2 dictionary of intermediate japanese grammar

A DICTIONARY OF INTERMEDIATE

JAPANESE GRAMMAR

--

Seiichi Makino and

Michio Tsutsui

The JapanTimes

Copyright O 1995 by Seiichi Makino and Michio Tsutsui

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by

any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or

otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher.

First edition: June 1995 6th printing: November 1996

Editorial assistance: OPTIMA Corp.

Cover art: CADEC Inc.

Published by The Japan Times, Ltd.

5-4, Shibaura 4-chome, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108, Japan

Printed in Japan

This is a dictionary of intermediate Japanese grammar, a companion volume to A Dictionary of Basic Japanese Grammar published in 1986 by the same

While DBJG was designed primarily for students and teachers of beginning-level Japanese, this volume is designed for students and teachers of intermediate-level Japanese. After examining relevant textbooks, some references on sentence patterns, and authentic sources used in intermediate and advanced Japanese courses, we have chosen approximately 200 entries which we believe to be the most important grammatical items for intermediate Japanese learners.

The format of this dictionary is the same as that of A Dictionary of Basic Japanese Grammar. For the convenience of readers who have not used DBJG, we have repeated from that text the sections To the Reader and Grammatical Terms. In this volume, however, we have modified To the Reader slightly and have added some entries to Grammatical Terms. Along with the Japanese index, there is an English index that lists the English equivalents for each entry. One difference between the two volumes is that no romanization has been provided for example sentences in A Dictionary of Intermediate Japanese Grammar. Instead, furigana (hiragana over kanji) is used.

Needless to say we owe a great deal to our predecessors, whose works are listed in the references. Without their linguistic insights we could never have written this dictionary. We would like to thank our colleagues, friends, and spouses, who have kindly answered our persistent questions and shared their language intuition. However, for fear of omission, we would rather not attempt a comprehensive listing of names. Even so, we want to mention three individuals who made this publication possible, first, Ms. Chiaki Sekido from the Japan Times, who edited our manuscript most conscientiously and effectively, and helped us invaluably with her comments and suggestions. Also, our thanks go to Ms. Came1 Dowd and Ms. Sharon Tsutsui, who edited our English to make it more readable.

We sincerely hope that this dictionary will be useful in furthering ow readers' understanding of Japanese.

Spring of 1995 Seiichi Makino Michio Tsutsui

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface .......................................................................... To the Reader .................................................................. List of Abbreviations .......................................................... List of Symbols ................................................................ Grammatical Terms ............................................................ Special Topics in Intermediate Japanese Grammar ........................

1 . Discourse Grammar ................................................... (1) Mechanism of Cohesion: Inter-sentential Reference ........ (2) Phenomena of Tense and Formality Switchings .............

2 . Newspaper Grammar .................................................. 3 . Conversational Strategies ............................................. 4 . Toward Better Reading Comprehension: Analyzing Sentences

Accurately .......................................................... 1551 s . .

. Main Entries ............................................................... 1 612 . . . Appendixes ..................................................................... 613

1 . Katakana Word Transcription Rules ................................. 615

2 . Compound Verbs ....................................................... 626

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Compound Particles ................................................... 648

Conjunctions ........................................................... 666

Affixes: Prefixes and Suffixes ........................................ 679

More Counters ......................................................... 685

Cooccumence ........................................................... 698

Functional Expressions and Grammatical Patterns ................. 706

English Index .................................................................. 735

Japanese Index ................................................................. 745

References ...................................................................... 758

To the Reader

This dictionary consists of the following parts: A. Grammatical Terms contains brief explanations or informal definitions of

the grammatical terms used in this book. If readers find that they are not familiar with these terms, it is suggested that they read this section carefully.

B. Special Topics in Intermediate Japanese Grammar discusses selected topics: Japanese discourse grammar, newspaper grammar, conversational strategies, and sentence structure analysis for reading comprehension. The section introduces readers to a number of important concepts with which they should be familiar in order to improve their reading and conversational skills.

C. Main Entries constitutes the core of this volume. Each entry is organized as follows:

a [entry name] @ [part of speech] @ [usage restriction]

@ [English counterpart(s)] @ [meaning l function]

@ [related expression(s)]

@ *Key Sentence@)

a [entry name]: Each entry is given in romanized spelling followed by its hiragana version. Entries are alphabetically ordered based on their romanized spellings.

@ [part of speech]: Each entry is followed by its part of speech. I

@ [usage restriction]: <s> or <w> is provided when the entry item is used

only in spoken Japanese or only in written Japanese and formal speeches, respectively. [meaning I function]: The general meaning or function of the entry item is given in the box below the entry name. [English counterpart(s)]: English expressions equivalent to the entry item are given to the right of the box. [related expression(s)]: Items which are semantically related to the entry item are listed as [REL. aaa, bbb, ccc]. Expressions in plain type like aaa are explained in the entry under [Related ~x~ression(s)] (0). Expressions in bold type like bbb contain comparisons to the entry item under elated Expression(s)] for bbb. + ~ e ~ Sentence@): Key sentences present typical sentence patterns in frames according to sentence structure. The recurrent elements are printed in red. Formation: The word formation rules I connection forms for each item are provided with examples. The recurrent elements are printed in red. Example(@: Example sentences are provided for each entry. Note(s): Notes contain important points concerning the use of the item. e elated ~x~ression(s)] : Expressions which are semantically close to the entry item are compared and their differences are explained.

(+ aaa (DBJG: 000-000)) in Formation, Notes, and e elated Expres- sion(~)] indicates that the item which was referred to (i.e., aaa) is explained on pp. 000-000 of the companion volume: A Dictionary of Basic Japanese Grammar.

D. Appendixes contains information such as katakana word transcription rules, compound verbs, compound particles, conjunctions, prefixes and suffixes, counters, cooccurrence, and functional expressions and grammar patterns.

E. Indexes provides both a Japanese index and an English index. The Japanese index includes the main entries, the items explained in e elated ~x~ression(s)], and the items covered in A Dictionary of Basic Japanese Grammar. The English index includes English counterparts of the main entry items.

List of Abbreviations

Adj(i) = i-type adjective (e.g. takai, yasui) Adj(na) = na-type adjective (e.g. genkida, shizukada) Adv. = adverb AdvP = adverb phrase Aff. = affirmative Ant. = antonym AP = adjective phrase Aux. = auxiliary Comp. prt. = compound particle Conj. = conjunction Cop. = copula (e.g. da, desu) DBJG = A Dictionary of Basic Japanese Grammar Dem. adj. = demonstrative adjective (e.g. kono, sonna) D.O. = direct object Fml. = formal Gr. = Group Inf. = informal Int. = interjection Irr. = irregular KS = Key Sentence LSV = Location + Subject + Verb N = noun Neg. = negative Nom.= norninalizer (e.g. no, koto) NP = noun phrase Phr. = phrase P1. = plural Pot. = potential Pref. =prefix (e.g. 0-, go-) Pro. = pronoun Prt. = particle

REL. = Related Expression S = sentence <s> = used in conversation only Sconc = concessive clause (i.e. a clause which ends with -temo or -demo) Scond = conditional clause (i.e. a clause which ends with -ba and -tam) Sinf = sentence that ends with an informal predicate SLV = Subject + Location + Verb S.O. = someone S.t. = something SOV = Subject + Object + Verb SV = Subject + Verb Str. = structure Suf. = suffix (e.g. -sa, -ya) V = verb Vcond = conditional stem of Gr. 1 Verb (e.g. hanase of hanaseba) Vinf = informal form of Verb (e.g. hanasu, hanashita) Vmasu = maso-stem of Verb (e.g. hanashi of hanashimasu, tabe of tabemasu) VN = Chinese-origin compound noun which forms a verb by affixing sum (e.g

benkyb, yakusoku) Vneg = informal negative form of Gr. 1 Verb (e.g. hanasa of hanasanai) VP = verb phrase Vpot = verb potential form (e.g. yomeru, taberareru) Vstem = stem of Gr. 2 Verb (e.g. tabe of taberu) Vte = te-form of Verb (e.g. hanashite, tabete) Vvol = volitional form of Verb (e.g. hanasb, fabeyo) <w> = used in writing and formal speech only Wh-word = an interrogative word (e.g. nani, doko)

List of Symbols

e = Refer to. ?=The degree of unacceptability is indicated by the number of question

marks, three being the highest. * =ungrammatical or unacceptable (in other words, no native speaker would

accept the asterisked sentence.) (A 1 B} C = AC or BC (e.g. {V 1 Adj(i)]inf = Vinf or Adj(i)inf) 0 =zero (in other words, nothing should be used at a place where 0 occurs.

Thus, Adj(na) (0 1 datta} kamoshirenai is either Adj(na) kamoshirenai or Adj(na) datta kamoshirenai.)

Grammatical Terms

The following are brief explanations of some grammatical terms used in this dictionary.

Active Sentence A sentence which describes an action from the agent's point of view. (cf. Passive Sentence) In active sentences, the subject is the agent. Sentences (a) and (b) below are an active and a passive sentence, respectively.

(a) CAY^ 9% L*=T:, (The teacher scolded John.)

(b) 7 3 9C2%&b: L*l;fLl:o (John was scolded by the teacher.)

