2007-2008 biology is the only subject in which multiplication is the same thing as division…
TRANSCRIPT
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2007-2008
Biology is the only subject in which multiplication is the same thing as division…
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The Cell Cycle:Cell Growth, Cell Division
(Ch. 12)
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Where it all began…
You started as a cell smaller than a period at the end of a sentence…
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And now look at you…
How did you get from there to
here?
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• Going from egg to baby…. the original fertilized egg has to divide…
and divide…and divide…
and divide…
Getting from there to here…
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• For reproduction – asexual reproduction
• one-celled organisms• For growth
– from fertilized egg to multi-celled organism
• For repair & renewal– replace cells that die from
normal wear & tear or from injury
Why do cells divide?
amoeba
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Making new cells • Nucleus
– chromosomes– DNA
• Cytoskeleton– centrioles
• in animals– microtubule
spindle fibers
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nuclearpores
nuclearpore
nuclear envelopenucleolus
histone protein
chromosome
DNA
• Function– protects DNA
• Structure– nuclear envelope
• double membrane• Has Pores for material exchange
Nucleus
What kind of molecules need to
pass through?
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Cytoskeleton • Function
– structural support • maintains shape, provides anchorage
–protein fibers»microfilaments, intermediate filaments,
microtubules– motility
• cell locomotion– regulation
• Organizes cell activities
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actin microtubule nuclei
Cytoskeleton
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Centrioles • Cell division
– in animal cells, pair of centrioles organize microtubules• spindle fibers
– guide chromosomes in mitosis
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Getting the right stuff • What is passed on to daughter cells?
– exact copy of genetic material = DNA– organelles, cytoplasm, cell membrane,
enzymes
chromosomes (stained orange)in kangaroo rat epithelial cellnotice cytoskeleton fibers
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Overview of mitosis
interphase prophase (pro-metaphase)
metaphase anaphase telophase
cytokinesis
I.P.M.A.T.
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Interphase• Most of a cell’s life cycle (~95%)
– cell doing its “everyday job”• synthesize proteins/enzymes, metabolism, etc.
– prepares for duplication if triggered
I’m working here!
Time to divide& multiply!
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Cell cycle
• Cell has a “life cycle”
cell is formed from a mitotic division
cell grows & maturesto divide again
cell grows & matures to never divide again
G1, S, G2, M G1G0
epithelial cells,blood cells,stem cells
liver cells
brain / nerve cellsmuscle cells
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Interphase• Divided into 3 phases:
– G1 = 1st Gap (Growth)• Non-dividing life
– S = DNA Synthesis• copies chromosomes
– G2 = 2nd Gap (Growth)• prepares for division • cell grows (more)• produces organelles,
proteins, membranes
G0
signal to
divide
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Interphase• Nucleus well-defined
– DNA loosely packed in chromatin fibers
• Prepares for mitosis – replicates chromosome
• DNA & proteins– produces proteins &
organelles
green = key features
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• Synthesis phase of Interphase– dividing cell replicates DNA– must separate DNA copies correctly to 2
daughter cells• human cell duplicates ~3 meters DNA • each daughter cell gets complete
identical copy• error rate = ~1 per 100 million bases
– 3 billion base pairs in mammalian genome
– ~30 errors per cell cycle» mutations (to somatic (body) cells)
S phase: Copying / Replicating DNA
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Organizing DNA• DNA is organized in
chromosomes– double helix DNA molecule– wrapped around histone proteins
• like thread on spools– DNA-protein complex =
chromatin• organized into long thin fiber
– condensed further during mitosis
DNA
histones
chromatin
duplicated mitotic chromosome
ACTGGTCAGGCAATGTC
double stranded chromosome
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Copying DNA & packaging it…
• After DNA duplication, chromatin condenses– coiling & folding to make a smaller package
DNA
chromatin
mitotic chromosome
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A Brief, Computer Animation
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double-strandedmitotic humanchromosomes
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Mitotic Chromosome Duplicated chromosome
2 sister chromatids narrow at centromeres contain identical
copies of original DNAhomologous
chromosomeshomologous
chromosomes
sister chromatids homologous = “same information”
single-strandeddouble-stranded
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Mitosis
• Dividing cell’s DNA between 2 daughter nuclei– “dance of the chromosomes”
• 4 phases– prophase– metaphase– anaphase– telophase
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Prophase • Chromatin condenses
– visible chromosomes• Centrioles move to opposite poles
of cell – animal cells only
• Protein fibers cross cell to form mitotic spindle– microtubules – coordinate movement of
chromosomes• Nucleolus disappears• Nuclear membrane breaks down
green = key features
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Transition to Metaphase • Prometaphase
– spindle fibers attach to centromeres
–Kinetochores• connect centromeres to
centrioles– chromosomes begin moving
