2. tannery
TRANSCRIPT
SCHOOL OF GRADUATES STUDIES
FACULTY OF SCIENCE
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE PROGRAM
EVALUATION OF SELECTED PLANT SPECIES FOR THE
TREATMENT OF TANNERY EFFLUENT IN A CONSTRUCTED
WETLAND SYSTEM
By: Asaye Ketema
Advisor: Seyoum Leta (PhD.)
A thesis submitted to Graduate Studies of Addis Ababa University in Partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Science in Environmental Science
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
August, 2009
ii
Acknowledgments
First and foremost, I would like to express my gratitude to Dr. Seyoum Leta, my research
advisor, for his continuous guidance, valuable suggestions and encouragement in making this
thesis possible.
I would also like to thank w/o Adey Feleke for her enormous support and help whenever I
needed her.
I would like also express my appreciation to BIO-EARN for providing me financial support
that enabled me to perform the hard tasks related with this research works in a sound way.
Sincere thanks to Modjo tannery industries for allowing me to construct the pilot plant and
take effluent sample throughout the study. I also extend my deep appreciation to staff
members of Applied Microbiology Laboratory of Biology Department, Addis Ababa
University, for their cooperation and permission to use their laboratory.
Last but not least, I would like to thanks my family and friends for their encouragement and
support from the beginning to end of my post graduate study.
iii
Table of Contents
Acknowledgments ...................................................................................................................... ii
Table of Contents ...................................................................................................................... iii
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................ v
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................. vi
List of Annex ............................................................................................................................ vii
Acronyms ................................................................................................................................ viii
Abstract ..................................................................................................................................... ix
1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 1
2. Literature Review ................................................................................................................... 5
2.1. Sources of wastewater in tanning industry ...................................................................... 5
2.2. Tannery wastewater characteristics ................................................................................. 8
2.3. Environmental impact ..................................................................................................... 9
2.4. Tannery wastewater treatment system .......................................................................... 11
2.4.1. Physico-chemical treatment system ....................................................................... 11
2.4.2. Biological treatment system ................................................................................... 12
2.4.2.1. Trickling filter ................................................................................................. 12
2.4.2.2. Activated sludge .............................................................................................. 12
2.4.2.3. Sequencing batch reactor (SBR) ..................................................................... 13
2.4.2.4. Wetland ........................................................................................................... 13
2.4.2.4.1. Constructed wetland technology .............................................................. 14
2.4.2.4.1.1. Free Water Surface (FWS) Wetland ................................................. 17
2.4.2.4.1.2. Subsurface Flow (SSF) wetland ........................................................ 18
2.4.2.4.2. Role of plants in constructed wetland ...................................................... 21
3. Materials and Methods ......................................................................................................... 23
3.1. Site Description ............................................................................................................. 23
3.2. Pilot constructed wetland establishment ....................................................................... 24
3.3. Plant material and experimental start-up ....................................................................... 24
3.4. Wastewater sampling and analysis ................................................................................ 26
iv
3.5. Statistical data analysis .................................................................................................. 28
4. Results and Discussion ......................................................................................................... 29
4.1. BOD5, COD and TSS removal ...................................................................................... 29
4.2. Nutrient Removal .......................................................................................................... 31
4.3. Sulfate and sulfide removal ........................................................................................... 34
4.4. Chromium removal ....................................................................................................... 36
4.5. TDS and electrical conductivity removal ...................................................................... 37
5. Conclusion and Recommendations ...................................................................................... 40
5.1. Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 40
5.2. Recommendations ......................................................................................................... 41
6. Reference .............................................................................................................................. 42
Annex ....................................................................................................................................... 53
v
List of Figures
Figure 1.1. Point where Modjo tannery wastewater enters the Modjo River ............................. 2
Figure 2.1. General tanning process flow chart ......................................................................... 7
Figure 2.2. Free water surface wetland .................................................................................... 17
Figure 2.3. Subsurface flow wetland ........................................................................................ 18
Figure 3.1. Map of the study area. ............................................................................................ 23
Figure 3.2. Different stage of the subsurface wetland construction ......................................... 24
Figure 3.3. The different plants used for the constructed wetland after 3 months. .................. 25
Figure 3.4. Schematic diagram of the pilot scale subsurface flow constructed wetland .......... 27
vi
List of Tables
Table 2.1. Water consumption in individual tannery processing operations ............................ 8
Table 2.2. Summary of pollution load discharged in effluents from individual tannery
processing operations (Kg/tone of hide and skin) ...................................................................... 9
Table 3.1. Percentage ratio used to dilute the wastewater with tap water ................................ 25
Table 4.1. Average influent and effluent concentrations (Mean ± SE) of BOD5, COD and
TSS, and removal percentage of each cell ............................................................................... 29
Table 4.3. Average influent and effluent concentrations (Mean ± SE) of TN, NH4+ and NO3
-
and removal percentage of each cell ........................................................................................ 32
Table 4.5. Average influent and effluent concentration (Mean ± SE) of sulfate and sulfide, and
removal percentage of each cell ............................................................................................... 34
Table 4.7. Average influent and effluent concentration (Mean ± SE) of total chromium, and
removal percentage of each cell ............................................................................................... 36
Table 4.9. Average influent and effluent concentrations (Mean ± SE) of electrical
conductivity and TDS, and removal percentage of each cell ................................................... 38
vii
List of Annex
Annex 1. List of tannery industries around the Modjo River ................................................... 53
Annex 2. Modjo tannery influent characteristics during the study period ............................... 54
Annex 3. EEPA tannery wastewater emission standards to inland water. ............................... 55
viii
Acronyms
BOD5 Biological oxygen demand
COD Chemical oxygen demand
CW Constructed wetland
EEPA Ethiopia Environmental Protection Authority
FWS Free water surface
HLR Hydraulic loading rate
HRT Hydraulic retention time
SSF Subsurface flow
TDS Total dissolved solid
TN Total nitrogen
TSS Total suspended solid
USEPA United States Environmental Protection Authority
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Abstract
Constructed wetland is man made system aiming at simulating the treatment process in
natural wetland by cultivating emergent, submerged and floating plants on sand, gravel or soil
media for human use and benefits. In this study, the performance efficiency of emergent
plants in subsurface flow constructed wetland for treating tannery wastewater was evaluated
using six locally available selected plant species such as, Cyperus papyrus, Typha
domingensis, Cyperus alopcuroides, Schenoplectus corymbosus, Sesbania sesban,
Aeschynomene elaphroxylon. The seventh cell was unplanted and used as a control. The
treatment performances of each cell were assessed for selected parameters such as, BOD5,
COD, TSS, TN, NO3-, NH4
+, sulfide, sulfate, total chromium, TDS and electrical
conductivity. High removal efficiency for total Cr (98.4%), COD (68.7%) and sulfide (59.2%)
was observed in cell planted with Schenoplectus corymbosus. Whereas cell planted with
Sesbania sesban showed high removal efficiency for sulfate (96.3%), BOD5 (84.7%) and TN
(58.3%), while cell planted with Cyperus papyrus showed higher removal efficiency for NO3-
(73.2%) and NH4+ (26.2%). In addition, cell planted with Typha domingensis showed good
removal efficiency for BOD5 (84.2%), NO3- (69.1%), COD (57.9%), TN (53.2%), and NH4
+
(21.1%). Generally, with six months of operation, cell planted with Schenoplectus
corymbosus, Cyperus alopcuroides Typha domingensis and Sesbania sesban showed high
removal efficiency for the selected parameters indicating that these plants are a potential
candidate for large scale tannery wastewater treatment. However, evaluation of the system
over longer period is required before concluding whether these plants in subsurface
constructed wetland are efficient for primary treatment of tannery wastewater.
Keywords: Constructed wetland; wetland plants; wastewater treatment
1
1. Introduction
Leather tanneries, produces three different of wastes of which wastewater is the most
important challenge to the environment. The tanning process is almost wholly a wet process
that consumes high amount of water, that are estimated to be 34 – 56 m3 of water per tone of
hides or skin processed (Ludvick, 2000), where of the total water consumed, 85% is
discharged as a wastewater (Teodorescue and Gaidau, 2007). Apart from discharging high
BOD organic waste, the different chemical used in the tanning process characterized the
waste to be highly colored turbid and toxic.
Currently there are more than 20 tanning industries operating in Ethiopia and only 10% of the
existing tanning industries treat their wastewater to any degree, while the majority (90%)
discharges their wastewater into nearby bodies, streams and open land without any kind of
treatment ( EEPA, 2001; Seyoum Leta et al., 2003). Out of the tanneries existing in the
country, 14 are located along the Modjo river, where only the two, Colba and Ethiopia Share
company, treat their waste to certain level and the rest 12 discharge their wastewater into the
Modjo river.
The characteristics of the wastewater vary considerably from tannery to tannery depending
upon the size of the tannery, chemicals used for the specific process, amount of water used
and type of final product produced by a tannery. According to a study conducted by Seyoum
Leta et al., (2003), a composite tannery wastewater have BOD5 (1900 - 4800 mg/l), COD
(7900 - 15200 mg/l), sulfide (325 - 930 mg/l) and total chromium (12 - 64 mg/l). Another
study in Pakistan also indicated BOD5 (840 - 18620 mg/l), COD (1320 - 54000 mg/l), SS (220
- 1610 mg/l), TN (236 - 350 mg/l), sulfate (800 - 6480 mg/l), sulfide (800 - 6480 mg/l) and
chromium (41 - 133 mg/l) (Haydar et al., 2007). A study conducted by Aklilu Tilahun (2008)
at Modjo River indicated a BOD5 load of 204.52 ± 73.11 mg/l, COD of 261.25 ± 85.41 mg/l,
TSS of 295.25 ± 132.03 mg/l, electrical conductivity of 4543.5 ± 3719.07 µs/cm, which is
higher than the expected surface water quality standard, which is less than or equal to 5 mg/l,
50 mg/l and 1000 µs/cm for BOD5, TSS and electrical conductivity respectively (EEPA,
2003a).