Agent One who initiates and /or completes an action or an event. The agent is not always in the subject position. Compare the positions of the agent Bill in (a) and (b).

(a) ell.b;t~-.tfBb= f., (Bill hit Martha.)

(b) T--tfGie)bb:LT.fLl& (Martha was hit by Bill.)

Appositive Clause (Construction) A clause which modifies a noun (01 noun phrase) and explains what the modified noun is. In (a), Meari ga Tomu ni affa 'Mary met Tom' is an appositive clause, and is what jijirsu 'the fact' refers to.

) I t L C CQ L

(a) $L ~ 2 % 7 1 ) -75'1' ~ c : & ~ ~ : ~ ~ % ~ ~ - c L ~ & . (I know the fact that Mary met Tom.)

Auxiliary Adjective Adependent adjective that is preceded by and

GRAMMATICAL TERMS

attached to a verb or another adjective. The bold-printed parts of the following sentences are typical auxiliary adjectives.

(a) %ti73 ; / C C & ~ T C Z L L \ ~ (I want John to go there.)

(b) c o&&&~.wL\~ (This dictionary is easy to use.)

(c) mi* L ~ ' $ - - V ~ L \ ~ (I want to eat sushi.)

(d) .^;%bi~$%&l:% LL\, (Beth seems to have graduated from college.)

(el % + t i i ! i ~ ~ d : 3 7z0 (Hanako looks lonely.)

(f) ~ ~ d i + i i k ; w ~ ; f i f ? , (This cake looks delicious.)

Auxiliary Verb A verb which is used in conjunction with a preceding verb or adjective. The bold-faced words of the following sentences are typical auxiliary verbs.

Wf r 6.rr (a) F I ~ ~ + ~ ~ % I / ~ T L \ ~ ~

(Bill is writing a letter now.)

(b) % f l b V T & b 0 (The window has been opened.) (= The window is open.)

L+( fv

(c) %ii@ l% L T L 3 7 ka (I have done my homework.)

(d) %G~E%:B&&LT~~~W~=~ '(I loaned money to my friend.)

(e) L O ~ ' / ~ ! Z - J ~ - G & ~ S & (This computer is too expensive.)

(f) Y s - ~ b i % $ - ~ i 5 - % & ~ ~ 7 ~ ~ \ b ~ (lit. George is showing signs of wanting a sports car. (= George

GRAMMATICAL TERMS

wants a sports car.)) h* b, 1

(g) 9 rnifi j-hrpb-CJltf:! (Gee! It's started to rain!)

Causative Sentence A sentence in which someone / something makes or lets someone / something do s.t. as in (a) and (b).

ttLrw 1F ttln dl& . (a) %&t~&~:rn+e%f I-W:~

(The teacher made his students memorize kanji.)

(b) +;~IP%:SQTYSW, (Let me do it.)

(c) %~;f,\;.1~f Q L& 1;*1.~

(I dampened my handkerchief.)

Compound Particle A particle which consists of more than one word but functions like a single particle. For example, the compound particle to shite wa consists of the particle to, the te-form of sum and the particle wa, but it is used like a single particle to mean 'for.' (cf. Double Particle)

Compound Sentence A sentence which consists of clauses combined by coordinate conjunctions such as ga meaning 'but' or by continuative forms of verbs, adjectives or the copula such as Vte, Adj. te and Cop. te meaning '- and.'

a I < x s i ~ ~ i i + c i ~ ~ & ~ f z ~ (I swam but Mr. Smith didn't.) i L f t., 1% ,,-

(b) ~ ~ S ~ b i ~ i : b - ~ ~ ~ - i ~ . @ ~ ~ ~ / b : & ~ f ~ ~ (Mr. Yoshida went to Tokyo and met Mr. Suzuki.)

Conditional A word, phrase, or clause which expresses a condition, as in

(a), (b) and (c). It&?< L r t

(a) #%JW.ffitb: 5%' !I a+, (I will take it on if it's a translation job.)

(b) 8~fhlbfkj&$bk~Gb~, (I might buy it if it is cheap.)

GRAMMATICAL TERMS

(c) $ ~ ~ ~ f i ~ % ~ k f i f % 7 f c % ~ b @ T ? ~ b 1 ~ (If Mr. Yamada calls me, please let me know.)

Continual Verb A verb which represents a continual action, as in (a).

(a) 49 (to wait); (to eat); %a (to dance); &R 6 (to teach)

With the auxiliary verb irv, a continual verb expresses an action in progress, as in (b).

(b) 9 s 7129 7') -Q%->TL\B, (John is waiting for Mary.)

Contrastive Marker A particle which marks contrast. For example, when X is contrasted with Y, it is typically marked by the particle wa. X and Y usually appear in S1 and Sz, respectively in S1 ga S2, as shown in (a).

Coordinate Conjunction A conjunction that combines two sentences without subordinating one to the other. A typical coordinate conjunction is ga 'but.'

Example:

(a) %g~ba2~fif, 59 2 ~ F * z * ~ L ~ (I'm running, but I haven't lost any weight at all.)

Demonstrative A pronoun or adjective which specifies someone or something by pointing it out, as in (a), and (b).

(a) {Lh/=f.h/%hl~i%~~-n., (What is {this I that I that over therel?)

(b) {LCD% / ?a$ / %a)$} ti%?a>T-$, ({This book I That book I That book over therel is mine.)

The interrogative words which correspond to demonstrative pronouns and demonstrative adjectives are dore and dono, respectively.

GRAMMATICAL TERMS

Dependent Noun A noun which must be preceded by a modifier, as in (a) and (b).

h t t b * C L t r r

(a) A: s~ El EElWL&G=&i 7% CJTT& (Are you going to meet Prof. Tanaka tomorrow?)

B: bib\, + D % 5 c l T t 0 (Yes, I am.)

(b) 4 7 F 4 C i l - k ~ ~ ~ 9 ~ b ~ b ~ b ~ f ? , (I expect that Sandra knows Tom.)

Direct Object The direct object of a verb is the direct recipient of an action represented by the verb. It can be animate or inanimate. An animate direct object is the direct experiencer of some action (as in (a) and (b) below). An inanimate direct object is typically something which is created, exchanged or worked on, in short, the recipient of the action of the verb (as in (c), (d) and (e) below).

*L C B t L C . . * ( * V

(a) LLlU%&biS4Bk<d3.bb0 (Prof. Yamaguchi often praises his students.)

Wrjhi

(b) $.&?I t i-BBfZl Lf:, (Kaori deceived Ichiro.)

(c) %~i*%?&b\f;, (I wrote a book.)

(d) -&libi&r?I CcX2J-79-??7L, (Ichiro gave a scarf to Midori.)

(e) W'%i$iV ~&b\j : , (I kept the door open.)

Although direct objects are marked by the particle o, nouns or noun phrases marked by o are not always direct objects, as shown in (f) and (g).

(+02 (DBJG: 349-51); o4 (DBJG: 352-54) fwdr ( E*'IC< khi

(f) E*ii--&lia>~~ A qEf t v 2 , (Hanako was glad that Ichiro entered college.)

GRAMMATICAL TERMS

t P : i i L

(g) b A i i + a E @ % m % % b ~ ~ b ~ f z ~ (At that time Tom was walking in the park.)

Double Particle A sequence of two particles. The first particle is usually a case particle and the second is an adverbial particle such as wa 'topic 1 contrast marker,' mo 'also, even,' and shika 'only' or the possessive particle no.

t ' ) P L ?

(a) ~ ~ f i > % i b & T l k f l & f : ~ (lit. From Tokyo Mr. Tanaka came.)

(b) % t i : T - S ~ V ~ & L ~ ; ~ (I talked with Mr. Miller, too.)

(c) z k ~ t i 3 b 5 (This is a letter from my father.)

Embedded Sentence A sentence within another sentence is an embedded sentence. The bold-faced part of each sentence below is the embedded sentence. An embedded sentence is marked by a subordinate conjunction such as kara 'because,' keredomo 'although,' node 'because,' noni 'although,' to 'if,' the quote marker to 'that,' a nominalizer (no or koto) or the head noun of a relative clause.

83. e h k f b l k t;,

(a) LI IBi iE j fPSjb~kZ~ko (Yamada said that he had a headache.)

(b) L L I B C ~ ~ ~ P W L \ ~ T O % B % I V I ~ ~ (Yamada didn't go to school, because he had a headache.)

Experiencer A person who experiences s.t. that is beyond human control such as ability, desire, need, fondness, and emotion. A human passive subject can also be regarded as an experiencer. The bold-faced parts of the following examples are all experiencers.

GRAMMATICAL TERMS

bfiL K I Z L -

(a) %L 12 B &wF ~ & j ( r . 17 a -j-, (I can understand Japanese a little.) IZ <

(b) ~ 1 2 % ; f ; " - ' ; l ~ J - W & L W ~

(I want a sports car.)

(d) ~ ; C ~ I ~ ~ W ~ P , L T ~ , , (My mother is scared of dogs, you know.) tbf8 -PLL.P t+ B ~ > A

(e) h&CLtf 0 ~ T ~ 7 R i B t b k L 1 z 0 (My friend got his purse stolen on the train.)

