2 doing social psychology research

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Social Psychology

Chapter II : Doing Social Psychology Research

[ Anmerkung: Im Groen und Ganzen ist das zweite Kapitel eine Zusammenfassung des Buches

Social Research Methods. Fast alles, das im Folgenden zusammengefasst wurde, sollte daherschon grtenteils bekannt sein.]

Social psychology can, and should, be studied according to scientific principles.

Why Should You Learn About Research Methods?

Training in research methods in psychology can improve your reasoning about real-life

events. It can make you a better, more sophisticated consumer of information in general.

You will be in a better position to critically evaluate the information to which youre

exposed and separate fact from fiction.

Developing Ideas: Beginning the Research Process

Asking Questions:

Every social psychology study begins with a question. And the question comes from

everywhere; also from reading about research that has already been done.

Searching the Literature:

Once the researcher has an idea, it is important to see what research has already been

done on this topic and related topics.

Electronic databases can store tremendous amounts of information Going from article to article, sometimes called treeingcan prove very valuable in

tracking down information about the research question.

The question should become more precise, more specific to particular sets of conditions

that are likely to have different effects, and more readily testable.

Hypotheses and Theories:

Hypothesis a testable prediction about the conditions under which an event will occur.

Formulating a hypothesis is a critical step in toward planning and conducting research. It

allows us to move from the realm of common sense to the rigors of the scientific

method.

Theory an organized set of principles used to explain observed phenomena. Theories are usually evaluated in terms of three criteria: simplicity, comprehensiveness,

and generativity.

The best theories are elegant, and precise; encompass all of the relevant information; and

lead to new hypotheses, further research, and better understanding.

Basic and Applied Research:

Basic research research whose goal is to increase the understanding of human

behavior, often by testing hypotheses based on theory.

Applied research research whose goals are to enlarge the understanding of naturally

occurring events and to find solutions to practical problems.

Despite their differences, basic and applied research are closely connected in social

psychology.


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Refining Ideas: Defining and Measuring Social Psychological Variables

Conceptual Variables and Operational Definitions: From Abstract to the Specific:

When a researcher first develops a hypothesis, the variables typically are in an abstract,

general form. These are conceptual variables.

In order to test specific hypotheses, we must then transform these conceptual variables

into variables that can be manipulated or measured in a study. The specific way in whicha conceptual variable is manipulated or measured is called the operational definition of

the variable.

Operational definition the specific procedures for manipulating or measuring a

conceptual variable.

Researchers evaluate the manipulation and measurement of variables in terms of their

construct validity.

Construct validity the extent to which the measures used in a study measure the

variables they were designed to measure and the manipulations in an experiment

manipulate the variables they were designed to manipulate.

Measuring Variables: Self Reports and Observations: Self Reports: Going Straight to the Source

Collecting self-reports in which participants disclose their thoughts, feelings, desires,

and actions - is a widely used measurement technique in social psychology. Self-reports

give the researcher access to an individuals beliefs and perceptions. But self-reports are

not always accurate and can be misleading (e.g. Self reports are affected by the way in

which questions are asked, self reports often ask participants to report on thoughts or

behaviors from the past, and participants memory for these thoughts and behaviors may

be suspect ).

To minimize this problem, some use interval contingentself reports, in whichrespondents report their experiences at regular intervals ( e.g. Once a day ).

Some collectsignal contingentself reports; here respondents report their experiencesas soon as possible after being signaled to do so.

And some researchers collect event - contingentself reports, in which respondents

report on a designated set of events as soon as possible after such events have occurred.

Most self reports methods require participants to provide specific answers to specific

questions. In contrast, narrative studies collectlengthy responses on a general topic.Narrative materials can be generated from by participants at the researchers request or

taken from other sources (such as diaries, speeches, books, chat room discussions ).

Observations: Looking On

Researcher can also observe peoples action. Interrater reliability the degree to which different observers agree on their

observations.