2
Figure 1.1. Point where Modjo tannery wastewater enters the Modjo River
The discharges of untreated wastewater to the aquatic environment can result in the
accumulation of pollutants. The consequence of this accumulation could result in loss of
lively hood, loss of biodiversity and degradation of water quality, which in general affects the
ecosystem. In order to comply with environmental legislation and to improve the
competitiveness of the leather sector, the treatment of wastewater is not only desirable but
also necessary to correct wastewater characteristics in such a way that the use or final disposal
of the treated effluents can take place without causing an adverse impact on the receiving
water bodies.
Several methods have been used for the treatment of tannery wastewater. This includes
physico-chemical and biological treatment methods. The most commonly used physico-
chemical system includes screening, sedimentation, and the chemical system are chemical
precipitation, adsorption, disinfection dechlorination, whereas the biological includes pond
system trickling filter, activated sludge process and sequencing batch reactor. The chemical
system have inherent disadvantage of second pollution problems that will arise because of
chemical use. Generally, the above mentioned treatment system also require high initial or
operating cost, skilled man power and electricity.
3
Being low-cost and low technology system, eco-technological system, like constructed
wetland, are standing as the potential alternative on supplementary systems for the treatment
of municipal, industrial, agricultural wastewater (Kadlec and Knight, 1996). Constructed
wetland is based on natural processes involving complex and concerted interactions between
the plants, substrata and inherent microbial community to accomplish wastewater treatment in
a more controlled and predictable manner (Benham and Mote, 1999; Joseph, 2005).
Compared with conventional treatment system, constructed wetlands, which are of low cost,
easily operated and maintained, can be potentially applied in developing countries with
serious water pollution problems as an alternative treatment system. Study conducted in
Ireland by Reddy (2004) showed that the cost of a typical constructed wetland with a size of
4650 m2 is about $122000 which was cheaper by 30% than conventional treatment methods
of the same size considering the lifespan (which is 30 - 50 years) and replacement value of the
wetland. The above case studies also confirmed that maintenance cost for constructed wetland
was eight times lower than the conventional treatment system.
In constructed wetlands, vegetation plays a partial role during the treatment process, because
it helps in supplying oxygen to the microorganisms in the rhizosphere, reduce the amount of
nutrients in the system by uptake and perhaps provide more surface area in the rhizosphere for
the microorganisms (Brix, 1987). World wide, the most frequently used emergent wetland
plants are cattails (Typha latifolia), bulrush (Scripus lacustris) and reed (Phragmitus
australis) (Brix, 1993), but other species may also be more efficient under site specific
condition.
Generally, constructed wetlands are designed to maximize the physical, chemical and
biological abilities of natural wetland to reduce the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), total
suspended solid (TSS), total nitrogen (TN), phosphorus and pathogen as wastewater flows
slowly through the vegetated surface (Reed et al., 1987; Reed, 1993). Different researchers
have investigated the wide use of constructed wetland for different type of wastewater,
including domestic (Kaseava, 2003; Joseph, 2005), industrial (Prabu and Udayasoorian, 2003;
Maine et al., 2006; Sohsalam et al., 2007; Cristina et al., 2007), agriculture run off (Forbes et
4
al., 2004), dairy (Pucci et al., 2000) and polluted river water (Jing et al., 2001; Li et al.,
2007), and have shown significant improvements in water quality in these systems.
While constructed wetlands have such a proven effectiveness for treatment of a variety of
wastewater (Hester and Harrison, 1995; Joseph, 2005; Muhammad et al., 2004), there is a
limited work in Ethiopia where the concept of constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment
is still a relatively new idea. The construction of constructed wetland requires a preliminary
efficiency study using small scale system that should be carefully designed and run to test the
capabilities in purifying tannery wastewater.
General objective
To evaluate the removal efficiency of six locally available selected plant species for the
treatment of tannery effluent using subsurface flow constructed wetland.
Specific objective
- Establishing a subsurface flow constructed wetland.
- Evaluating the treatment performance of the different plants based on selected
physico-chemical parameters such as, pH, temperature, BOD5, COD, TSS, TN,
NO3-, NH4
+, sulfide, sulfate, total chromium, TDS and electrical conductivity.
5
2. Literature Review
2.1. Sources of wastewater in tanning industry
The conversion of animal hide and skin into useful artifacts may be man’s oldest technology.
Untreated skins have limited value, because when wet they are susceptible to bacteria attack
and so they putrefy, but if they are dried they become inflexible and useless for purpose such
as clothing. Those effects are eliminated by tanning, a process by which putrefy able
biological material is converted into a stable material which is resistance to microbial attack
and has enhanced to wet and dry heat (Anthony, 1997).
Tanning consists of a series of successive operation converting raw hide and skin into leather.
The raw material in the production of leather is a byproduct of the meat industry. Tanners
recover the hide and skin from the slaughter houses and transform them into a stable material
that can be used in the manufacture of a wide range of products. Leather is an intermediate
industrial product with numerous applications in down stream sector. It can be cut and
assembled into shoes, clothing, leather good furniture and other items of daily use
(COTANCE, 2002). In addition, the produced products have distinct properties, which
include stability, appearance, water and abrasion resistance, temperature resistance and
elasticity, to help increase the shelf life.
The production process in a tannery can be split into four main categories, namely, beam
house, tanning (tan- yard), post-tanning and finishing operation. The beam house operation
consists of a sequence of process, soaking is the first stage where the hide and skin are soaked
in order to remove salt, restore the moisture content of the hide and skin and remove any
foreign material such as dirt and manure. Dehairing, liming and fleshing subsequently follows
the soaking step, which helps to remove the hair, open up the collagen structure by removing
interstitial material and remove access tissue from the interior of the hide and skin
respectively.
6
Tanning (Tan-Yard) operation is where the collagen fiber is stabilized by the tanning agents
so that the hide and skin would be no longer susceptible to putrefaction. In order to do so, the
hide and skin pass through different process in tanning operation. Those operations include
delimming, bating, pickling and tanning. Bating and pickling condition the skin and hide to
receive the tanning agent, where as the tanning process stabilize the material and impart basic
properties of the skin and hide.
Post tanning sometimes also called retanning operation involves, neutralization followed by
retanning, dyeing and fat liquoring. Neutralization and retanning are used to improve the feel
and handle of leather, where as dyeing and fat liquoring provide special property to the leather
(i.e. water resistance, abrasion resistance, flame retardancy and anti-electrostatic properties)
replenish oil to the hide and skin, and to give the leather different colors. Further more; the fat
liquoring help to lubricate the leather to achieve product specific characteristics and to re-
establish the fat content in the previous procedures.
After dyeing the leather from the post tanning operation, the finishing operation follows. The
overall objective of finishing operation is to attain final product specification by enhancing
the appearance of the end providing the performance characteristics with respect to color,
gloss, handle etc… The overall schematic diagram of the tanning process is presented in
Figure 2.1.
7
Figure 2.1. General tanning process flow chart (Gupta, 2003)
8
2.2. Tannery wastewater characteristics
The tanning process is almost wholly a wet process that consumes high amount of water,
estimated to be 34 – 56 m3 of water per tone of hide or skin processed (Table 2.1) (Ludvick,
2000), where out of the total water consumed, 85% is discharged as a wastewater
(Teodorescue and Gaidau, 2007).
Table 2.1. Water consumption in individual tannery processing operations
Operation Water consumption (m3/tone raw hide and skin)
Soaking 7 - 9
Liming 9 - 15
Deliming and Bating 7 - 11
Tanning 3 - 5
Post tanning 7 - 13
Finishing 1 - 3
Total 34 - 56
Source: Ludvick, 2000
The characteristics of the wastewater vary considerably from tannery to tannery depending
upon the size of the tannery, chemicals used for the specific process, amount of water used
and type of final product produced by a tannery. According to Seyoum Leta et al. (2003), a
composite tannery wastewater have BOD5 (1900 - 4800 mg/l), COD (7900 - 15200 mg/l),
sulfide (325 - 930 mg/l) and total chromium (12 - 64 mg/l). Another study in Pakistan also
indicated BOD5 (840 - 18620 mg/l), COD (1320 - 54000 mg/l), SS (220 - 1610 mg/l), TN
(236 - 350 m/l), sulfate (800 - 6480 mg/l), sulfide (800 - 6480 mg/l) and chromium (41 - 133
mg/l) (Haydar et al., 2007). The variations of effluent characteristics also occur through each
working day in a tannery. According to Cristina et al. (2007), average COD and pH analyzed
in one day were 2010 mg /l (± 516) and 6.98 (± 0.05), respectively, whereas 2068 mg/l (±
446) and 7.93 (± 0.08) respectively, in another day. Table 2.2 summarizes the pollution load
discharged from individual tannery processing operations.
9
Table 2.2. Summary of pollution load discharged in effluents from individual tannery
processing operations (Kg/tone of hide and skin)
Pollution Soaking Liming Deliming
and Bating
Tanning Post
tanning
Total
SS 11 - 17 53 - 97 8 – 12 5 - 10 6 - 11 83 - 149
COD 22 - 33 79 - 122 13 – 20 7 - 11 24 - 40 145 - 231
BOD5 7 - 11 28 - 45 5 – 9 2 - 4 8 - 15 50 - 86
Sulfate 1 - 2 1 - 2 10 – 26 30 - 55 10 - 25 52 - 110
Sulfide 3.9 - 8.7 0.1 - 0.3 4 - 9
TKN 1 - 2 6 - 8 3 – 5 0.6 - 0.9 1 - 2 12 - 18
NH3-N 0.6 - 0.9 0.4 - 0.5 2.6 - 3.9 0.6 - 0.9 0.3 - 0.5 4 - 6
Chromium 2 - 5 1 - 2 3 - 7
Source: Ludvick, 2000
2.3. Environmental impact
It could be agreed that the leather industry performs an environmentally important activity by
giving a new life to the left over of the meat industry. The transformation of this by-product
is, however, potentially pollution intensive and tanning is widely perceived as a consumer of
natural resources. Among various environmental pollutants of wastewater released from
different industries, tannery waste is the major challenging and devastating pollutant. Leather
industry is one of the most harmful to the environment for being responsible for extreme
pollution of water resources.