Formal I Informal Forms Verb 1 adjective(i / na) 1 copula forms that are used in formal and informal situations are formal forms and informal forms, respectively. A formal situation is a situation in which relationship between the speaker and the hearer(s) is formal, and an informal situation is a situation in which the human relationship is informal. The formal and informal forms of verbs I adjectives(i / na) and copula can be exemplified by the following chart:

Informal forms are required by some grammatical structures.

Formal Forms

(+Appendix 4 (DBJG: 589-99))

Informal Forms

Gr. 11 Gr. 2 Verbs Gr. 1 and Gr. 2 Verbs are Japanese verb groups: If a verb's informal, negative, nonpast form has the [a] sound before nai as in (a), the verb belongs to Group 1, and if not, as in (b), it belongs to Group

GRAMMATICAL TERMS

2. There are only two irregular verbs (i.e., kuru 'come' and sun, 'do') that belong to neither the Gr. 1 nor to the Gr. 2.

Hearer The person who receives a spoken or written message. In this dictionary the term "hearer" is used in a broader sense to mean the person to whom the speaker or the writer communicates.

Imperative Form A conjugated verb form that indicates a command, as in Hanase! 'Talk!,' 'Tabero! 'Eat it!,' Shiro! 'Do it!' or Koi! 'Come!'

Indefinite Pronoun A pronoun which does not refer to something specifically. No in B's sentence in (a) is an indefinite pronoun. Here, no is used for jisho 'dictionary,' but does not refer to a specific dictionary.

(a) A: YAQ&#W& L ~ A T - + ; ~ % ~ (What kind of dictionary do you want?)

B: $5 bl(nW&~b>,L-r-+', (I want a small one.)

Indirect Object The indirect object of a verb is the recipient of the direct object of the main verb, and is marked by the particle ni. In (a), for example, the indirect object is Midori, a recipient of a scarf, which is the direct object of the verb yatta. It can be inanimate, as in (b). The main verbs which involve the indirect object are typically donative verbs (as in (a) and (b)).

w 3 J i (a) -,%b;t&P~l G:X7~--7%-?97:~

(Ichiro gave a scarf to Midori.) fiuu.3 * * ? L o 3 3 i t 3 L cv ~l d w

(b) 6LW;th !M W ~ ~ : ~ A O ; E & % % $ R ~ : ~ (The typhoon brought great damage to the Kyushu area.)

Informal Form (eFormal1 Informal Forms)

GRAMMATICAL TERMS

Intransitive Verb A verb which does not require a direct object. The action or state identified by the intransitive verb is related only to the subject of the sentence. For example, the verb hashitta 'ran' in (a) is an intransitive verb because the action of running is related only to the subject.

(cf. Transitive Verb)

(a) & & E ~ L C & % ~ ~ , (Mr. Suzuki ran.)

Intransitive verbs typically indicate movement (such as iku 'go,' kuru 'come,' aruku 'walk,' tobu 'fly,' noru 'get onto'), spontaneous change (such as naru 'become,' kawaru 'change,' tokeru 'melt,' fukuramu 'swell,' hajimaru 'begin'), human emotion (such as yorokobu 'rejoice,' kanashimu 'feel sad,' omou 'feel'), and birth /death (such as umareru 'be born,' shinu 'die').

(+ Appendix 3 (DBJG: 585-88)

I-type Adjective An adjective whose nonpast prenominal form ends with i. Examples of i-type adjectives are takai 'high, expensive' and tsuyoi 'strong,' as seen in (a). (cf. Na-type Adjective)

(a) gL\z (an expensive book)

3VX (a strong person)

I-type adjectives are further subdivided into two types: i-type adjectives which end with shi-i and those with non-shi-i endings. Most adjectives with shi-i endings express human emotion (such as ureshii 'happy,' kanashii 'sad,' sabishii 'lonely,' kurushii 'painful'); the non-shi-i adjectives are used for objective descriptions (such as kuroi 'black,' shiroi 'white,' hiroi 'spacious,' takai 'high, expensive').

Main Clause When a sentence consists of two clauses, one marked by a subordinate conjunction (such as kara, keredo, node, and noni) and the othe~ not marked by a subordinate conjunction, the latter is called a main clause. The bold-faced parts of (a) and (b) are main clauses.

"* t hfrl bit *7:3 -;A (a) hB~dH@%b~OC:W3CC~3 tzO

GRAMMATICAL TERMS

(Yamada went to school, although he had a headache.) *r: t ; l t TP

(b) m ~ w g ~ ~ ~ ~ r ; $ i i f i ~ (Kazuko is happy, because her husband is kind.)

When a sentence has a relative clause, the non-relative clause part is also referred to as a main clause as in (c).

(c) %U&D3, F~~di17t:~~~&'~"it.~ (Yesterday I watched a video which I borrowed from my friend.)

Na-type Adjective An adjective whose nonpast prenominal form ends with na. For example, shizukada 'quiet' and genkida 'healthy' are na-type adjectives, as in (a). (cf. I-type Adjective)

(a) #$a% (a quiet house)

%k&X (a healthy person)

Na-type adjectives are very similar to nouns. Some na-type adjectives can be used as real nouns as shown in (b). All na-type adjectives behave as nouns when they are used before the copula da, as shown in (c).

(b) Z i b a % & ~ ~ L (Health is important, you know.)

cf. ?%&&A (a healthy person)

LL*? bt

Z%~Gi,EkL3-tf-A0 (I'll never forget your kindness.)

cf. QYl&A (a kind person)

GRAMMATICAL TERMS

Nominalizer A nominalizer is a particle that makes a sentence into a noun phrase or clause. There are two nominalizers no and koto: the former represents the speaker's empathetic feeling towards an event I state expressed in the nominalized noun phrase I clause; the latter represents the speaker's relatively anti-empathetic feeling towards an event I state.

(+ no3 (DBJG: 3 18-22); koto2 (DBJG: 193-96)

The nominalized sentence can be used in any position where an ordinary noun or a noun phrase I clause can be used.

Participial Construction The construction which expresses an action accompanying situation expressed in the main clause. The participial construction often involves te-form, as in (a) and (b).

bl; L h

(a) $L Ci 3 - 1- Q B # b l T / \ 2 fl- K~Ctl:, (Taking off my coat, I hung it on a hanger.)

(b) Y 7 7 -~:&TK~B&xIT:, (Sitting on the sofa I read newspaper.)

Noun Phrase I Clause

Passive Sentence A sentence which describes an action by someone from the viewpoint of someone else who is affected by that action. (cf. Active Sen- tence) (a) and (b) are passive sentences.

(a) V I L K L I ~ ~ ~ I ~ ~ (I was beaten by Bill.)

m) ~ ~ ~ ~ i ~ ~ + ~ : & ~ w ~ o (lit. Taro was annoyed by the fact that Akiko cried. (=Taro was annoyed by Akiko's crying.))

Particle

hi

Sentence 1: It& r 8$%&ct~

Predicate

trw %ELL.1,

Nominalizer

O / L k

(Reading Japanese is difficult.)

GRAMMATICAL TERMS

Potential Form A verb form that expresses competence in the sense of 'can do s.t.' The formation is as follows:

Gr. 1 Verbs Vcond + b e.g. &? b (can talk)

Gr. 2 Verbs Vstem + l; kL& e.g. &< l; kL b (can eat)

Vstem + kLb e.g. (can eat)

In: Verbs &b &l;ktb, (cancome)

Predicate The part of a sentence which makes a statement about the subject. The core of the predicate consists either of a verb, an adjective, or a noun followed by a form of the copula da. Optionally, objects and other adjectival and I or adverbial modifiers may be present. In (a), (b) and (c) the predicates are printed in bold type.

(a) 8 % ~ AIL& < G i * i ~ o (Mr. Matsumoto sees movies often.)

(b) WO%I~X % X P A ~ & GkV, (My house is newer than Mr. Smith's.)

1: IIL z- 1E<rv

(c) 7 3 2 CL El *%a)r;l.Y TdO (John is a student of Japanese language.)

Prefix 1 Suffi A dependent, non-conjugational word attached to nouns or the stems of verbs and adjectives in order to form new independent words. Prefmes are attached to the beginnings of nouns, etc. (Ex.(a)), and suffixes to their endings (Ex.@)).

$ 2 5 !5" **+ h<EW - b ~ 3 tr N. LX.

(a) if4 % 3. (superexpress); f4& $3 (vice-president); BR W 42. (indiffer- ence)

Prenominal Form The verb I adjective form which precedes a noun and modifies it. The bold-faced verbs and adjectives in (a), (b), (c) and (d) are prenorninal forms.

GRAMMATICAL TERMS

hf. L (a) $L / SAEKF

(the newspaper I read)

(b) %L\ / ~ % i P d &

(a big house / a house which used to be big)

(c) Gw&%f:7k%&7 (a magnificent building / a building which used to be magnificent)

(d) )3L\L;f3Q / )3~\L?jE7Tf;?--+ (a delicious-looking cake / a cake which looked delicious)

Punctual Verb A verb that represents a momentary action which either occurs once, as in (a), or can be repeated continuously, as in (b).