The advantage of observational methods is that they avoid our sometimes faulty

recollections and distorted interpretations of our own behavior.

Testing Ideas: Research Designs

The field generally emphasizes objective, systematic, and quantifiable approaches.

The most popular and preferred research method in social psychology is

experimentation, in which researchers can test cause-and-effect relationships.

Another popular approach is correlational research, which looks for associations

between two variables without establishing cause and effect. A relatively new technique is called meta-analysis, which integrates the research

findings of many different studies.


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Descriptive Research: Discovering Trends and Tendencies:

The goal ofdescriptive research in social psychology is, to describe people and their

thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

Particular methods of doing descriptive research include observing people, studying

records, of past events and behaviors, and surveying people.

Observational Studies

We can learn about other people simply by observing them, and some social

psychological questions can be addressed through observational studies.

Social psychologists are trained to be systematic and unbiased in their observations and

to report all of the data that are relevant to the research question, not just the data that

support a particular hypothesis.

Archival Studies

Involves examining existing records of past events and behaviors, such as newspaperarticles, medical records, diaries, sports statistics, personal ads, crime statistics, or hits

on a Web page.

A major advantage is that the researchers can be sure that they did not influence the

behavior by their presence, because they are observing behavior secondhand.

A limitation of this approach is that available records are not always complete or

sufficiently detailed, and they may have been collected in a nonsystematic manner.

Surveys

Conducting surveys involves asking people questions about their attitudes, beliefs, and

behaviors.

Surveys can be conducted in person, over the phone, by mail, or via the Internet.

Surveys can be affected strongly by subtle aspects of the wording and context.

The researchers first must identify thepopulation in which they are interested. From this

general population, the researchers select a subset, orsample, of individuals. The samplemust be representative. To best way to achieve this representativeness is to use random

sampling a method of selecting participants for a study so that everyone in a

population has an equal chance of being in the study.

Correlational Research: Looking for Associations:

Most research hypotheses in social psychology concern the relationship between

variables. Correlational research research designed to measure the association between

variables that are not manipulated by the researcher.

Correlation Coefficient

Figure 2.1 / page 39

Correlation coefficient a statistical measure of the strength and direction of the

association between two variables.

Correlation coefficients can range from +1.0 to -1.0.

A positive correlation coefficient indicates that as one variable increases, so does the

other. A negative correlation coefficient indicates that the two variables go in opposite

directions: As one goes up, the other tends to go down. A correlation close to 0 indicates that there is no consistent relationship at all.

Correlations obtained at a single point in time across a number of individuals are called


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concurrent.

Correlations also can be obtained at different times from the same individuals. These

correlations are calledprospective.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Correlational Research

Correlational research has many advantages (e.g. It can study the associations of

naturally occurring variables that cannot be manipulated or induced such as gender,race, ethnicity, or age).

Despite the advantages, correlational research has one very serious disadvantage:

Correlation is not causation !!! ( Figure 2.2 / page 40 )

Correlations tell researchers about the strength and direction of relationships between

variables, thus helping them understand these variables better and allowing them to use

one variable to predict the other. Correlations can be extremely useful in developing new

hypotheses to guide future research.

Experiments: Looking for Cause and Effect:

If we want to examine cause-and-effect relationships, we need to conduct an

experiment. Experiment a form of research that can demonstrate causal relationships because (1)

the experimenter has control over the events that occur and (2) participants are randomly

assigned to conditions.

Random assignment a method of assigning participants to the various conditions of

an experiment so that each participant in the experiment has an equal chance of being in

any of the conditions.

Table 2.2 / page 41; summarizes the distinctions between correlational and experimental

research.

Random Sampling Versus Random Assignment

Table 2.3 / page 42; summarizes these differences.

Laboratory and Field Experiments

Most experiments in social psychology are conducted in a laboratory setting. Thissetting enables researchers to have control over the setting, measure participants

behaviors precisely, and keep conditions identical for participants.