The quantities and qualities of emission and waste produced by tanneries depend on the type
of leather processed, the source of hides and skins, and the technique applied (COTANCE,
2002). This is indicated by the results from the analysis of tannery wastewater characterized
and presented in Table 2.2 above.
10
The addition of organic molecule to water typically increases BOD5 by increasing rates of
biological/chemical decomposition. Depletion of oxygen level caused by waste with high
BOD5 can produce both acute (killing) and chronic (e.g. reduced growth, fecundity and
disease resistance) impacts in aquatic biota (Allison, 1996).
Tannery wastewater is also characterized by being strongly alkaline with a high salt content,
one of which is chromium (Bajza and Vreck, 2001). Now a day’s chrome tanning is favored
by the majority of the leather industry because of the speed of processing, color of the leather
and greater stability of the resulting product. However; in the present chrome tanning practice
only 50 - 60 % of chromium applied is taken by the leather and the balance is discharged as
waste (Rajamanickam, 2000). Excess amounts of chromium uptake are very dangerous due to
its carcinogenic effect. Chromium in soils affects plant growth, it is non-essential for
microorganisms and other life forms and when in excess amounts it exerts toxic effect on
them after cellular uptake (Singanan, et al., 2007).
Further, the high amount of nitrogen in the effluent causes water bodies becoming enriched
with plant nutrient which result in a proliferation of water weeds and algae, which in turn,
leads to various water purification and health problem. In addition; nitrogen is a pollutant of
concern for a number of reasons. Nitrogen in the ammonia form is toxic to certain aquatic
organisms. In the environment, ammonia is oxidized rapidly to nitrate, creating an oxygen
demand and low dissolved oxygen in surface water. Organic and inorganic forms of nitrogen
may cause euthrophication (i.e. high productivity of algae) problem in nitrogen limited fresh
water lakes, in estuarine and costal waters. Finally, high concentration of nitrate can harm
young children when ingested (USEPA, 2008). These net effects reduce the aesthetic
appearance, recreational use and reuse of the water.
The sulfide content of tannery effluent results from the use of sodium sulfide, sodium
hydrosulfide and the breakdown of hair in the unhairing process. When the pH of the effluent
falls below 9.5 hydrogen sulfide is evolved from the effluent, the lower the pH the greater the
fate of evolution. This creates unpleasant smell (even in small quantity), smell of rotten egg,
and cause toxicity too for many forms of life (Buljan et al., 2000; Nazer et al., 2005).
11
Hydrogen sulfide gas is also fairly soluble, and when dissolved by condensation weak acids
can be formed, which can cause structural problem by corrosion. Sulfate is produced by the
use of sulfuric acid, or through using products with high sodium sulfate content. The sulfate is
broken down by anaerobic bacteria to produce sulfide and odor. Soluble sulfate also causes a
problem by increasing total salt concentration in the surface water and ground water (Bosnic
et al., 2003).
Furthermore; the untreated discharge of tannery effluent in addition to polluting the receiving
streams, if allowed to percolate into the ground for long periods affects the ground water table
of the surrounding locality to certain radius. Mondal et al. (2005) showed that a single tannery
can cause pollution of ground water about a radius of 7 and 8 Km. This will make the
surrounding water source unsuitable for drinking, irrigation and for general consumption.
2.4. Tannery wastewater treatment system
Today due to increased pollution as well as elevated public awareness and consequent
demand for protection of the world’s water resource, different types of treatment techniques
that remove organic matter and nutrients from waste water have been developed (Nicholas,
1996; UNEP, 1999; USEPA, 2004; Linda and Peter, 1999). Treatment of tannery effluent is a
challenge because it is a mixture of biogenic matter of hides, inorganic chemicals and a large
variety of organic pollutant with large molecular weights and complex structures (ESCAP,
1982; Elke, 1996; Thorsten, 1997).
22..44..11.. PPhhyyssiiccoo--cchheemmiiccaall ttrreeaattmmeenntt ssyysstteemm
Physico-chemical methods, such as adsorption, coagulation-flocculation and advanced
oxidation, are used for wastewater treatments. Oxidative degradation by chlorine and ozone
are the most common chemical processes for color removal, but chlorination has the
disadvantage of producing organochloride byproducts (Sarasa et al., 1998). Although
photocatalytic oxidation with H2O2 would be more attractive from an economic point of view,
photocatalytic processes are limited to post-treatment units because of the low penetration of
UV irradiation in highly colored wastewaters (Vandevivere et al., 1998; Yang et al., 1998).
12
All the processes which can be used for removal of both organic matter and nitrogen are
simple in principle; however, they are expensive (high operating and maintenance cost, and
consumption of chemicals) and also produced harmful products. Now a day, there is a
growing interest in the development of new technologies and procedures for the purification
of this waste. Among these procedures, biological methods have been recognized as a viable
possibility for the degradation of these wastewaters (Delpozo and Diez, 2003).
22..44..22.. BBiioollooggiiccaall ttrreeaattmmeenntt ssyysstteemm
In biological treatment, microorganisms convert the organic wastes into stabilized
compounds. Typical biological treatment processes make use of trickling filters, activated
sludge, Sequencing Batch Reactor (SBR) and wetland as polishing system.
2.4.2.1. Trickling filter
Trickling filter consist a bed of rocks over which the wastewater is gently sprayed by a
rotating arm. The microbial growth occurs on the subsurface of stone or plastic media and the
wastewater passes over the media along with air to provide oxygen (Benefield and Randall,
1985; Metcalf and Eddy, 2003). Water needs to be trickled several times over the rock before
it is sufficiently cleaned. The wastewater percolates over the biofilm growing on the carrier
material to achieve a very high biofilm specific area (Joseph, 2005). Using a trickling filter a
removal 85 - 90% for BOD and 60 - 70% for COD can be achieved (Kornaros and Lyberatos,
2006).
2.4.2.2. Activated sludge
Activated sludge is the most widely used biological treatment process because the
recirculation of the biomass allows microorganisms to adapt to changes in the wastewater
composition by a relatively short acclimation process (Doan and Lohi, 2001). Activated
sludge process is a continuous or semi continuous flow system containing a mass of activated
microorganisms that are capable of stabilizing organic matter. An active mass of
microorganisms mainly bacteria and protozoa aerobically degrade organic matter into carbon
dioxide, methane, water, new cells and other end products.
13
The unsettleable suspended solid and other constituents adsorbed on or entrapped by the
activated sludge floc (Cloete and Muyima, 1997). This process is based on the aeration of
wastewater with flocculation biological growth, followed by separation of treated water from
this growth. Part of this growth is then wasted and the remainder is returned to the system
(Dohse and Heywood, 1996). According to Haydar et al. (2007), a BOD and COD removal of
90% and 80% respectively can be achieve using activated sludge for tannery wastewater
treatment.
2.4.2.3. Sequencing batch reactor (SBR)
The sequencing batch reactor (SBR) is a fill and draw activated sludge system for wastewater
treatment. In this system wastewater is added to a single batch reactor, treated to remove
undesirable components and then discharged. Equalization, aeration and clarification can be
achieved using a single batch reactor (Mahvi, 2008). Sequencing batch reactors operate by a
cycle of periods consisting of fill, react, settle, decant, and idle. The duration, oxygen
concentration, and mixing in these periods could be altered according to the needs of the
particular treatment plant. The difference between SBR and activated sludge system is that the
SBR performs equalization, biological treatment and secondary clarification in a single tank
using a timed control sequence. In activated sludge system, these unit processes would be
accomplished by using separate tanks (USEPA, 1999). According to Dinesh et al. (2004) a
BOD and COD removal of 85 – 93% and 70 – 75% respectively can be achieved for tannery
wastewater using SBR. Andualem Mekonnen (2000) also reported a removal of 85%, 38%,
35% and 99.9% for COD, TN, NH4+ and sulfide respectively.
2.4.2.4. Wetland
Wetlands are commonly known as biological filters, providing protection for water resources
such as lakes, estuaries and ground water. According to Ramsar Convention (1997: 2)
wetlands are areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or
temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of
marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six meters. They are also
important water bodies’ in-terms of ecological balance because they provide breeding areas
14
for different types of flora and fauna and act as active and natural treatment system, which in-
turn gives rise to improvement of water quality.
Natural wetlands have been used for wastewater treatment for many years. In many cases,
however, the reasoning behind this use was disposal, rather than treatment and the wetlands
simply served as convenient recipient that was closer than the nearest river or other
waterways (Vymazal, 1998). Uncontrolled discharge of wastewater led in many cases to an
irreversible degradation of many wetland areas. Wetlands have been considered for a long
time as "wastelands", were scientifically neglected and, therefore, the impact of wastewater
on different wetlands was not properly assessed.
However, there has been an explosive growth of knowledge about and radical change of
attitudes towards wetlands during the last few decades (Brodrick et al., 1988; Williams,
1990). Natural wetlands are characterized by extreme variability in functional components,
making it virtually impossible to predict responses to wastewater application and to translate
results from one geographical area to another. Although improvement in the quality of the
wastewater is generally observed as a result of flow through natural wetlands, the extent of
their treatment capability is largely unknown (Brix, 1993). While most natural wetland
systems were not designed for wastewater treatment, studies have led to both a greater
understanding of the potential of natural wetland ecosystem for pollutant assimilation and the
design of new natural water treatment systems (Pries, 1994).