(a) b (get to know); kt;bh (die); %'a b (begin); $@rf b (get married); p@ b (stop s.t.); fkb (resemble)

(b) 7k 2 rf (drop); B T b (pluck off); if z, wck); kD (jump); Olit)

With the auxiliary verb iru, the punctual verbs in (a) express a state after an action was taken, and those as in (b) express either a repeated action or a state after an action was taken. (+ Appendix 2 (DBJG: 582-84)

Stative Verb A verb which represents a state of something or someone at some point in time, as in (a). (+ Appendix 2 (DBJG: 582-84)

(a) i% b (exist inanimate things)); b> b (exist (of animate things)); ba

b (need); B%b (can do)

Subject The subject is an element of a sentence which indicates an agent of an action in active sentences (as in (a)) or an experiencer of an action (as in (b)) or someone or something that is in a state or a situation (as in (c), (e) and (0). The subject is normally marked by the particle ga in Japanese unless it is the sentence topic.

(b) %~'~-&&:wr;;kf:, (Mary was praised by her teacher.)

GRAMMATICAL TERMS

(c) ?>2-b&?ikLl/>j?, (Nancy is pretty.)

(d) F P ~ J L ~ ~ ~ , (The door opened.) ?(* *t

(e) # t f F - ~ & & , (lit. One table exists. (= There is a table.))

(f) Z.nz%l/>, (The sky is blue.)

Subordinate Clause A clause which is embedded into a main clause with a subordinate conjunction. Qpical subordinate conjunctions are ba 'if,' kara 'because,' node 'because,' keredo 'although' and noni 'although.' Thus, in (a) below, the bold-faced clause with the subordinate conjunction node is embedded into the main clause Nakayama-san wa gakk6 o yasunda, 'Mr. Nakayama was absent from school.'

h t f r ~ t

(a) Y ~ s L C ~ B W G ~ P ~ ~ T % ~ Q % L I L (Mr. Nakayama was absent from school because he had a headache.)

The informal form of a verb / adjective is usually used in a subordinate clause.

Suff i (+ Ref= / Suffix)

Suru-verb A verb which is composed of a noun and sum (Exs.(a) and (b)) or a single 'word and suru (Ex.(c)). Nouns preceding suru are mostly Chinese- origin words. Sum-verbs conjugate in the same way as sum.

-L L r l

(a) f% B * 5 (to study); #I!&* b (to clean); &hda L j- 5 (to stay up late)

(c) %b b (to heat); %b b (to guess)

Bansitive Verb A verb that requires a direct object. It usually expresses an action that acts upon S.O. or s.t. indicated by the direct object. Actions indicated by transitive verbs include real causatives (such as ikaseru 'makeflet

GRAMMATICAL TERMS

s.0. go,' korosu 'kill,' miseru 'show,' nakasu 'make s.0. cry,' noseru 'put, place'), exchange (such as ageru 'give,' m o w 'receive,' kureru 'give'), creation (such as tsukum 'make,' kaku 'write,' kangaeru 'think'), communication (such as hanasu 'speak,' oshieru 'teach,' tsutaeru 'convey a message') and others. Note that some English transitive verbs are intransitive in Japanese.

*LL < a * (a) %LCiZWi4&o

(lit. With me a car exists. (= I have a car.))

(b) ~ G ~ & & F L \ ~ , (lit. To me money is necessary. (= I need money.))

3 * i L'< * (c) X ~ X 2 t v C m ~ ~ ~ f l 5 3 ~ ~ 6 ~

(lit. To Mr. Smith Chinese is understandable. (= Mr. Smith understands Chinese.))

(d) % L W ~ ~ ~ ~ 5 ~ i i . a ~ (lit. To me French is a bit possible. (= I can speak French a little.))

t i S r i (e) % ? 2 t v C i ~ 3 X ~ & 2 t v ~ : 4 3 ~ , ,

(Mr. Kinoshita met his father in Tokyo.) 3

( f ) %Lb:biWWWLX&fi>3t:0 (lit. To me the bell wasn't audible. (= I wasn't able to hear the bell.))

b. I:*& (g) Z~~c;CiF3*t-LL-n~W,k.?&tk0

(lit. From here Mt. Fuji is visible. (= We can see Mt. Fuji from here.)) b k L k 3 Ld.L+tL

(h) %L iBCih@%&V % L fc0 (We rode a bullet train.)

( i ) % L C ~ @ K & T L \ ~ L I / ~ , (It seems that I resemble my mother.)

Verbal A sentence element which indicates the action or state of the subject. A verbal is either a verb, an adjective, or a noun followed by a copula, as in (a) - (c).

b L L :Ld% S d% l: * h . l r i

(a) %L Ci+%MSB 7': < 2 AM %! L tc, (I studied many kanji this term.)

GRAMMATICAL TERMS

(b) Z D & @ C ~ ~ T ~ ~ ~ L L \ ,

(This exam is very difficult.)

(c) Z t~ia&%f 9 11 7fkO (This is probably Italian.)

Volitional Sentence A sentence in which a person expresses his will. The main verb in such sentences is in the volitional form, as in (a).

Wh-question A question that asks for information about who, what, where, which, when, why and how, as exemplified by (a) - (f) below.

(cf. Yes-No Question)

(a) %;3"&6 ~ f : $ l ,

(Who came here?)

(b) %.r&4wso (What will you eat?)

(c) Z ~ ~ : & 3 b 3 - i 3 ' , (Where are you going?)

(d) ~\3%!&% 4 3. rfiPo (When are you going back to Osaka?)

Wh-word An interrogative word which corresponds to English words such as who, what, where, which, when, why and how. The following are some examples.

(a) #! (who); % (what); ? Z (where); L1 9 (when); F j L T 1 /I?

(how come I why); ? 5 (how)

GRAMMATICAL TERMS

Note that Japanese Wh-words are not always found in sentence-initial position; they are frequently found after a topic noun phrase, as shown in (b) and (c) below.

1 0 5

(b) E%ElO,C-Y4 -c:c&%fl%a Lk*, (lit. To yesterday's party, who came there? (=Who came to yesterday's party?))

cf. %d'E%Elm-Y4 - m a LTZ*, (Who came to yesterday's party?)

(c) I ~ % T I ~ W B ~a LM, (lit. In Japan what did you do? (=What did you do in Japan?))

cf. mBEl$TL3 L k & (What did you do in Japan?)

Yes-No Question A question that can be answered by hai / B 'yes' or i~ 'no.' (cf. Wh-question)

Examples follow:

(a) A: Y&S,LG&P L ~ F Z ~ J ~ , (Did Mr. Ueda come?)

B: Lib\, %'b:L1zo (Yes, he did.)

(b) A: %&S,Lt&y&~. t& (Is Mr. Suzuki a student?)

B: b\bx;i_, -?j C e b j ?I %-@,Lo (No, he isn't.)

Special Topics in Intermediate Japanese Grammar

1. Discourse Grammar

(1) Mechanism of Cohesion: Inter-sentential Reference

When two or more sentences are recognized as a cohesive sequence (i.e., discourse) rather than a collection of unrelated sentences, in many instances the discourse involves certain linguistic mechanisms to maintain cohesiveness between sentences.* Among such mechanisms, inter-sentential reference is one of the most common ones.**

Inter-sententid reference (ISR) is a kind of reference in which an element in a sentence refers to something or someone mentioned in another sentence. Specifically, when reference is made to an entity mentioned in a previous sentence, it is called "anaphoric reference" or "anaphora." Anaphora is the most common ISR. Examples of anaphora are given in (1). In this discourse the bold-faced parts (i.e., anaphoric elements or anaphors) refer to persons or things mentioned in previous sentences.

C b a -c 9. r b D l ' fi/u -? L Z t vr &,br

(1) 2 hW?$%%kgi;j &%kE!& k a;"%%&&, LOMiflc@H%%pi@k

*Cohesiveness is also maintained by the information each sentence carries. In general, a sequence of sentences is recognized as a cohesive unit when the sentence contains a "common thread" in terms of the information they carry. For example, a set of sentences is recognized as a cohesive unit if the sentences have a common topic. Simi- larly, if sentences are put together to perform a common function (e.g., making a request), they are recognized as a cohesive unit.

**Another mechanism to maintain cohesiveness between sentences is the conjunction. As a matter of fact, conjunctions (or conjunction equivalents) such as those shown in (i) create a cohesive sentence sequence by connecting sentences directly.

b531S3

(i) -? L T (and (then)); -? 2 T (therefore); Ld' L (however); -77 (on the other hand); %I 2 lf (for example); 7 b l T ts 73% l; (incidentally); t 0 %k (as the result of that)

(+Appendix 4. Conjunctions)

SPECIAL TOPICS IN INTERMEDIATE JAPANESE GRAMMAR

%jtl LTb'60 L P t H 4

(&B E3, PS%% 2 %!a ) (This is a story about a child named Seibei and gourds. After this incident, the tie between Seibei and gourds was severed. However, he soon found something to substitute for gourds-painting. He is now as devoted to it as he once was to gourds. (Shiga Naoya: Seibei and the Gourds))

As seen in (I), various kinds of elements can appear as anaphors, including pronouns, repeated nouns, and related nouns. In addition, anaphors are ellipted in some situations.

A. Pronouns

Pronouns can be classified into two groups: personal pronouns (e.g., watashi 'I,' kanojo 'she,' kare-ra 'they') and demonstrative pronouns (e.g., kore 'this,' sore-ra 'those,' soko 'thatlthe place').

Anaphoric personal pronouns are limited to third-person pronouns, including kare 'he,' kanojo 'she,' and their plural forms. (1) presents an example of kare.

