

Although a very wide data-collection can provide statically useful data, some interesting

guiding elements have emerged from the existing data processing (concerning the subset of

the arrows with obsidian points) (Table I). As we shall see, they were used to arrive at an

interpretation of the lithic industry found in the Mount Santa Vittoria in Neoneli (OR) and

to generate hypotheses regarding the local hunters behaviour.

The Site

The Santa Vittoria settlement, located on the tabular peak of Mount S. Vittoria (Figure 3),

in a dominant position (824 metres above sea level), on the border between Neoneli and

Nughedu S. Vittoria territories, in Barigadu (Central Sardinia), is within the naturalistic

Oasis of Assai Nature Reserve (Loi, in press).


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Figure 3: Mount Santa Vittoria (Neoneli, OR)

The territory, an area with a radius of two kilometres, consists of high hills (601-860 metres

above sea level) and is geologically composed of Palaeozoic formations (Loi, b, in press).

The Mount S. Vittoria substrate is also characterised by granitic rocks covered by

ignimbritic soils.

The flora is mainly Mediterranean bush consisting of evergreen sclerophyllous shrubs and,

more rarely, arborescent elements. Its rich and varied fauna consists of fallow deer,

Sardinian deer and wild boar (Loi and Brizzi, in press). The Santa Vittoria lithic industry,

made up of 99 per cent of SC group obsidian, includes 65 arrow points, 357 remains,

including end and side scrapers, blades and several undifferentiated cutting edges.

The arrow points, leaf-shaped or stemmed, have offered many cues of research. Some show

more or less relevant damage at the distal end while others have fractures in the stem and in

the shoulders (Figure 4). Concerning size and weight, they should that be 18 or 40

millimetres long (Figure 5) and their estimated mass can vary from two to six grams. The

most common type is the stemmed bifacial point with more or less prominent shoulders.

The examined arrowheads have a lenticular plan or convex sections. The retouch is flat and

intrusive, in certain cases serial and oblique. The identified macro-fractures highlight

several indicators of impact and an extraordinary percentage of fractures due to stem


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bending (snap fracture) (Figure 6, 7) by comparison to those from different experimental

sessions. In fact, some of these remains have been replicated, hafted in arrow shafts and

thrown to animal carcasses.

Figure 4: Some examples of arrowheads discovered at S. Vittoria, with snap fractures in the

stem


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Figure 5: Arrow point, original and suspected length

Figure 6: Macro wear traces synthesis on Arrow points sample

Figure 7: Localization of macro-wear traces on Arrow point sample


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The experimentation

Data from the functional analysis were integrated with new determinations resulting from

ballistic testing focusing on the sample of arrow points. The completeness of the available

data, derived from experimental analysis, enables us to make some comments on the site

under consideration that will help stimulate debate on land use at various stages of

prehistory.

We have reproduced - using the same raw material (obsidian group SC-Pau) - the lithic

sample and tested it on hafted shafts, according to the protocols adopted by other

researchers (Fisher, Hansen and Rasmussen 1984; Odell and Cowan 1986) .We carried out

two sessions of ballistic testing. One of the critical elements examined was the interface

between shaft and arrowhead (hafting), which depends on the stability of the junction

between the components and, in this case, comprised a V-shaped connection and a mastic

composed of pine, ochre and beeswax in the proportions 602020. The distal part of the

shaft was reinforced with bovine tendon. Care was taken to minimise this bonding mass

while ensuring a uniform structural solidity. In fact, the arrows, using bows of varying

strength (from 45 to 79 pounds of draw-force [200.2351.4 N]) and arrows of between 35

and 60 grams mass, with an output velocity of between 45 and 70 metres per second, were

shot at a wild boar carcass (prior to rigor mortis and positioned so that the joints were

exposed and contracted) from both medium range (first session - for comparison with

results published by other cited authors) and very close range (second session).

It is clear that the real hunting situation testing itself provides a set of causes generating

the entire pattern for fatigue, including evidence obtained from shots at very close range.

The purpose of the experimental session was to isolate the phenomenon so as to acquire

specific data. With that information, experimental observation of fractures due to short-

range shooting would acquire a more decisive statistical significance. To these

experimental results (derived from static situations) we have added data obtained from

observations in real deer and wild boar hunting situations, collected in the TIPS project

(Table II).