2.4.2.4.1. Constructed wetland technology
Although natural wetlands have been used as wastewater discharge sites in some cases for
hundreds of years, recognition of the water quality treatment capacity of wetlands has
emerged only in the last 40 years as monitoring was initiated at existing discharge sites
(Kadlec and Knight, 1996). Studies of the feasibility of using wetland for wastewater
treatment were initiated during the early 1950’s in Germany, with the first operating
horizontal subsurface flow constructed wetland operating in 1974. In the United state,
wastewater- to- wetland research began in the late 1960’s and increased dramatically in scope
15
during the 1970’s. As a result, the use of wetlands for water and wastewater treatment has
gained considerable popularity world wide (Joseph, 2005).
Though, a better understanding of the benefit that wetlands provide has led to the use of
constructed wetlands to mimic the filtration process that takes place in the fragile ecosystem
of a natural wetland. Constructed wetland are planned systems designed and constructed to
employ wetland vegetation to assist in treating wastewater in a more controlled environment
than occurs in natural wetland (USEPA, 1993). Hammer (1990) defines constructed wetland
as a designed, man made complex of saturated substrate, emergent and sub merged
vegetation, animal life and water that simulate wetland for human uses and benefits.
Constructed wetlands can be built with a much greater degree of control, thus allowing the
establishment of experimental treatment facilities with a well-defined composition of
substrate, type of vegetation and flow pattern. In addition, constructed wetlands offer several
additional advantages compares to natural wetlands including site selection, flexibility in
sizing and most importantly, control over the hydraulic pathways and retention time.
In such systems, water goes through a series of purification process, which includes biological
degradation, filtration, sedimentation and adsorption resulting in the significant reduction of
organic compounds, suspended solids and also to some extent nitrogen compounds,
phosphorous and pathogens (Reed et al., 1987; Reed, 1993). Different researchers have
investigated the wide use of constructed wetland for different type of wastewater, including
domestic (Kaseava, 2003; Joseph, 2005, Berhanu Genet, 2007), industrial (Prabu and
Udayasoorian, 2003; Maine et al., 2006; Sohsalam et al., 2007; Cristina et al., 2007),
agriculture run off (Forbes et al., 2004) dairy (Pucci et al., 2000) and polluted river water
(Jing et al., 2000; Li et al., 2007), and have shown significant improvements in water quality
in these systems.
16
Compared with the conventional wastewater treatment system currently in use the constructed
wetland has its own advantage and limitations
a. Advantage of constructed wetland
Constructed wetlands are a cost effective and technically feasible approach for treating
wastewater. When compared to conventional treatment system, constructed wetlands are less
expensive to build as well as operational and maintenance costs are low. Study conducted in
Ireland by Reddy (2004) showed that the cost of a typical constructed wetland with a size of
4650 m2 is about $122000 which was cheaper by 30% than conventional treatment methods
of the same size considering the lifespan and replacement value of the wetland. The above
case studies also confirmed that maintenance cost for constructed wetland was eight times
lower than the conventional treatment system. Furthermore, operational and maintenance
require only periodic rather than continues, on-site labor
In addition, constructed wetland attracts wildlife such as bird, mammals, amphibians and
variety of dragon flies and other insects make the wetland home (Martha, 2003). For instance,
the recent USEPA (1999) publications indicated that more than 1,400 species of wildlife have
been identified from constructed and natural treatment wetlands, of these more than 800
species were reported in constructed wetland alone. Moreover, constructed wetland plants
provides a more aesthetically pleasing alternative than many other conventional wastewater
treatment systems (Richard, 1998)
b. Limitations of constructed wetland
- They generally require larger land areas than do conventional wastewater
treatment system. Wetland treatment may be economical relative to other options
only where land is available and affordable.
- Performance may be less consistent than in conventional treatment. Wetland
treatment efficiencies may vary seasonally in response to changing environmental
17
conditions including rainfall and drought. Wetland treatment cannot be relied upon
if effluent quality must meet stringent discharge standards at all times.
Generally; the vast majority of wetlands constructed for wastewater treatment are classified as
surface flow or free water surface (FWS) systems and subsurface flow (SSF) system.
2.4.2.4.1.1. Free Water Surface (FWS) Wetland
Free water surface (FWS) most resemble natural wetlands both in the way they look and the
way they provide treatment. Both designs can be used to treat wastewater from individual and
community sources, but FWS are usually more economical for treating large volumes of
wastewater (Sinclair, 2000).
Wetlands are areas on land where the ground maintains saturated conditions for much of the
year. FWS stay saturated enough to maintain a shallow level of water and wastewater (10 to
45 cm deep) above the soil (Figure 2.2). Wetland plants also are present in FWS, and natural
forces such as wind, sun, rain and temperature affect the plants, water and the treatment
processes in these systems (Pipeline, 1998).
Figure 2.2. Free water surface wetland (OWDP, 2001)
As soon as wastewater enters a FWS cell, natural processes immediately begin to break down
and remove the waste materials in the water (Renee, 2001; Kaseva, 2003). Before the
wastewater has moved very far in the wetland small suspended waste materials are physically
strained out by submerged plants, plant stems, and plant litter in the wetland (Hammer, 1992).
The roots, stems, leaves, and litter of wetland plants also provide a multitude of small surfaces
18
where wastes can become trapped and waste-consuming bacterial can attach themselves to the
plant (USEPA, 1993; Sinclair, 2000).
Bacteria provide the majority of wastewater treatment. Aerobic bacteria thrive in wetlands
wherever oxygen is present, especially near the surface. Wind, rain, wastewater and anything
else that agitates the water surface can add oxygen to the system. Anaerobic bacteria thrive
where there is little or no oxygen. In surface flow cells, oxygen is scarce in the lower substrate
and soil. When these bacteria consume waste particles in the water they convert them into
other substances, such as methane, carbon dioxide and new cellular material. Some of these
substances are used as food by plants and other bacteria (Christina, 2005).
2.4.2.4.1.2. Subsurface Flow (SSF) wetland
In SSF wetland, cell is filled with a treatment media, such as rock or gravel, which is placed
on top of the soil or lining on the cell bottom. The depth of the media layer is usually 30 to 60
cm. In properly functioning system, the wastewater flows just below the media surface and
remain unexposed to the atmosphere while it saturates the layer below (Figure 2.3). The
saturated media and soil, together with the wetland plants roots, create conditions below the
surface of the system that are conducive to treatment.
Figure 2.3. Subsurface flow wetland (OWDP, 2001)
Treatment in the SSF system is more efficient than in the FWS wetland because the media
provides a greater number of small surfaces, pores and crevices where treatment can occur.
Waste-consuming bacterial attach themselves to the various surfaces, and waste materials in
the water become trapped in the pores and crevices on the media and in the spaces between
media (USEPA, 1993). Vegetation in a wetland provides a substrate (roots, stems, and leaves)
19
upon which microorganisms can grow as they break down organic materials. This community
of microorganisms is known as the periphyton. The periphyton and natural chemical
processes are responsible for approximately 90% of pollutant removal and waste breakdown
(Wikipedia, 2007).
Commonly used plants are cattails, bulrushes and reeds. These plants are able to grow
extensive roots even in these anaerobic conditions. The area where the roots grow is called the
root zone and if cells are alternated or allowed to rest periodically, or if the water level is
regularly cycled, the roots can reach throughout the media layer (Pottir and Karathanosis,
2001). The vegetation on a SSF wetland bed is not a major factor in nutrient removal by the
system. According to Kvet et al. (1999) wetland plant can remove up to 20% of nutrients
found within treatment effluent depending on the type of vegetation. Maine et al. (2006) also
stated that, analysis of macrophyte biomass and tissue N concentration suggested that the
biomass N pool represented less than 10% of the N removed from the incoming wastewater.
The submerged plant roots do provide substrate for microbial processes and since most
emergent macrophytes can transmit oxygen from the leaves to their roots there are aerobic
micro-sites on the rhizome and root surfaces. Wetland macrophytes transport oxygen into the
root zone through lenticles, which are small openings on the above portions of these plants,
and aerenchymous tissue, which transport gases to and from the roots (Hammer, 1992; Brix,
1994; Kadlec and Knight, 1996; Newman et al., 2000). The remainder of the submerged
environment in the SSF wetland tends to be devoid of oxygen. This indicates biological
treatment in SSF wetlands is mostly anaerobic because the layers of media and soil remain
saturated and unexposed to the atmosphere (Pottir and Karathanosis, 2001). Furthermore, the
macrophytes contribute to wastewater treatment by providing additional surfaces where
bacterial can reside and where waste materials can become trapped (Faithfull, 1996; Joseph,
2005).
Generally, in subsurface constructed wetland, water goes through a series of purification
process, which includes biological degradation, filtration, sedimentation and adsorption
resulting in the significance reduction of organic compounds, suspended solids and also
20
nitrogen compounds, phosphorus and pathogen (Reed et al., 1987; Reed, 1993). Studies have
shown the use of SSF for different types of wastewater. According to Tchobanoglono (1997)
using subsurface constructed wetland a BOD5, TSS and TN concentration less than 25 mg/l,
15 mg/l and 12 mg/l can be achieved. Cristina et al. (2007) reported TSS removal of 92% and
57% at a HRT of 6.8 days and 3.4 days using Typha latifolia for tannery wastewater
treatment. Prabu and Udayasoorian (2003) showed removal of BOD5 (77%, 74%, 64%), COD
(62%, 55%, 44%) and TSS (77%, 67%, 72%) using Phragmitus australis, Typha latifolia and
Cyperus pangorei respectively for the treatment of pulp and paper industry.