Among demonstrative pronouns, only the so- and ko- series can be anaphoric. (1) gives examples of sore and (2) an example of kore.*

(Company A has decided to feduce the price of M-type word-proces- sors by five percent. Their aim is to regain (lit. This is to aim at regain- ing) their recently declining share of the word-processor market.)

*Are 'that' can be used in conversation to refer to something which is known to both the speaker and the hearer, as in (i).

f W b t +L

(i) A: LLG:~=~ZWBR%, h~jab>? (Do you know where the English-Japanese dictionary is which was here?)

vt+t e B: hm, ~ ) ~ ~ W - L L I M ~ / ~ & ~ - C ~ 1.

(Oh, that one; Yamada is using it now.)

B. Repeated Nouns

An anaphoric noun is, in many instances, a repetition of its antecedent.

Proper nouns

If an antecedent is a proper noun, the most direct way to refer to the same entity in a later sentence is to repeat the same proper noun. For example, in (I), Seibei is repeated in the second sentence.

Common nouns

When an antecedent is a common noun, the same noun may appear as an anaphor in certain situations. For example, if an antecedent refers to generic entities, the same noun can be repeated with no modifier (e.g., hy6tan 'gourds' in the second and third sentences in (1)). If an antecedent refers to a specific entity, on the other hand, the same noun may appear in later sentences either with or without a demonstrative adjective (i.e., sono 'thatlthe' or kono 'this'). A demonstrative adjective is necessary if the referent would be otherwise interpreted as non-anaphoric because of a lack of sufficient context to interpret it as anaphoric. For example, in (3) the apato 'apartment' in the second sentence does not refer to the same apartment mentioned in the first sentence, while in (4) sono apeto 'that apartment' does refer to the same apartment mentioned in the first sentence.

(3) i$"d $2 1. ' ~ a ) 7 1 t - b g j k , .j 3 + , $ $ P J ~ - b gwf:, (I saw an apartment in Boston yesterday. John also saw an apartment today.)

(4) #B$x 1. ' J a ) 7 / f - b %Rf; , '9 a 'J & + B + o Y / f - b ewf;, (I saw an apartment in Boston yesterday. John also saw that apartment today .)

In (3, on the other hand, there is sufficient context to interpret the kozukai 'janitor' in the second sentence as anaphoric; therefore, no demonstrative adjective is necessary.

P r i V L

(5 ) s T , R R WS~R$\L ;& 9 E w ~ ; B ~ & ~ L T ; ~ ~ T T it L j t:, & T l dr 5 C:, % & Q ~ : % @ , ~ ) ; \ % ~ : F ~ T ' T ~ I Z ~ d\@i&??hQ

' P L - * l i L 5 &3 T % 3 T , < ~ ~ 3 f : x : S 2 &%a)%~a)@+$kj'Tkb~f~~


(&BE% r%BAt%fJ)

(Later, the teacher gave the gourd he had taken from Seibei to an old janitor as if it was a filthy object. The janitor took it home and hung it on a pillar in his small dingy room. (Shiga Naoya: Seibei and the Gourds))

When reference is made in a later paragraph, the anaphoric noun often appears with a relative clause which reiterates identifying information about the referent mentioned earlier. For example, in the story of Cinderella, one of Cinderella's shoes comes off when she runs down the stairs of the palace to hurry home. When this shoe is referred to in a later paragraph, the reference could look like (6).

(6) ~ > ~ F ' I / S & & & ~ ~ ~ & ~ k G % B i r r d . l ) K, % # # I ~ ' J ~ T L 4 %gS-&5 Lfz, (Using the shoe Cinderella lost on the stairs as a clue, the prince had his men look for her.)

C, Related Nouns

Anaphoric reference often occurs with nouns (or noun phrases) which are not the same as but are related to their antecedents. There are three situations in which "related nouns" appear as anaphors:

(a) Situations where an anaphor and its antecedent refer to the same entity (direct anaphora);

6) Situations where an anaphor refers to part of its antecedent's referent (semi-direct anaphora); and

(c) Situations where an anaphor refers to an entity inferred from previous context (indirect anaphora).

Direct anaphora

In direct anaphora, reference can be made by nouns which refer to larger cate- gories than their antecedents refer to. For example, in (7) the hana 'flower' in the second sentence refers to the sakura 'cherry (blossoms)' in the first sentence. In this case, a demonstrative adjective is mandatory.


(Cherry blossoms are the symbol of Japan. They (lit. These flowers) are loved by everyone.)

Additional examples of direct anaphora can be seen in (8) and (9). 2 5 : ' C f i b ,

@ E l ~11~8;3'%itaT&j:, LCE%'GL%LO&&@~~O~ 7~ 9 - b 1:- k0 (Yamada came to see me yesterday. This guy was one of my classmates in my high school days.)

(I heard Kazuhito Yamashita play guitar (lit. Kazuhito Yamashita's guitar). This genius guitarist won three international competitions in Europe when he was sixteen.)

Semi-direct anaphora

In semi-direct anaphora, an anaphoric noun refers to part (or an element) of its antecedent's referent. For example, in (lo), the yuka 'floor' in the second sentence refers to the floor of the apartment mentioned in the first sentence. In this case, the anaphor does not require a demonstrative adjective.

** ST

(10) @EI s x b ' J O ~ I ~ - E ~ ~ t j : ~ at=& LLQK+,-;, f:;3'~1~\7/\"-- b 723 ?zo (Yesterday I saw an apartment in Boston. Although there were some scratches on the floor, it was a good apartment.)

Indirect anaphora

In indirect anaphora, there is no explicit antecedent. The referent of an anaphor is inferred from a previous sentence(s). For example, in (l l) , the gen'in 'cause' in the second sentence does not refer to anything which is directly mentioned in the first sentence. Rather, it refers to something which is inferred from that sentence. In this case, the anaphor does not require a demonstrative adjective.

(11) @&+y'=i' ,,, y&P&$Jp& j:, g g ; 3 ' + ~ ~ & q k > ~

(Yesterday there was a fire at an elementary school in Kobe. The police are investigating the cause now.)


D. Anaphor ellipsis (Zero anaphora)

(Seibei's parents were aware that he bought gourds once in a while. (He) had some ten gourds with skins costing from three or four to fifteen cents. (Shiga Naoya: Seibei and the Gourds))

In (12), Seibei wa or kare wa 'he' is ellipted in the second sentence. Because of this "invisible anaphora," the two sentences in (12) form a cohesive sequence.

(2) Phenomena of Tense and Formality Switchings

A. Tense Switching

Usually a series of past events are narrated in the past tenses. But primarily in written Japanese discourse that narrates a past event, past tenses often switch to nonpast tenses. The following is a passage from a famous novel called Yama no Oto 'The Sound of the Mountain' by Yasunari Kawabata. Everything that is being described in this passage concerns past events. So the English native readerlwriter, for example, expects the author to use nothing but the past tense.

LG&~f:a)TC;fGL.\f i 'kI;hkLf<~ [14] L ~ ~ L % & G = L L I ~ ) @ ~ & B $ J z ;i

-Cb\f<o

([I] It is ten days before the month of August, but insects are already crying. [2] The sound of night dew dropping from a leave to another is audible. . [3] All of a sudden Shingo heard the sound of the mountain. [4] There is no wind. [5] The moon is almost a full moon and bright, yet the moist night air blurs the outline of the tree tops of the small mountain. [6] But the trees are not moving in the wind. [7] At the so- called inner part of the valley of Kamakura, some nights Shingo is able to hear the sound of waves, so he suspected that it was the sound of the sea, but it turned out to be the sound of the mountain. [8] It is like the distant sound of the wind, but it had deep power like that of the earth rumbling. [9] He feels as if it were in his head, so he thought it was his ears ringing and he shook his head. [lo] The sound stopped. [ l l ] After the sound stopped Shingo was overtaken by fear for the first time. [12] A chill ran through his spine as if the hour of his death had been proclaimed. [13] Shingo had tried to figure out objectively if it was the sound of the wind or the sound of waves or ringing in his ears, and he thought it was possible that there wasn't any sound. [14] But there was no doubt that he had heard the sound of the mountain.)

Logically speaking, the author could have written every sentence in the past tense. Nevertheless, the author sometimes used the past tense and sometimes the nonpast tense. In this passage, 5 sentences (i.e., Sentences 1,2,4,5,6) out of 14 sentences are in the nonpast tense shown by the double underline. (In the translation the original nonpast predicate is translated using the nonpast tense and italicized.) In other words, a switch from the past tense to the nonpast has 1 occurred in those 5 sentences.

An examination of the 5 sentences in the nonpast tense reveals that these sentences describe a circumstance that surrounds Shingo, the main character of

the story. The rest of the sentences (i.e., sentences 3,7-14) describe in the past tense whatever Shingo did or felt in the given circumstances. To put it in general terms, tense switching is a strategy available to the writer to differentiate a stage and a set of chronological events that occur within that stage. The stage is certainly important in that it defines a space in which a drama develops, but it is less important than the drama itself. So, important, dramatic information is described in the past tense, whereas relatively unimportant circumstantial information is described in the nonpast tense. The use of such nonpast tenses has an effect of creating a vivid sense of immediateness for the reader.