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Table I: Data extract from the TIPS project (20026)

(*) not consistently considered diagnostic in the literature

Table II: Summary of experimental and hunting data

(*) not consistently considered diagnostic in the literature

Tests carried out on the carcass at a distance of 20 metres (first session) produced results

compatible with those of Odell and Cowan (1986) and Fisher, Vemming Hansen and

Rasmussen (1982), especially as regards diagnostic fractures. However, the most

interesting observation relates to the difference between the results on the carcass at an

average distance (first session, 20 metres), those at a very short distance (second session)

and real hunting situations, where the snap fractures appeared at least five times more

frequently in the proximal portion of the stem.


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The experimental outcome shows substantial confirmation of the data observed in the test

sample, considering the integration of experimental data from short-range shots. Noting

that, in all the S. Vittoria lithic remains, in addition to the sample examined, a high number

of point fragments showed obvious snap fractures, enables us to expand our comment to the

total lithic repertoire. This finding suggests to us the opportunity to include these types of

fractures among the diagnostic index as an integral and direct result of hunting activities.

Indeed, experimentation has not considered, at least so far, events outside the simple

impact with an inanimate body from medium range. That is to say, even microscopic

analysis (of abrasion traces) should take into account these factors.

Behavioural hypothesis

The points were irretrievably fractured in the sense that they could not have been further

reworked and reused against large game. The site presents a classic assemblage of

hunting tool remains, scrapers, blade and tips, probably left in anatomical parts or simply

abandoned because there was no possibility of reusing them. In fact, most of them have

distal fractures, i.e. in the stem.

The number of points and their stylistic/technological variability suggest the involvement

of a large number of hunters participating in structured and coordinated hunts extending

over a considerable period; the high incidence of snap fractures testifies to the probability

of brief and very short-range shots and could indicate lengthy transportation of the

carcasses with arrows still embedded within them.

The arrowheads are very small: their form assumes the use of light arrows (m


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mortem) could have resulted from driving/ambushing hunting situations where

opportunities for shooting at close range are more likely due to the nature of the landscape.

On the basis of what has been stated, it may be tentatively suggested that the discovery of a

large number of points whose fractures were caused by impact and that were associated

with several cutting tools, together with the position of the site (an elevated location

allowing a good view of the surrounding area and any approaching fauna or opponents) and

investigation of the area, indicates that Santa Vittoria was a butchery site. In such a context,

game was likely to be cut into pieces for ease of transportation to villages.

Thus, in Santa Vittoria, work was organised and carried out using the cutting edges of

different pieces made on site using an unspecialised technique from small cores brought by

hunters and discarded when unusable. Mount Santa Vittoria would represent a temporary

settlement enabling the long-distance monitoring of any approaching competing groups.

Discussion

As a matter of fact, the analysis of the trial conditions has clearly demonstrated that the

number of variables involved in the investigation of arrows impact on carcasses by means

of field simulation is too large for a reasonable and handy functional description of the

process. For this reason, a project aiming to find a functional relationship able to allow a

direct comparison between experiment and archeological records has to be currently

postponed. Setting up a verification standard able to give a tested set of results in a wide

range of experimental conditions as found in the practice of hunting should be in fact too

much expensive and very difficult to manage.

On the other hand, results obtained in condition of real hunting, in the frame of the

T.I.P.S. project, can be used as a phenomenological approach so obtaining a significant

increase in the number of potential interpretations of the archeological data, as well as to

develop materials and hypotheses about the behavior of the hunters, provided that few

additional control procedures were indicated and applied.

Coming back to field results, this approach indicates that even considering that point snap

fractures (particularly when positioned in the stem) could be due to fortuitous trampling or

falling, their high statistical incidence resulting from real hunting experiments and in

short-distance tests, strongly suggests that kind of tools breaking as potentially originated in

current hunting activity too. As a consequence, a careful examination of the Santa Vittoria


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lithic repertoire consisting in undifferentiated cutting edges, end or side scrapers and points

showing traditional impact diagnostic elements (as well as snap fracture of the stem)

suggests therefore that the site was probably a primary butchering place.

According to the authors, this conclusion shows that even a phenomenological approach

considering the overall field results and archeological records can be adopted as the starting

point of any experimental investigation, this latter being then performed according to the

procedure suggested in the present paper.

A further investigation topic to be considered pertains the association of macro-fracture

(particularly tang breaking) and tip abrasion. A statistical evaluation of their combination in

field experiment as well as the observation of their occurrence in the archeological data

could be in fact very effective in discriminating between occasional and functional damage

of the tools. An appropriate data mining could definitely confirm that the occurrence of

point snap fractures should be considered as a direct result of the hunting practice rather

than an accidental event.

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