Fieldresearch is conducted in real-world settings outside the laboratory. Its advantage is

that people are more likely to act naturally in a natural setting than in a laboratory in

which they know they are being studied. The disadvantage of field settings is that the

experimenter often has less control and cannot ensure that the participants in the various

conditions of the experiment will be exposed to the same things.

Independent and Dependent Variables

In an experiment, researchers manipulate one ore more independent variables and

examine the effect of these manipulations on one or more dependent variables.

Independent variable in an experiment, the factors experimenters manipulate to see if

they affect the dependent variable.

Dependent variable in an experiment, the factors experimenters measure to see if

they are affected by the independent variables.

Subject variables

subject variables variables that characterize pre-existing differences among theparticipants in a study ( e.g. sex ).


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Main Effects and Interactions

main effect a statistical term indicating the overall effect that an independent variable

has on the dependent variable, ignoring all other independent variables.

Interactions a statistical term indicating the change in the effect of each independent

variable as a function of other independent variables.

Statistical Significance The fact that results are statistically significant does not mean that they are absolutely

certain.

Internal Validity: Did the Independent Variable Cause the Effect?

Internal validity the degree to which there can be reasonable certainty that the

independent variables in an experiment caused the effects obtained on the dependent

variables.

Experimenter expectancy effects the effects produced when an experimenters

expectations about the results of an experiment affect his or her behavior toward a

participant and thereby influence the participants responses.

External Validity: Do the results Generalize?

External validity the degree to which there can be reasonable confidence that the

results of study would be obtained for other people and in other situations.

External validity is also affected by the setting in which the research is conducted.

Because field research occurs in real-life natural settings rather than in the artificial

arrangements of a laboratory, arent its results more generalizable to actual behavior ?

The answer depends on where you stand on the issue of mundane versus experimental

realism.

Mundane realism the degree to which the experimental situation resembles places

and events in the real world.

Advocates of mundane realism contend that if research procedures are more realistic,

research findings are more likely to reveal what really goes on.

Experimental realism the degree to which experimental procedures are involving to

participants and lead them to behave naturally and spontaneously.

Researchers who strive to create a highly involving experience for participants often rely

on Deception providing participants with false information about experimental

procedures.

Confederate accomplice of an experimenter who, in dealing with the real participants

in an experiment, acts as if he or she is also a participant.

Meta Analysis: Combining Results Across Studies:

Another way to test hypotheses in social psychology is to use a set of statistical

procedures to examine, in a new way relevant research that has already been conducted

and reported.

Meta Analysis: a set of statistical procedures used to review a body of evidence by

combining the results of individual studies to measure the overall reliability and strength

of particular effects.

Ethics and Values in Social Psychology

Ethical issues must always be considered. Researchers in all fields have a moral and

legal responsibility to abide by ethical principles. Today, virtually every prospective social psychology study is evaluated for its ethics by

other people before the study can be conducted.


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Institutional Review Boards: The Ethical Watchdogs:

Established by the federal government, IRBs are responsible for reviewing research

proposals to ensure that the welfare of participants is adequately protected.

Informed Consent: Do You (Really) Want to Participate?:

Informed consent an individuals deliberate, voluntary decision to participate inresearch, based on the researchers description of what will be required during such

participation.

Debriefing: Telling All:

Debriefing a disclosure, made to participants after research procedures are completed,

in which the researcher explains the purpose of the research, attempts to resolve any

negative feelings, and emphasizes the scientific contribution made by the participants

involvement.

Values and Science: Points of View:

When the potential benefits of research for humankind are high and the potential costs

are ethically acceptable, there is a moral imperative to try to carry out the research. Butwhen the human costs are too high in terms of the suffering of participants, the moral

imperative is to refrain.

There are various views on the relation between values and science. Few believe that

there can be a completely value-free science, but some advocate trying to minimize the

influences of values on science, whereas other argue that values should be recognized

and encouraged as an important factor of science.

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