A principle that appears to govern Tense Switching goes as follows:

Principle of Tense Switching

A part of a past event (often a state rather than an action) can be described using the nonpast tense, if the writer perceives it to be relatively unimportant circumstantial information that has no direct bearing upon the major story line.

B. Formality Switching

By formality switching is meant switching from formal style to informal style or less frequently switching from informal style to formal style. The latter, i.e., switching from informal style to formal style, occurs in spoken Japanese. The informal style is a suitable style to be used when the speaker / writer wants to express his feeling, his knowledge or his conviction in a straightforward manner. So, in a formal setting which requires the speaker / writer to use the formal style, the style can switch from formal to informal as shown in the following examples (2a, b, c).

I: liL < I : % L , : < ~ L W. L r i (2) a. ~ ~ ~ L ~ ~ ~ C ~ ~ H A D ~ G : ~ ; ~ . ~ T ) L ~ ~ ~ ; ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ L ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ B

tvh, -

(Japan is giving foreigners an impression of a country very much closed. Foreigners are called "gaijin," that is to say, outsiders and

they are always treated like guests. And they cannot make good friends easily. Association with colleagues is tough. There is also a limit to their promotion. Anyway, Japan has to become a society more open to foreigners.)

1: lM&t& b. 8*ii!$%-h"$Gb3T3L;ta0 El$h-h"3~%~%titLf;&?$,

l j b a l f - 3 <9 l r r i I T 3 8 m i i ~ l 1 t L-C, -w~l;l&a%&-h"?-=$a~ - - A B, $fibE

b.5 -h"&;3>s0 g ~ ~ a , Z 2 -h"k~:a&~ - 1?7Y1b, EbaZ t-h"ttZ%Gb>fv

-

TTLo (There are not many crimes committed in Japan, you know. When a Japanese is about to commit a crime there are at least two factors that will deter him from committing it, aside from punishments. The faces of his wife and children come to his mind. He thinks of his company. That's why he cannot do evil things, you know.)

R D ~ ~ L . > Q Z Q ~ G : L A i 17 a*fv-n., * 4 W i 6 w (mn& ~QZGL.-W-CI)

(How are you living your life these days when life is difficult in all sorts of ways? The difficulty of living has not just started now. From ancient times, human life must have been full of difficulties at least for those who dealt with it seriously. (. . . omitted. . .) Our lives are truly insignificant, such tiny things, and each one of us is truly miserable, mundane and sometimes unbearably ugly. But

even so, we have no other place than ourselves in which we can live. So, shall we value this irreplaceable self in this life that we have but once?) (Isaku Yanaihara "On Self')

The speaker of both (2a) and (2b) is talking to a person in the rather formal situation of a round-table discussion. This is a situation where a formal style is required, but instead of using a formal style all the way, he has switched his style from formal to informal style as indicated by the double underlines.

The writer of (2c) employs formal style all the way with intermittent informal style. In (2c) there are two double-underlined predicates in which formality switching has taken place. In both cases the writer expresses something appendixed to what follows either in a coordinated or subordinated way. In fact, in both cases, the sentences that are in -an informal style can turn into a coordinate clause or a subordinate clause like (3a) and (3b), respectively. Whatever is expressed in an appendix to the major clause is usually distanced from the hearertreader, and therefore tends to be expressed usually in informal style. Also to be noted here is the statistical tendency for formality switching to occur when the sentence is a negative sentence.

(3) a. & 3 & Z k.h.'M%2a)C2, m $ 4 K & 3 97:: kTCi tSb10 tb j9 T , 8 & b , A&bi, $2 < k S, tkLQ3 L~+5C:%Cf$rr.;,f:Ab:k -

9-cC2, b 3 9 S,%L'?hb:R%f:$ Of?9f:C:B'd>bj !J 3*ho b. L & L , ??&I; kb\.;,T, Za)A&, Z a ) [ l 3 ~ ~ ~ C ~ ; h f : Lf:%C2

& b b%FrCi2b>a)7'?&b9 -B[IdC!J O n & , &bf.h.'iia)tSbaBz %kWC: Ldr j T i 2 6 9 3-t?&2ao

An extreme case of formality switching is instanced by the following example.

(4) ~ i ' l $ l 2 : h & b ~ > r ' z - 9 ~ 7 7 a ) . l j l f $ ~ ~ 3 - i f , 3 T , = I ; / ~ ' L -

9 F .;, 7a>k&$T-if.h.', (A bee stings the speaker's head) 6 CJ , {$

b 1 / *%b>T-f} ! (Today I am going to give a talk on computer chips. First of all, regarding the structure of the chip, ouch!)

The speaker of (4) is giving a public talk in which he is required to use formal speech. However, at the point when he is stung by a bee, he automatically switches his style from formal to informal, because his expression is an exclamation which is a most straightforward expression of his physiological feeling.

Although much less frequent than formal-to-informal switching there are cases of informal-to-formal switching as shown in (5).

(5 ) A: 842 F.74 7C:rl'ilS172~.1? (Don't you want to come for a drive with me?)

B: %?jh%, ? ? J L k i & L 1 ; , (Mm, I wonder what I should do.)

A: F.74-/C:fiL?Jk, h, (You must come with me.)

B: & M Z , $ @ & & i ! 9 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ . (You are a reckless driver, aren't you?)

A: f h 2 L 2 i 2 & l l 3 * h o ~ k I . ' 7 4 7 d - & @ G 2 , %L<B%L~ - 9 0 - (Not at all. When I go for a drive with you, I will drive consider- ately .)

In this example, a couple is talking very informally. The speaker A wants to persuade B to come for a drive with him, but the persuasion has not been suc- cessful, so by switching the style he wants to teasingly indicate that their relationship does not deserve intimate, informal style. Therefore, he intentionally switches his style from informal to formal.

The Principle of Formality Switching

Formal style may be switched to informal style when the speaker I writer wants to express hislher feeling, knowledge or conviction in a straightforward manner.

2. Newspaper Grammar

Japanese newspapers use certain sentence forms, phrases, and words which are not common to other writing.

(1) Headlines

A. Ellipsis of particles and verbals

In newspaper headlines the topic marker wa and case markers are often dropped. (Particularly, ellipsis of the subject marker ga and the direct object marker o is common.) Predictable verbals are also dropped.

Examples:

(1) a. & 22 k%iG&nt) $Mi: (&.a) (Earth resource satellite goes into orbit)

to I i h r i b. %mm2 &#4(E)&Ik7(*5)

(Public high schools to raise tuition)

c. ~777%&(~)&%K(&5) I: l t L e L L ~ 4 r ?

Y ~ ~ ~ Y ~ ~ ~ ' J ( ~ J ) . ) % D E I ~ A ~ ~ - ~ ( E ) (K~&TQ) (Emphasis on East Asia becomes clear/ Du Pont Japan appoints first Japanese president)

t f d. d.( B L ~ V ~ W * r n r < d. %&~i~iwmmqzw~t:m 9 tea) [ m i

(Government should make an effort to solve land price problems) [Editorial]

(For examples of wa-omission, see (4a) and (4b).)

Note: As seen in (Id), particles are not dropped in imperative sentences.

B. Ellipsis of no

The noun connector no is often dropped in long noun compounds (particularly, in those which contain more than one no).

(Companies' social expenses reached (lit. reach) Y5,627.4 billion last year)

(Kirin announces the world's beer consumption in '90)

The sum of sum-verbs is usually dropped.

Examples: <b%

(3) a. %(*I, 70 '~(%)95+(~)%$i(~a) (US to totally abolish CFCs (chloro-fluorocarbons) in '95)

(Satellite industry begins foreign market development)

D. Da after N and Adj(na)stem

Da after nouns and na-adjective stems is usually dropped.

Examples:

(1 1,105 killed in traffic accidents last year)

(Plant export to SE Asia flourishes)

E. Tense

In headlines past events are represented using the nonpast tense (e.g., (la), (lc)). Because the nonpast tense also represents future events, whether an event is a future one or a past one is known from other headline elements (e.g., (2a), (3a)) or from the text (e.g., (lb), (3b)).

F. Abbreviations

a. Country names

Country names are often abbreviated.


Examples: e: Z ^I.L.%

(5) H (Japan); 8 (America); 8 (Great Britain); (France); & (Germany); k (Italy); $D (Canada); (Australia); '$ (China);

* L 8 (Taiwan); % (Korea); i% 7 (South Africa)

b. Groups, companies, institutions

The complete names of groups, companies, and institutions are often abbreviated.

Note: Some abbreviations in this category are commonly used in spoken as well as written language.

c. Special abbreviations Some English acronyms and letters are commonly used in headlines to save space.

Examples:

(7) EC (European Community); IC (integrated circuit); KO (knock-

out); N Y ~ (New York stocks); W% (World Cup); $&' (first

victory)

(2) Bodies

A. Suru-verbs

The conjugated part of a suru-verb connective form (i.e., +hi) is often dropped. -sun, or -shita of a suru-verb in sentence-final position is also dropped in some

situations.

Examples:

and medicare expenses, which have increased by Y1 trillion every year since 1987, reaching Y21 trillion. . . . This survey is conducted once every three years. In this survey a total of 12,054 hospitals, clinics, and dental clinics were randomly selected and their patients were sumeyed on one of the designated dates from October 16-18.)