green = key features
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Metaphase • Chromosomes align along
middle of cell– metaphase plate
• meta = middle – spindle fibers coordinate
movement– ensure chromosomes
separate properly• each new nucleus
receives 1 copy of each chromosome
green = key features
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Anaphase • Sister chromatids separate at
centromere– move to opposite poles– pulled by motor proteins
“walking”along microtubules• Poles move farther apart
– polar microtubules lengthen
green = key features
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Separation of chromatids• In anaphase, proteins holding together sister
chromatids are inactivated– separate to become individual chromosomes
2 chromosomes1
chromosome2 chromatids
single-strandeddouble-stranded
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• Kinetochores use motor proteins that “walk” chromosome along attached microtubule– microtubule shortens by
dismantling at kinetochore (chromosome) end
Chromosome movement
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Telophase• Chromosomes arrive at
opposite poles– daughter nuclei form – chromosomes disperse
• Spindle fibers disperse• Cytokinesis begins
– cell division
green = key features
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Cytokinesis• Animals
– constriction belt of actin microfilaments around equator of cell• cleavage furrow forms• splits cell in two• like tightening a draw
string
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Mitosis in animal cells
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Mitosis in whitefish blastula
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Cytokinesis in Plants• Plants
– cell plate forms• Vesicles (from golgi)
line up at equator• vesicles fuse to form
2 cell membranes– new cell wall laid down
between membranes• new cell wall fuses
with existing cell wall
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Cytokinesis in plant cell
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Mitosis in a plant cell
1 Prophase. The chromatinis condensing.
The nucleolus is beginning to
disappear.Although not
yet visible in the micrograph,
the mitotic spindle is staring to from.
Prometaphase.We now see discretechromosomes; each
consists of two identical sister
chromatids. Laterin prometaphase, the nuclear envelop will
fragment.
Metaphase. The spindle is complete,
and the chromosomes,attached to microtubules
at their kinetochores, are all at the metaphase
plate.
Anaphase. Thechromatids of each chromosome have separated, and the
daughter chromosomesare moving to the ends
of cell as their kinetochore
microtubles shorten.
Telophase. Daughternuclei are forming.
Meanwhile, cytokinesishas started: The cell
plate, which will divided the cytoplasm
in two, is growing toward the perimeter
of the parent cell.
2 3 4 5
NucleusNucleolus
ChromosomeChromatinecondensing
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onion root tip
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Origin of replication
chromosome:double-stranded
DNAreplication
of DNA
elongation of cell
cell pinches in two
ring of proteins
Evolution of mitosis
• Mitosis in eukaryotes
likely evolved from binary fission in bacteria– single circular
chromosome– no membrane-bound
organelles
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Evolution of mitosis• A possible
progression of mechanisms intermediate between binary fission & mitosis is seen in modern organisms
protistsdinoflagellates
protistsdiatoms
eukaryotesyeast
eukaryotesanimals
prokaryotes(bacteria)
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Dinoflagellates • algae
– “red tide”– bioluminescence
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Diatoms • microscopic algae
– marine– freshwater
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Of course, we have some videos
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Any Questions??
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Review Questions
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1. Cytokinesis usually, but not always, follows mitosis. If a cell completed mitosis but not cytokinesis, what would be the result? A. a cell with a single large nucleus B. a cell with high concentrations of actin
and myosin C. a cell with two abnormally small nuclei D. a cell with two nuclei E. a cell with two nuclei but with half the
amount of DNA
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2. Taxol is an anticancer drug extracted from the Pacific yew tree. In animal cells, taxol disrupts microtubule formation by binding to microtubules and accelerating their assembly from the protein precursor, tubulin. Surprisingly, this stops mitosis. Specifically, taxol must affect A. the fibers of the mitotic spindle. B. anaphase. C. formation of the centrioles. D. chromatid assembly. E. the S phase of the cell cycle.
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3. Measurements of the amount of DNA per nucleus were taken on a large number of cells from a growing fungus. The measured DNA levels ranged from 3 to 6 picograms per nucleus. In which stage of the cell cycle was the nucleus with 6 picograms of DNA? A. G0 B. G1 C. S D. G2 E. M
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4. A group of cells is assayed for DNA content immediately following mitosis and is found to have an average of 8 picograms of DNA per nucleus. Those cells would have __________ picograms at the end of the S phase and __________ picograms at the end of G2. A. 8 ... 8B. 8 ... 16C. 16 ... 8D. 16 ... 16E. 12 ... 16
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5. A particular cell has half as much DNA as some of the other cells in a mitotically active tissue. The cell in question is most likely in A. G1.
B. G2.
C. prophase.D. metaphase.E. anaphase.