However, to avoid clogging and to increase performance of subsurface constructed wetland,
for horizontal subsurface beds, some authors do not recommend the application of organic
loadings higher than 67.25 KgBOD5/ha/day (Metcalf and Eddy, 1991) or out of the range of
67 – 157 KgBOD5/ha/day, and for TSS 45 – 168 KgTSS/ha/day (USEPA, 2000b). Garcia et
al. (2004) have reported that in order to obtain a BOD5 removal of 90%, for urban
wastewater, an organic surface loading of 200 Kg/ha/day should not be exceeded (based on
the first year of operation system).
SSF constructed wetlands are recommended for areas where an exposed wastewater treatment
site may not be suitable due to potential health and safety concerns. Odors, mosquito and flies
are not a problem with proper system design, construction and maintenance. Due to the fact
that subsurface wetland has more surface area than SF wetland, it has higher reaction rates
and therefore can be smaller in area. All of the potential advantages of the SSF concept may
be offset by the relatively high cost to procure, deliver, and place the gravel media in the bed,
even though the total area required will be less than for a SF wetland (Reed et al., 1995).
A survey indicates that the capital costs for SSF wetland systems averaged around $200,000
per hectare ($87,000/ac) and the FWS were about $50,000 per hectare ($22,000/ac). The
major cost difference of the two systems is in the expense of procuring the rock or gravel
media, hauling it to the site, and placing it. Although the construction cost per hectare is
higher for SSF wetlands, the design flow rates at currently operating SSF systems are also
much higher than at the FWS type. As a result, for the systems included in the survey, the unit
21
cost is $163/m3 ($0.62/gal) of wastewater treated for the SSF type, and $206/m3 ($0.78/gal)
for the FWS type (USEPA, 1993).
2.4.2.4.2. Role of plants in constructed wetland
As reported by Greenway (2003), macrophytes are the dominant feature of both subsurface
and surface flow constructed wetlands. In SSF wetlands, emergent macrophytes grow in a
saturated substrate which may be intermittently flooded and drained. One of the most
important mechanisms for pollutant removal in wetlands is done by biological means
(Debusk, 1999a), in which plants play partial role. Plants can be involved, either directly or
indirectly, in the removal of pollutants present in wastewater. When plants directly uptake
contaminants into their root structures, this process is called phytodegradation, when plants
secret substances that adds to biological degradation, this process is called rhizodegradation.
The process from where contaminants entered the plant biomass and transpired through the
plant leaves is called phytovolatization (ITRC, 2003).
However, the choice of plants is an important issue in constructed wetland, as they must
survive the potential toxic effects of the wastewater and its variability. Wetland ecosystem
support plant communities dominated by the species that are able to tolerate either permanent
or periodic saturation. These hydrophytic species have adapted to environments that, for
atleast a portion of the growing season, are anaerobic. Additionally, plants in tidally
influenced wetlands have adapted to salinity levels that would be toxic to other species
(ITRC, 2003). Furthermore, plant species are assumed to be adequate as long as they have fast
growth rate, rapid establishment, large biomass with a well developed below ground (root
mat) system (Brisson and Chazarenc, 2009).
Aquatic plants have both structural and physiological adaptations to water logging, which
allows them to tolerate anoxia in saturated substrates (Mitsch and Gosselink, 2000). Emergent
macrophytes that have been used successfully in surface flow treatment wetlands and
subsurface flow treatment wetlands are adapted to cope with anoxia associated with
permanent water logging or saturated solids respectively.
22
Most importantly emergent plants stabilize the wetland bed surface, provide an attachment
surface for microbes insulate the bed and assist in decomposition of pollutants in the water by
providing oxygen to the microbes in the root zone and consuming nutrients to build additional
biomass. The diffused oxygen will be available on the surface of the smaller roots with in the
root zone in the bed. These aerobic microsites on the root hair provide potential contact
surfaces for the nitrification of ammonia (Ling, 2006).
However; plants capacity to supply oxygen to the root zone and nutrient uptake varies among
species due to the difference in vascular tissue, metabolism and root distribution (Gersberg et
al., 1986; Steinberg and Coonrod, 1994; Jackson and Armstrong, 1999). This also suggests
that, if the plant is expected to play a major role, the depth of the bed should not exceed the
potential root development for the plant species selected.
In addition, apart from providing attachment sites and diffusible oxygen to bacteria, root mats
increase wastewater residence time and retention of suspended organic particles, which upon
degradation avail nutrients to bacteria and plants (Joseph, 2005). Furthermore; during the
active growth period plants are able to significantly reduce pollutants than in the senescent
phase, even though it still contribute some (Myers et al., 2001).
According to Guntenspergen et al. (1989) 17 emergent species, 4 submergent species, and 11
floating species have been used in wetlands for treating municipal wastewater. Kadlec and
Knight (1996) also listed 37 families of vascular plants that have been used in water quality
treatment. These include cattails (Typha spp.), reeds (Phragmites communis), rushes (Juncus
spp.), bulrushes (Scirpus spp.) and sedges (Carex spp.) (Hammer, 1992; Knight et al., 2000;
Pontier et al., 2004). Constructed wetland usually requires time for plant development to be
fully operational. According to Kadlec et al. (2000), in general a complete root–rhizome
development for a newly constructed wetland may require 3–5 years. Wood (1990) also noted
that it takes six to twelve months for an adequate stand of vegetation to develop, though it
may be three to four years before the stand is fully developed with and active rhizosphere. For
instance, for Phragmites, three to four growing seasons are usually needed to reach maximum
standing crop but in some systems it may take even longer (Vymazal and Kr+opfelova, 2005).
23
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Site Description
The study was conducted inside the Modjo tannery share company found in Modjo town, 75
Km South of Addis Ababa. Generally Modjo town is located 8-35° north and 39-10° east at
an attitude of 1825 m above mean sea level (EMA, 1988). The tannery produces various types
of leather from sheep and goat skin and cattle hide. The unit processed an average of 3399
goat skin, 2564 sheep skin and 255 cattle hide daily during the study period. On average, the
tannery processed 25 tones of skin to wet blue and crust leather and produced 250 m3 effluent
daily (Tadesse et al., 2003), in which the effluent is directly discharged into the adjacent
Modjo river that ends up in Koka reservoir, that is used for hydro-electric power generation
for some part of the country.
Figure 3.1. Map of the study area.
24
3.2. Pilot constructed wetland establishment
In order to establish the constructed wetland at Modjo tannery premises, seven parallel
subsurface flow wetlands were constructed with unit lengths of 4.25 m, width of 0.8 m and
height of 0.6 m at length to width ratio of 5:1. To avoid percolation (seepage) of wastewater
from the constructed wetland to the ground, the internal part of the wetland was lined with
polyethylene sheet. Then in order to support the root mat of the different plants used, gravel
of different size was used. Coarse size gravel was used near the inlet of the wetland, which
helps to avoid clogging and facilitate water distribution, and the rest was filled with medium
(03) and fine (00) size gravel (Figure 3.2). Each wetland accommodates a volume of 714
Liter, since the porosity of the gravel filled was 35% as estimated by the USEPA (1993).
Figure 3.2. Different stage of the subsurface wetland construction
3.3. Plant material and experimental start-up
To evaluate the treatment efficiency of constructed wetland, plants of different species were
selected based on literature and abundance around Modjo. Six plants were selected, namely,
Cyperus Papyrus L., Cyperus Alopecuroides Rottb., Typha domingensis Pers., Schenoplectus
corymbosus (Roem and Schult) Rayn., Sesbania sesban (L.) Merr and Aeschynomene
elaphroxylon (Guill. and Perr.) Jaub (Figure 3.3). Among the six species, Aechynomene spp.
was collected from Ziway and the rest five were collected from the swampy area of the
Awassa Lake. The plants specimen samples were taken to Addis Ababa University (AAU)
25
National Herbarium for identification. The remaining (one) cell was used as control (with no
plant) to compare the treatment efficiency of each plants.
a b c d e f
Figure 3.3. The different plants used for the constructed wetland after 3 months.
a. Cyperus papyrus c. Cyperus alopcuroides e. Sesbania sesban b. Typha domingensis d. Schenoplectus corymbosus f. Aeschenomene elaphroxylon
After transplantation, the plants in the constructed wetland cells were fully-grown with tap
water irrigation for nearly 3 months, for the plants stabilization. According to Davis (1995)
planting should be allowed to become well established before the wastewater is introduced
into the system since the plants need an opportunity to overcome the stress of planting before
other stresses are introduced. Then, the wastewater was diluted with tap water at different
percentage (Table 3.1) was introduced for the first one month, because gradual rather than
sudden increase in the concentration of the wastewater applied reduces shock to the
vegetation (Davis, 1995) and provide adaptation period for the plants..
Table 3.1. Percentage ratio used to dilute the wastewater with tap water
Days Tap water (%) Wastewater (%)
7 – 18 75 25
19 – 28 50 50
29 - 8 25 75
9 - onwards 0 100
26
The wastewater from the industry was diverted from the main wastewater stream using a
diverting channel. To reduce the substantial portion of the suspended solids, the wastewater
passes through two screens installed within the diverting channel. In order to collect and
distribute the wastewater to be treated for each cell, the water was pumped from the diverting
channel using a 5.5 hp pump into a tanker of 5000 L capacity collection tank which
subsequently flow to a 500 L equalization tank. The equalization tank helps for settlement of
suspended solids, and controls the flow rate to the constructed wetland. The influent flow rate
from the equalization tank distributed to each constructed wetland was 1225 l/day through a
polyvinylchloride (PVC) pipe of size 50 mm installed with flow control valves. The
perforated pipes of the same size were used for equal distribution of the wastewater into the
constructed wetland cells. The wastewater hydraulic retention time (HRT) was 5 days, which
was calculated based on Darcy’s law
T = Vp
Q
Where T is residence time (in days), V the volume of constructed wetland (in m3), p stands for
the porosity of the medium and Q is the flow rate through the constructed wetland (in m3/day,
which is calculated as (Qi+Qo)/2, where Qi is inflow and Qo is outflow. The inflow and
outflow rate was measured for five days using a stopwatch and measuring cylinder. The
average inflow and outflow rate 1225 l/day and 756 l/day respectively.