Note: Because the stems of most suru-verbs are also used as nouns, the parts of speech must be carefully identified when -shi is omitted.

B. Da after nouns

Da after nouns is often dropped, the result being a noun-ending sentence.

Examples: H H 6 L r i 6 L P L r i : < Q7t:b,d5( Cw Z t 3 1 J ~ i h L $ <

9 a. ~h 4 t p e ~ i t ~ + - ~ w , s~~?;~ot.; r UB+*ZZA I:*? ;b;< L*

+H$'I~_~vz z L - T % & L ~ ~ , 1 9 9 3 + m ~ on Y ~ ~ ~ ; % H - F L 5 7 *.t a a & m 0 : iefbi l t ~ . do? e-2

$. p ~ " ; i ~ i w s f t w ~ : a T 3 7 ~ 2 ~ 2 , mow % ~9 $k?sri%R1k;S'%.%C:?~ 9 T 3 7: Z 2 h ~!ffl@+.b~srif&d ( E ) .

1: I i h I f b ~ F b ~ L h b i h

(H$#3%%h712.21.9127%

(The Ministry of Finance and the Ministry of Education agreed on the morning of the 21st that the tuition of national universities will be raised by V36,000 a year. The new tuition will come into effect from April 1993. The reasons for the raise include the obvious gap between the tuition of private universities and that of national universities and the urgent need to modernize facilities for science and engineering research.)

:i:i 9 Z i O b ~ I Z ?

b. TftI,~bC:&EIO&@T@?; fi. : S L > ~ I:&?hb $*( 312, E l8h+@, $.Fl E+hl+l:lV , b1T;kb ;@&t,m,Q ,Z$?kLt: Z 2 $:1+?5 8 , %

C Pi+?b. t t L C b r : i P i CILW

g p g ~ rjgg~~mwmmyg1 I:, w%k ~:$?t t < 627 a ~ ~ - h % J d L - C L J ~ O # ~ ~ ~ ( E ) ~

(S$$~iW%7i312.26.9198 VJ) ("A Survey of Problematic Behaviors by K-12 Students" released by the Ministry of Education on December 25 has revealed that the number of cases of school violence which took place at high schools across the country in 1990 reached 1,419, involving 490 schools. Both figures are the worst on record. One of the characteristics is that there is a sharp rise in violence towards teachers.)

3. Conversational Strategies

In order to become proficient in advanced Japanese conversation it is necessary to be able to use conversational strategies. They include (A) Aizuchi ('back- channel' responses), (B) Fillers, (C) Rephrasing, (D) Topic Shift and Topic Recovery and (E) Avoidance of Decisive Expressions, among others.

A. Aizuchi ('back-channel' responses)

Aizuchi ('back-channel' responses) is an interjection to indicate that the hearer is involved with what the speaker has said up to that point of the conversation. The most common aizuchi expressions include Ii l/l 'yes,' 2 2 'yes,' j tv 'yeah,' it 5 'oh, yeah?', ?- 5 T f i5 'Is that so?', ". 2 'wow,' ?- 5 T f ;la

'that's right,' lZtv 2 i ( 1 : ) 'really,' +;kT 'so?', ?-;ki5b 'and then?' Exam- ples are given below. (Aizuchi expressions are given in double parentheses.) In Japanese the hearer uses such aizuchi now and then at phrase-final and sentence-final positions. Phrase endings are often signaled by the particle 'ne.'

b, t It&:.'.

(1) [A male superior talking to his subordinate] 6 L 9 2 , %J El, ~ i ~ l : h C t 7 Z < L i

cfC2k2,eC I; QbltvTh, ((dkbl)) Za)$GrEP;la, ( ( l i b > ) ) .%l 9T'd Td:z& LT&b>T < ;kCb>i5ho ( ( I i b l ) )

(lit. I have to fly to Hong Kong tomorrow ((yes)), so complete this report ((yes)) by the day after tomorrow, will you?)

L l j d 9 I,omd*

(2) [A male speaker talking to his male friend] %;k$ biE a)-t; El 1:eGf la, ;5-x I- 7 11 7 0 ' ~ F L - c = . & $ c ~ T ; ~ ~ , ((-2)) AEa)Xfi&v Y T , % I / ~ T 3 r:tvr?, ((+ 1) (lit. From the end of the year till January 7, I went to Sydney in Aus- tralia ((wow!)) I swam under the midsummer sunshine. ((oh, yeah?)))

$ 0 5 L F

(3) [A female speaker talking to her female friend] R El k@ B 8 b ~ T brf: 6 0 :

b h , ((i A)) Z L E F ~ J ~ V ~ ~ O L , ((Crtvk I:)) + ; k ~ , 9 ~ ~ r : b h , ( ( 5 tv)) h b t v E B L T - ? ~ E ~ I ~ ~ ~ ? T ~ O ~ ((2-2, bZtv2 i ?)I (Yesterday when I was walking on the Ginza street ((yeah)) I saw Mariko ((really?)) So I called her. ((Yeah)) She pretended not to recognize me and looked the other way ((Oh, yeah?)))

b,-tmd' (4) [A male superior to his subordinate] Z a) 6 k T 6 'K L L.l I? 6 i .

r i C h h'(i :333:3L+

(( t i r+a)) rz$e, ,@,a3 cF@+5- L ~ ~ L > ~ = T , 2 m s r i ~ ; e - = - c d r - f i / v ~ : ~ f m , ((;i;i)), ~ ~ s a j 5 . g ~ + ~ = . X e g j ~ 1 ~ r ~ / v r : ,

I f - C r < ((+i ~ + f i l ) ) , t h T , $6 EC2R?;i6?-?&3-c L3 ~ k b l t , ((t i ah T-rtiP)) (You know I've been terribly busy these days. ((right)) So, I wanted to make a trip for a change. And I went to a travel agent ((yes)), but I couldn't get the ticket easily. ((Is that right?)) So in the end I gave up the idea. ((Is that right?)))

It should be noted that in English aizuchi (typically 'uh-huh' or 'yeah') is seldom used. In fact, frequent use of aizuchi creates an impression that the hearer is not paying serious attention to what is being said. Not only verbally, but also nonverbally, the Japanese hearer nods very frequently to indicate his 1 her involvement with what the speaker has to say.

B. Fillers

While aizuchi is a strategy available for the hearer, a filler is a strategy available for the speaker.

First, the particle ne in (5) and (6) is a typical filler that indicates the speaker's attempt to involve the hearer. (5) is an example of informal speech, and (6) is an example of formal speech in which ne is preceded by desu. This use of desu ne is most commonly used in business Japanese.

D t l i L . t

(5 ) i + ~ i i a , 1.~&4&7% 11 f i i~11; -~~-=~&~b, - %~$?~:- -@7~3-=f i /v l 5 , (lit. Yesterday, y'know, Tom suddenly came here from the States, y'know, and stayed overnight at my house.)

(This is the new software I mentioned the other day, and if you have time I'd appreciate it if you could use it on an experimental basis.)

However, too many ne's in a single sentence makes the sentence very awkward, as shown in (7).


9I:A7?lo (???Today, y'know, I, y'know, went to Narita Airport, y'know, by car, y'know, to pick up my friend, y'know.)

Secondly, the filler and is used to signal the speaker's hesitation about saying something embarrassing, as in (8a). In (8b) and is used to signal the speaker's search for the right word or phrase. Too many and's in a single sentence sounds very awkward as shown in (8c).

(8) a. A: Y j LI:AT-.fjS., (What happened?)

B: &*, E + & ; k l i l ~ b 9 I : A T t , (Uhh . . . , I forgot my wallet, you know.)

b. YZI?-3i$, &*, f l d b c A I : % b 2 0 (Where is it? Eh . . . I mean the book I bought yesterday.)

c * & D i A 2 8 t E l , & D i , gl)i, & a ? , '$&~.B?IT%-c, $3, A L S 9 CZ, &a,, S L T , &a, %!J b LIZ, (Ah, uh, yesterday, y'know, my mother, y'know, came from Kyoto, y'know, talked with me after a long while, y'know, and went home, y'know.)

Thirdly, the phrase 'nan to iu X deshita ka' 'What was X called?' in (9) becomes 'nan te iu X datta kke' in informal speech. The phrase can be used whenever the speaker has forgotten an exact name.

(There is a famous bookstore in Shinjuku-what was the name? . . . Oh yeah, Kinokuniya. I bought four books on the Japanese economy there.)

Fourthly, the interjection eto used in (10) is used when the speaker is trying to remember something. Just like the case of and, too many eto's in a single sentence makes it very awkward.

SPECIAL TOPICS I N INTERMEDIATE JAPANESE GRAMMAR

(The fall of Russian communism was, let's see, December of 1991, if I remember correctly.)

Fifthly, the phrase 'nan to ittara ii desho (ka)' in (1 1) and its informal equivalent 'nan to ittara ii ka nalne' are used when the speaker is looking for the right expression.

(The recent tendency in world ideology is, how shall I put it? Bor- derless thinking.)

Sixthly, the interjection ma is used primarily to avoid making a definite statement, as shown below.

C b + < d f < i r r t i

(12) a. A: Z OAf C2f &%$hi. PO ('6 b\T?75' , (What's the student population at this college?)

L.$*,L z *AKA.