3.4. Wastewater sampling and analysis
The constructed wetland cells were irrigated with the wastewater starting from a mid August
up to February. Samples were taken for two consecutive months from February to April,
2009. The wastewater samples were collected from eight different places at an interval of five
days, a total of 80 samples, were taken during the study period.
As shown in Figure 3.4, the samples were taken from the equalization tank (as an influent,
SS0) and the point of the discharge from the constructed wetland (SS1, SS2, SS3, SS4, SS5,
SS6 and SS7). The samples were collected using sterile plastic sampling bottles and
transported to the Department of Biology, AAU, for analysis.
27
Figure 3.4. Schematic diagram of the pilot scale subsurface flow constructed wetland
Wastewater characterization was carried out for the following physico-chemical water quality
parameters; pH, T°, BOD5, COD, TN, ammonium, nitrate, TDS, electrical conductivity, TSS,
total Cr, sulfide, and sulfate. The parameters were measured using standard methods. COD,
TN, ammonium, nitrate, sulfide and sulfate were measured by spectrophotometer (DR/2010,
HACH, USA) according to HACH instructions. BOD5 was measured according to the
standards methods (APHA, 1998). Total Cr was also determined using Atomic Absorption
Spectrophotometer (Buck Scientific model 210 VGP, USA). TDS, T° and electrical
conductivity was measured using conductivity meter (ELEMETRON, CC401, Spain). pH was
measured using a pH meter. Finally, gravimetric method was used to analyze TSS by
evaporating the sample at 105°c and measuring the residue using balance (SCALTEC, SBA
32).
28
To calculate the percent removal of the different parameters the following formula was used
% removal ═ Co – Cf × 100
Co
Where Co is the initial concentration and Cf is the final concentration.
3.5. Statistical data analysis
Statistical analysis was performed using the SPSS program (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA;
version 14.0). One way ANOVA, using Tukey’s test, was used to compare the means between
influent and effluent, and treatment efficiency among each unit for the selected parameters.
29
4. Results and Discussion
In this study the removal efficiency of the different emergent plants in the different cells of
constructed wetland was recorded on the basis of selected phisico-chemical parameters. The
average temperature and pH of the whole system were 22.5 °c and 8.4, respectively.
4.1. BOD5, COD and TSS removal
In this study, the average BOD5, COD and TSS of the influent were 2505 ± 134.3 mg/l, 4647
± 168.7 mg/l and 94 ± 1.5 mg/l respectively. The average BOD5, value of the different cells at
the effluent were found to be between 383.5 ± 9.6 - 534.6 ± 33.6 mg/l, whereas the COD and
TSS values were between 1453.2 ± 111 – 2770.2 ± 113.5 mg/l and 54.1 ± 1.9 – 78.9 ± 2.6
mg/l respectively (Table 4.1).
Table 4.1. Average influent and effluent concentrations (Mean ± SE) of BOD5, COD and
TSS, and removal percentage of each cell
CW BOD5 COD TSS
Influent Effluent % Influent Effluent % Influent Effluent %
1 2505 ± 134.3
397.9 ± 8.7
84.1 4647 ± 168.7
2263.8 ± 87.6
51.3 94 ± 1.5
78.9 ± 2.6
16
2 2505 ± 134.3
395.1 ± 6.3
84.2 4647 ± 168.7
1954.2 ± 40.3
57.9 94 ± 1.5
72.7 ± 1.2
22.3
3 2505 ± 134.3
408.8 ± 9.0
83.7 4647 ± 168.7
2341 ± 114.5
49.6 94 ± 1.5
54.8 ± 1.4
41.7
4 2505 ± 134.3
403 ± 8.5
83.9 4647 ± 168.7
1453.2 ± 111
68.7 94 ± 1.5
60.3 ± 0.3
35.8
5 2505 ± 134.3
534.6 ± 33.6
78.7 4647 ± 168.7
2770.2 ± 113.5
40.4 94 ± 1.5
63 ± 0.9
32.9
6 2505 ± 134.3
383.5 ± 9.6
84.7 4647 ± 168.7
1884.2 ± 100.3
59.5 94 ± 1.5
63.5 ± 1.0
32.4
7 2505 ± 134.3
442 ± 11.4
82.1 4647 ± 168.7
2708.2 ± 84.3
41.7 94 ± 1.5
54.1 ± 1.9
42.4
Note; All units are in mg/l except removal efficiency (in %)
30
As shown in Table 4.1 the maximum BOD5 (84.7%) removal was observed in the cell planted
with Sesbania sesban followed by Typha domingensis (84.2%) and Cyperus papyrus (84.1%).
In case of BOD5 removal, no statistical difference among the units was observed however all
units were significantly higher (p < 0.05) from the control unit. COD the trend was as follow
Schenoplectus corymbsus (68.7%), Sesbania sesban (59.5%) and Typha domingensis (57.9%).
Statistical analysis showed that, the COD removal from the cell panted with Schenoplectus
corymbosus was significantly higher (p < 0.05) than the rest six plants. The cell planted with
Sesbania sesban was observed to be significantly higher (p < 0.05), than cells planted with
Cyperus alopcuroides, Aeschynomene elaphroxylon and control.
The maximum TSS removal was observed in cell planted with Aeschynomene elaphroxylon
(42.4%), Cyperus alopcuroides (41.7%) and Schenoplectus corymbosus (35.8%) in decreasing
order. The cells planted with Aeschynomene elaphroxylon and Cyperus alopcuroides were
statistically higher (p < 0.05) than cell planted with Cyperus papyrus, Typha domingensis,
Sesbania sesban and control, whereas cell planted with Shenoplectus corymbosus was
statistically higher (p < 0.05) than cell planted with Cyperus papyrus and Typha domingensis.
From the result (Table 4.1), it can be seen that all of the planted cells slightly improve organic
matter (BOD and COD) removal compared with the cell without plants. It is generally
accepted that planted in SSF wetlands improve organic matter removal due to combination of
mechanisms favored by the plants (Soto et al, 1999; Stottmeister et al, 2003), and this
improvement could be caused by factors such as the growth of biofilms on the root surface,
adsorption of certain organic pollutants or the aeration potential of the plants. According to
Brix (1994), plants contribute to the reduction of high level of organic matter due to the
oxygen transfer, by the aerenchymatic tissue, to their roots. In addition, organic matter can
also be degraded when taken up by plants (Renee, 2001).
The low TSS removal efficiency in this study could be due to the fact that the TSS
concentration in the influent was low, because most have settled in the collection and
equalization tank. Suspended solid removal is very effective in subsurface constructed
wetland (USEPA, 2000), but effective removal is observed when high concentration of
31
suspended solids is present in the influent. However; this is not recommended due to the high
likelihood of clogging (Kadlec, 2004). In addition, plants contribute little to suspended solids
removal in subsurface constructed wetland since the primary mechanisms involved are
filtration and sedimentation (IWA, 2000).
In this experiment, the COD, BOD5 and TSS the effluent from the constructed wetland do not
meet the discharge limit set by the EEPA for tannery industry. The provisional discharge
limit, set by the EEPA (2003b), to water bodies, is 500 mg/l, 200 mg/l or > 90% removal and
30 mg/l for COD, BOD5 and TSS respectively. This could be due to the fact that the organic
loading rate used in this study was 130 Kg BOD5/ha/day, which is higher than 67.25 Kg
BOD5/ha/day, the recommended organic loading rate recommended by Metcalf and Eddy
(1991),
4.2. Nutrient Removal
The average influent NH4+, NO3
- and TN concentration was 565 ± 15 mg/l, 5000 ± 112.2 mg/l
and 556 ± 10.9 mg/l, respectively. After 5 days of HRT, the constructed wetlands were able to
show some reduction of concentration in the effluent. Table 4.3 below summarizes the
average concentration of TN, NH4+ and NO3
- in the effluent and removal efficiency of the
system.
32
Table 4.3. Average influent and effluent concentrations (Mean ± SE) of TN, NH4+ and NO3
-
and removal percentage of each cell
TN NH4+ NO3
-
CW Influent Effluent % Influent Effluent % Influent Effluent %
1 556 ± 10.9
329 ± 11.69
40.8 565 ± 15
417 ± 12.2
26.8 5000 ± 112.2
1345 ± 81.78
73.1
2 556 ± 10.9
260 ± 14.45
53.2 565 ± 15
446 ± 9.8
21.2 5000 ± 112.2
1545 ± 112.46
69.1
3 556 ± 10.9
423 ± 18.89
24 565 ± 15
489 ± 15.45
14.2 5000 ± 112.2
1573 ± 70.18
68.5
4 556 ± 10.9
391 ± 26.36
29.7 565 ± 15
435 ± 11.95
22.7 5000 ± 112.2
1747 ± 143.5
65
5 556 ± 10.9
390 ± 20.76
29.9 565 ± 15
521 ± 12.33
9.7 5000 ± 112.2
1842 ± 121.39
63.2
6 556 ± 10.9
232 ± 9.64
58.3 565 ± 15
471 ± 8.75
18 5000 ± 112.2
1790 ± 126.1
64.2
7 556 ± 10.9
481 ± 18.1
13.5 565 ± 15
533 ± 9.67
6.4 5000 ± 112.2
1687 ± 138.5
66.3
Note; All units are in mg/l except removal efficiency (in %)
As shown in Table 4.3, the overall removal efficiency was in range of 13.5 - 58.3%, 63.2 -
73.1% and 5.7 - 26.2% for TN, NO3- and NH4
+ respectively. The maximum TN removal was
observed in cell planted with Sesbania sesban (58.3%) followed by Typha domingensis
(53.2%) and Cyperus papyrus (40.8%). Statistical analysis showed that, TN removal was
significantly higher (p < 0.05) between cell planted with Sesbania sesban and others except
for cell planted with Typha domingensis, which was significantly higher (p < 0.05) from cells
planted with Cyperus alopcuroides, Schenoplectus corymbosus, Aeschynomene elaphroxylon
and control. In addition, when comparing removal performance of cell planted with Cyperus
papyrus with the other cells, statistical difference (p < 0.05) was observed with cells planted
with Cyperus alopcuroides and Aeschynomene elaphroxylon.
In case of NH4+, Cyperus papyrus (26.8%), Schenoplectus corymbosus (22.7%) and Typha
domingensis (21.2%) showed the maximum removal in decreasing order. Statistical analysis
indicated that cell planted with Cyperus papyrus and Schenoplectus corymbosus were
statistically higher (p < 0.05) from cell planted with Aeschynomene elaphroxylon and the
control, when compared to the others. Whereas cell planted with Typha domingensis was only
statistically higher (p < 0.05) from the control. Regarding NO3-, cell planted with Cyperus
33
papyrus (73.1%) followed by Typha domingensis (69.1%) and Cyperus alopcuroides (68.5%)
showed maximum removal, however; no statistical difference (p < 0.05) was observed among
the different cells.
TN typically consists of varying proportion of particulate organic nitrogen, dissolved organic
nitrogen, ammonium nitrogen, nitrite nitrogen and nitrate nitrogen (Reddy and Patrick, 1984;
Kadlec and Knight, 1996). Organic matter mineralization represents an important source of
ammonium, which is not nitrified because low oxygen concentration limited nitrification. Due
to nitrate in the incoming water was much greater than ammonium, the overall N showed a
reduction of 13.5 – 58.3% of the incoming N.
The low NH4+ removal in the present study may be because the constructed wetland cells in
this study have only operated for short period of time, which is not enough for good root mat
development of the plants. This indirectly decreases the aerobic region in the constructed
wetland. According to Ling (2006), in SSF constructed wetlands oxygen is available only on
the surface of the smaller roots, with in the root zone in the bed, which provides potential
contact surface for the nitrification of ammonia. Vailant et al. (2004) reported that the
nitrification process is affected by the BOD level of the wastewater because of the
competition for available oxygen between the nitrifying bacteria and the microorganisms
removing biodegradable organic matter. In addition, the ionization of ammonia, since the pH
was lower than 8.5, may add NH4+ in the effluent which in contrary result in reduced removal
efficiency.
Nitrate removal was similar in all cells, because nitrates are almost totally removed by
denitrification. D’Angelo and Reddy (1993) indicated that most of the 15N-nitrate applied to
sediment water cores was lost by denitrification. Matheson et al. (2002) performed 15N
balances in wetland a microcosm estimating that denitrification accounted for 61% of the
nitrate load, 25% was retained in the soil while only 14% was assimilated by the vegetation.
In addition, since NO3- is the form of N taken up by plants, emergent plants use it during the
growing season (Renee, 2001), but this amount may be insignificant compared to the
34
wastewater inflow loading (Brix, 1994; 1997) which in this study was 5000 ± 112.2 mg/l. The
absorbed NO3- is then converted and stored in organic form of nitrogen in wetland plants.
However; this is a temporary removal, because a large portion of this nitrogen may later be
released and recycled, as plants die and decompose.
The result obtained from this study was higher when compared with that of the provisional
discharge limit set by EEPA (2003b) for tannery industry, which are 20 mg/l and 60 mg/l or >
80 % removal for NO3- and TN. The obtained result implies the need of further research after
the system reached maturity to conclude whether the system are efficient as primary treatment
system for tannery wastewater.
4.3. Sulfate and sulfide removal
Sulfur compound is mostly found in tannery wastewater in the form of sulfate and sulfide.
The influent sulfate and sulfide average concentration was 1355 ± 78.3 mg/l and 344.2 ± 18
mg/l respectively. Table 4.5 below summarizes the average concentration of sulfur and sulfide
in the effluent and corresponding removal efficiency from the constructed wetland cells.
Table 4.5. Average influent and effluent concentration (Mean ± SE) of sulfate and sulfide, and
removal percentage of each cell
CW
Sulfate Sulfide Influent Effluent % Influent Effluent %
1 1355 ± 78.3 75 ± 8.33 94.5 344.2 ± 18 245.5 ± 9.53 28.7
2 1355 ± 78.3 60 ± 16.33 95.6 344.2 ± 18 254.2 ± 10.37 26.1
3 1355 ± 78.3 75 ± 11.18 94.5 344.2 ± 18 192.6 ± 10.3 44
4 1355 ± 78.3 70 ± 11.06 94.8 344.2 ± 18 140.3 ± 10.42 59.2
5 1355 ± 78.3 80 ± 17 94.1 344.2 ± 18 211.1 ± 28.39 38.7
6 1355 ± 78.3 50 ± 12.9 96.3 344.2 ± 18 274.8 ± 12.6 20.2
7 1355 ± 78.3 60 ± 14.53 95.8 344.2 ± 18 170.9 ± 6.36 50.3
Note; All units are in mg/l except removal efficiency (in %)
As shown in Table 4.5, the maximum removal for sulfate was observed in cell planted with
Sesbania sesban (96.3%) followed by Aeschynomene elaphroxylon (95.8%) and Typha
domingensis (95.6%), but no statistical difference (p < 0.05) was observed between the seven
35
constructed wetland cells. The cells planted with Schenoplectus corymbosus (59.2%),
Aeschynomene elaphroxylon (50.3%) and Cyperus alopcuroides (44%) showed maximum
removal for sulfide in decreasing order. The cell planted with Schenoplectus corymbosus was
observed to be statistical higher (p < 0.05) than others except from cells planted with Cyperus
alopcuroides and Aeschynomene elaphroxylon. Cell planted with Aeschynomene
elaphroxylon, when compared to others, was significantly higher (p < 0.05) from cells planted
with Cyperus papyrus, Typha domingensis and Sesbania sesban, whereas cell planted with
Cyperus alopcuroides was significantly different (p < 0.05) from cells planted with Typha
domingensis and Sesbania sesban.
A study conducted by Berhanu Genet (2007) showed sulfide removal of 98.7% (Cyperus
papyrus), 98.7% (Cyperus alternifolus) and 99% (Phoenix canariensis) for domestic
wastewater using subsurface flow constructed wetland, which have operated for four years.
Likewise, the removal efficiency obtained for sulfate was 73.7% (Cyperus papyrus), 82.2%
(Cyperus alternifolus) and 77% (Phoenix canariensis). The possible explanation for the lower
removal efficiency of sulfide in this study may be due to the short operation time of the
constructed wetland used in this study, which provides short period for the accumulation of
metals essential for sulfide reduction. In contrary, low root mat development contribute in
increasing the anaerobic region within the subsurface constructed wetland, which is suitable
for sulfate reducing bacteria, resulting in increased sulfate reduction.
In wetland systems, sulfate reduction occurs due to the presence of sulfate reducing bacteria
in the substrate coupled with sufficient organic material to stimulate their activity (Martha,
2003). Sulfate reducing bacteria remove sulfate from the water column by metabolizing
sulfate into living tissue or by reducing sulfur to produce energy (Hsu, 1998; Simi and
Mitchell, 1999). These microorganisms are obligate anaerobes that utilize sulfate as terminal
electron acceptor in anaerobic respiration (Aisling and Marinus, 2006), eventually resulting in
sulfate reduction. The reduction of sulfate by the micro organisms conversely, results in the
production of sulfide through the transfer of electron produced by the simultaneous oxidation
of the organic compounds. In constructed wetland, sulfide, due to its unstable nature, readily
36
reacts with metal to form precipitate metal sulfide. Even though, there is some permanent loss
of sulfide in the form of hydrogen sulfide.
The average sulfate and sulfide concentration at this study was in range of 50 - 80 mg/l for
sulfate and 140.3 - 274.8 mg/l for sulfide, but the permissible discharge limit set by EEPA
(2003b) for tanneries, which is 1000 mg/l and 1 mg/l for sulfate and sulfide respectively. The
obtained effluent concentration was within the permissible discharge limit for sulfate,
whereas, the sulfide concentration was by far higher than that of the EEPA standard.
4.4. Chromium removal
Chromium average influent concentration was 48.78 ± 2.32 mg/l. Table 4.7 below
summarizes the average effluent concentration with their respective removal efficiency.
Table 4.7. Average influent and effluent concentration (Mean ± SE) of total chromium, and
removal percentage of each cell
CW Total chromium
Influent Effluent %
1 48.78 ± 2.32 2.43 ± 0.46 95
2 48.78 ± 2.32 1.45 ± 0.3 97
3 48.78 ± 2.32 1.1 ± 0.23 97.8
4 48.78 ± 2.32 0.79 ± 0.15 98.4
5 48.78 ± 2.32 0.95 ± 0.23 98
6 48.78 ± 2.32 1.6 ± 0.28 96.7
7 48.78 ± 2.32 2.38 ± 0.6 95.1
Note; All units are in mg/l except removal efficiency (in %)
Regarding the removal efficiency, the maximum removal was observed in cells planted with
Schenoplectus corymbosus (98.4%) followed by control (98%) and Cyperus alopcuroides
(97.8%), likewise, the minimum removal was for cell planted with Cyperus papyrus (95%).
Statistical analysis showed that, the Cr removal in cell planted with Schenoplectus
corymbosus was significantly higher (p < 0.05) from cells planted with Cyperus papyrus and
37
Aeschenomene elaphroxylon. Whereas no statistical difference (p < 0.05) was observed
between cells planted with Cyperus alopcuroides and control, with that of the other cells.
A study conducted by Maine et al. (2006) has shown a chromium removal efficiency of 86%
for metallurgic wastewater treatment, which support the result of this study. High removal of
chromium was obtained because in constructed wetland, heavy metals were removed using
different processes. In constructed wetland metals may tend to accumulate on the root
surfaces of plants, rather than being absorbed by the plant (Debusk, 1999b). Macrophytes
roots release oxygen to the rhizosphere (Reddy et al., 1989) and produce the precipitation of
iron to form the so called iron plaque. Metal binding affinity to iron oxyhydroxides cause
metal accumulation near the macrophytes roots (Otte et al., 1995), this also indicates that the
presence of well developed root mat is essential to have good chromium removal.
Metals can also be removed through a process called chemisorption. Chemisorption is a
process which enables metals, such as chromium, copper, lead and zinc to form strong
chemical complexes with the organic material that is present in the constructed wetland.
Furthermore, the metals, chromium and copper, can be chemically bound to clays and oxides
that finally can settle out (USEPA, 1999). This is the process through which most of the
chromium removal occurs in constructed wetland. This may explain the high removal
efficiency of chromium obtained in the control, which was 98.1%.
The effluent from the constructed wetlands in this study was compared with that of the EEPA
(2003b) standard for tanneries, which is 2 mg/l, to check if effluent from the pilot constructed
wetland cell meets the admissible limit. All cells used have resulted in the effluent chromium
concentration lower than 2 mg/l except for cell planted with Cyperus papyrus and
Aeschynomene elaphroxylon, which result in concentration of 2.43 ± 0.46 mg/l and 2.38 ± 0.6
mg/l respectively.
4.5. TDS and electrical conductivity removal
As summarized in Table 4.9, during the study period the average conductivity and TDS
concentration in the influent was 16700 ± 700 µs/cm and 10700 ± 200 mg/l respectively. The
38
maximum TDS and electrical conductivity removal was observed in cell planted with
Schenoplectus corymbosus followed by Cyperus alopcuroides and Cyperus papyrus whereas
the minimum observed in cell planted with Aeschynomene elaphroxylon.
Table 4.9. Average influent and effluent concentrations (Mean ± SE) of electrical
conductivity and TDS, and removal percentage of each cell
CW Electrical conductivity (EC) TDS Influent Effluent % Influent Effluent %
1 16700 ± 700 137800 ± 436 17.2 10700 ± 200 6.340 ± 210.7 40.6
2 16700 ± 700 14538 ± 371.8 12.7 10700 ± 200 6536 ± 166.8 38.7
3 16700 ± 700 13754 ± 499 17.4 10700 ± 200 6256 ± 228.9 41.4
4 16700 ± 700 13136 ± 593.8 21 10700 ± 200 5926 ± 268.7 44.4
5 16700 ± 700 14767 ± 417.3 11.3 10700 ± 200 6604 ± 171.5 38.2
6 16700 ± 700 14072.2 ± 683.9 15.5 10700 ± 200 6391 ± 284.1 40.2
7 16700 ± 700 14954 ± 461.3 10.2 10700 ± 200 6784 ± 211.1 36.5
Note; EC in µs/cm, TDS in mg/l and removal efficiency in %
However, statistical analysis showed that, TDS and conductivity removal among the different
constructed wetland cells were not significantly different (p < 0.05) (Table 4.10).
A wide variety of inorganic ions and organic substances contained in a molecular, ionized or
micro granular suspended form, many of which may not be considered contaminants,
contribute the sum total of dissolved solids. A number of these are biologically utilized or
chemically reactive in wetlands. However, TDS often includes relatively high concentration
of ‘conservative’ or relatively unreactive, dissolved compounds, which are not removed in
wetlands. For example, wetlands have very little effect on the concentration of sodium and
chloride ions, or more generally, on salinity levels (Debusk, 1999b).
In addition as plants decay, dissolved organic particles are released and contribute for TDS
concentration. Therefore reduction of TDS concentration in wetland is often insignificant
(low) despite high removal rates of target contaminants. Even though, there was decrease in
content of TDS as a result of different reactions taking place and the straining of the
39
particulates matter by the action of filtration and deposition of suspended solid as the
wastewater flowed through the subsurface flow constructed wetland.
On the other hand, during the study period, electrical conductivity range varied from 13163 –
14954 µs/cm, which was higher than the toxicity threshold level 404 µs/cm, for the growth of
aquatic plants (Sooknah and Wilkie, 2004). Conductivity measures the solution’s ability to
carry electrical current. Typically, this measures the amount of dissolved salts in a solution.
Most tanneries in Ethiopia use skin and hide preserved with salt (NaCl) as their raw material,
inevitably increasing the Na+ and Cl- ion concentration in the wastewater. This can explain the
reason why the conductivity was high during the study time.
The high concentration of electrical conductivity in the tannery wastewater may have negative
effect on the removal efficiency of the plants. Plants mostly have a toxicity range of
conductivity with in which they can tolerate and grow. In this study, cell planted with
Sesbania sesban and Aeschynomene elaphroxylon were highly stressed (almost dried) when
compared to the other plants used in the study. However; to be certain there is a need to
conduct further study on the tolerable electrical conductivity threshold range of the plants
used for the pilot constructed wetland.
When comparing the TDS discharge limit set by the EEPA for discharge to water, which is
3000 mg/l, with the result obtained from this study, which is in range of 5926 – 6784 mg/l,
was very high.
40
5. Conclusion and Recommendations
5.1. Conclusion
During the experimental period, the introduction of high strength tannery wastewater created
very poor growing conditions for the plants, with some plants even dying as a result. At the
first week of application of wastewater all units have shown sign of stress however Cyperus
spp., Typha domingensis and Schenoplectus spp. were able to withstand the wastewater from
the tannery. On the other hand Sesbania sesban and Aeschenomene elaphroxylon were highly
affected by the tannery wastewater, where the stress could be due to the presence of toxic
level of pollutant in the wastewater.
From the result, it is clear that constructed wetland can remove and retain nutrients and
pollutants from tannery wastewater. During the study period, high removal efficiency for total
Cr (98.4%), COD (68.7%) and sulfide (59.2%) was observed in cell planted with
Schenoplectus corymbosus. Whereas cell planted with Sesbania sesban showed high removal
efficiency for sulfate (96.3%), BOD5 (84.7%) and TN (58.3%), while cell planted with
Cyperus papyrus showed higher removal efficiency for NO3- (73.2%) and NH4
+ (26.2%). In
addition, cell planted with Typha domingensis showed good removal efficiency for BOD5
(84.2%), NO3- (69.1%), COD (57.9%), TN (53.2%), and NH4
+ (21.1%).
The difference in removal efficiency among the plants used was due to the difference in plant
structure, which includes above and belowground plant material. The removal efficiency
between the planted and the unplanted cell, during the study period, was not that much
different for some of the parameter tested. This performance of the planted and unplanted
beds obtained in the present study may be explained by the fact that the constructed wetland
may have not reached maturity. The other reason could be plants minimal uptake capacity for
some parameters.
Generally, with six months of operation, encouraging removal efficiencies for the studied
parameters were obtained. Cell planted with Schenoplectus corymbosus, Cyperus
41
alopcuroides, Typha domingensis and Sesbania sesban showed high removal efficiency for
selected parameters indicating that these plants have a potential to serve as a candidate for
large scale tannery wastewater treatment. However, evaluation of the system over longer
period is required before concluding whether these plants in subsurface constructed wetland
are efficient for primary treatment of tannery wastewater.
5.2. Recommendations
In order to introduce a subsurface constructed wetland system for the treatment of tannery
wastewater in developing countries like Ethiopia, further study should be done on
1. Determining electrical conductivity toxicity threshold for plants used in this study
and other potential locally available plants is essential, because plants develop
good root mat and take up nutrient when they grow in a given environment.
2. Subsurface flow constructed wetland using a combination of more than one type of
plant is essential, as a various types of plant tolerate wastewater differently and
their ability to remove nutrients from the effluent also differs.
3. Periodic harvesting of plants in constructed wetland is essential to avoid returning
of taken up pollutant to the system when decomposing. To ensure the safety of the
final use or disposal site of the harvested plant material, conducting study on the
chromium concentration at different parts of the plant is essential.
4. Study on root mat and above ground structure of the selected plant species.
5. Microbial dynamics inside the subsurface constructed wetland system.
6. Finally, the use of subsurface constructed wetland system as a secondary treatment
can also help in selecting the appropriate position of the system. (help in
comparing the efficiency, when used as primary or secondary treatment system)
42
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Annex
Annex 1. List of tannery industries around the Modjo River
No. Name of the Company
1 Modjo tannery Share Company
2 Shoa tannery
3 Colba tannery PLc.
4 Ethiopia tannery share Company
5 Hora tannery
6 Mohammed Abdulah tannery
7 Negash Mustefa tannery
8 Rashid Abdulah tannery
9 Nuru Hassen Leather processing
10 Gelan tannery
11 Lusi tannery
12 Geotraco tannery PLc.
13 Silash Haile Leather processing
14 Mesaco Global
Oromia Investment Commission (2005)
54
Annex 2. Modjo tannery influent characteristics during the study period
All are in mg/l except pH, temperature and electrical conductivity
Parameter Mean Standard error pH 8.4 0.14
Temperature 22.45 0.74
BOD5 2505.5 134.28
COD 4647 168.68
TSS 93.97 4.82
TN 556 10.87
NH4+ 565 15
NO3- 5000 112.25
Sulfide 344.2 17.98
Sulfate 1355 78.3
Total chromium 49.55 8.26
TDS 10,680 768.63
Electrical conductivity 16,652 698.9
55
Annex 3. EEPA tannery wastewater emission standards to inland water.
Parameters EEPA discharge standards
Tannery General
pH 40 °c
Temperature 6-9 pH unit
Sulfide 1
Sulfate - 1000
COD 500
BOD > 90% removal or 200
TN > 80% removal or 60
NO3- - 20
NH4+ -
Conductivity - -
TDS - 3000
TSS 50
Cr (as total Cr) 2