B: 36, - - Z 5 T - A C L ; b ~ T L h i d . , (Somewhere around 15,000, I suppose.)

b. A: %!tl2~%&Tti5.. (Have you been in good health lately?)

B: 36, ?-i T t b 0 (I guess so.)

I: ItL LI < c. s$gct., 36, l l i ~ ~ h g d : : * i ~ ' , M,~zlfhari it, C : ~ ; L \ ~ S '

3 6 S h p

%t 3 T & b ~ T t b 0 (I can eat practically all Japanese food, but natto (=fermented soybeans) has too strong a smell for me and I don't like it.)

C. Rephrasing

Just as native speakers of Japanese know how to rephrase words using other explanatory expressions when they cannot recall the most suitable words, intermediate learners of Japanese, too, should start to learn how to rephrase words they don't know or cannot remember. By doing so embarassing pauses can be avoided. A common way to rephrase a noun is by means of a noun modification, as shown in (13a, b).

(13) a. [The speaker A cannot remember / doesn't know the word geta, traditional footwear in Japan.]

(You know the stuff Japanese people put on when they wear kimono-what do they call it?)

B: hh, pgozIIf:ila, (Oh, you mean geta?)

b. [The speaker cannot remember 1 doesn't know the word genkan, Japanese version of a foyer.]

H$ogTii, 256, 4EJIIz9f:&e9 126, zl:&a%l:iit Q$L<II z 5 , ~ T Z I ; ~ : , f $ E ~ ~ i : ~ - - ~ ~ - j - d : i l a , (In a Japanese house, ah, what do you call it? The place where people take off their shoes before entering the house, that's an interesting space, you know.)

When a word that needs rephrasing is a verb or an adjective, the speaker can rephrase it by using more basic words or phrases, as shown in (14a, b).

(14) a. [The speaker cannot remember / doesn't know the verb hdsdsuru 'to broadcast'.]

w i : f l f r

~oFM? 79.7 ~ ~ & $ G ; ~ : ~ H R L + & ~ & G : ~ , g, 60 j , &'if

a /uTt7F, (Is this FM classic music program broad, broad, ah, can we hear it every day at the same time?)

b. [The speaker cannot remember / doesn't know the na-adjective nihonteki(na) 'Japan-like.']

bL il 5 bjoH&;t: H*A, H*A, H $ A ~ ~~.\mawdi, 13 atilao (That lady has a Japanese, Japanese, Japanese-like atmosphere, doesn't she?)

When the speaker wants to get the word which he cannot remember / does- n't know, he can use - koto / hito / yosu, etc. o nan to iimasu ka, as shown in (15a, b).

(15) a. [The speaker cannot remember 1 doesn't know the verb nesugosu 'oversleep' .]

A: @, +& b & aT&&zkL?mksbla*7k (What do you say when you sleep longer than you planned in the morning?)

b. [The speaker cannot remember I doesn't know the adjective gaikdteki 'social' .]

+?- I t < 7%

A: X k w a > j s i X & ~ ~ , rz-.-r.btz+i ~ c : & w r c t ' i < Aoz k L?l~JkZbl5Ti5., (What do you call a person who loves to talk with people and goes out willingly no matter where it is?)

d 7 i ~ : i T 3

B: rfimml H ~ ~ w ~ (We call it gaikdteki.)

D. Topic Shift and Topic Recovery

In any language the speaker cannot shift the topic of conversation abruptly; there are ways to signal a topic shift. Some of the most common Japanese ways to signal a topic shift are given below.

(16) a. kCST (By the way) It*L +,+/

b. &C&&kla *7F, (lit. The story is different, but . . .)

c. 6 L 9 kBd"-?;k%Tjsi, (lit. The story deviates a little bit, but . . .) .h C W d. Bld'&;h a 'if#, (lit. The topic is going to change, but. . .)

e. Xk~2.d%/X9~(~;id%) (Speaking of X)


When the speaker wants to get back to the former topic, he can signal his desire to recover the old topic. Some of the standard ways to signal it are as follows:

(17) a.

b.

C.

5 7 3 X 7 7%- 7:Cf FS [highly informal] (A while ago I / you said X, but)

S9$OSTT7F/ 593OXO~&T-$7F (Let me get back to the topic 1 X that we were talking about a while ago.)

E l 2 t.$kEif 7: Z t Tt7F [very formal, polite] BE r O k T T l f P [formal, polite] (Regarding what I told you a while ago)

E. Avoidance of Decisive Expressions

To a far greater degree Japanese language uses indecisive expressions especially when the speakerlwriter expresses his own opinions. The strategy that Japanese native speakers use to make their statements less forceful and more humble is the use of an indirect expression at the end of the sentence. Suppose that the speakerlwriter wants to state "Japanese people avoid using decisive expressions," he could say or write very straightforwardly as in (18) or indirectly as in (19) and (20).

(18) ~ $ ~ l i @ r g & i f & ( L ) ~ (Japanese avoid using decisive expressions.)

(19) a. El$AlkAZBBlf &a) {Tdi / Ce) h rl3-@A&, (Isn't it the case that Japanese avoid using decisive expressions?)

b. H$Alil$fZB%$lf&O {Td i /C? I GLlTLdrjjS-., (I wonder if Japanese wouldn't avoid using decisive expressions.)

C. El$AcrtFfiZB;@cf & O I ~ l . 3 / E e l ablt:s 5 a, (I wonder if Japanese wouldn't avoid using decisive expressions.)

d. El$AliBifZQBGf &O {TI& / Ce) 8756 5 a, (I wonder if Japanese wouldn't avoid using decisive expres-

WI


sions.)

(20) a. El$-AGi.kfiZQBbf& Ir 8 b l Z T , (I think that Japanese avoid using decisive expressions.)

b. n $ - A l A w ~ g c t a k,g,blaj- I ~ W , (I think that Japanese avoid using decisive expressions, but. . .)

C. El$-AbkkfiZQBIf&a> {-Chi. / h = l Q b ~ 2 ~ k E b ~ 2 T o (I wonder if Japanese wouldn't avoid using decisive expressions.)

d. E l $ A l k l % Q b f & { T I & / C . e l h b \ + k . E , b l 2 T / If r 1 ,

(I wonder if Japanese wouldn't avoid using decisive expressions, but. . .)

e. El$Abk%fBQjBIf & a ) T t i . h b l + I r , R ; h ; k Z j - { $ / If r l , (It seems to me that Japanese will avoid using decisive expressions, but. . .)

f. %Lb:GkH$AGi.kfiZQBGf&a)TGkfsb~~k.~,;h;k&a)TT$, b ~ + $ h 6 a > T L ~ i+, (It seems to me that Japanese will avoid using decisive expressions, but what would you say?)

In (19) and (20), in which the same core statement is made, the longer the sentence is, the less decisive the expression is 1 tends to be. When a Japanese speaker opposes what his superior has said his expression definitely has to avoid straightforward expressions. There are some set phrases that can be pre- fixed to the speaker's statement of an opposing view, as shown in (21).

(21) a. % 5 + h &, [informal] (Well, I doubt it. (lit. I wonder if that is so.))

b. ? - ? L T ~ b l b l ( T j - ) bfr0 (That's fine, too, but. . .)

c. ?-;kIk+-5 {Tj-/f?} IfFo (That's true, but. . .)

d. B-t;6tv-?ik/v r - w / r z ] ~ f r h ~ (Of course it is true, but. . .)

<<

g. E u m t w a ~ ;t ~l t k a b l A - r w 0 (I don't have any particular intention to disagree with you, but. . .)

h. && Q%T 1 i TliiJTT$... [highly formal and polite] (lit. Sorry to return words to you, but. . .)

tH i. @2&G:k;~ L 9 6 3 9 I?kCk,F,bl3T jSP, LeL... [formal,

polite] (What you have said is indeed correct, but . . .)


4. Toward Better Reading Comprehension: Analyzing Sentences Accurately

Reading comprehension involves a variety of mental processes, from understanding the meanings of words and grasping the structures of sentences to identifying the referents of pronouns and understanding inference. If the reader fails in these processes, correct interpretation cannot be attained. One of the most problematic areas here is sentence structure. This section provides aids to improve skills for accurate sentence structure analysis.

(1) Basics

A. Structure of Simple Sentences

Before tackling complex sentence structures, it is essential to understand the basic structure of Japanese sentences. First, let us consider the following sentence.

b L L a i 4 t b P 3 (1) $LG;f~t$@Ega>7,\"- I. T P ~ v e j i - ~ b s f i ,

(Last night I was watching TV in my friend's apartment.)

(1) is a simple sentence (i.e., a sentence with a single verbal). The structure of this sentence can be diagramed as follows.

(2) Pre-verbal element Verbal

$L GA [Subject (Topic)] %@ [Time]

E - C b ~ k 7 1 - 1- T [Location]

P 1/ v B [Direct object]

As (2) illustrates, Japanese simple sentences usually consist of a verbal and some pre-verbal elements. Complete sentences in Japanese must contain a verbal, and in some instances simple sentences have only verbals (e.g., imperative sentences). Thus, verbals are considered to be the "hub" of sentences. As a matter of fact, sentences are constructed in such a way that the verbals are modified by pre-verbal elements. The general structure of Japanese simple sentences is provided in (3).


(3) Sentence-initial Pre-verbal Verbal element element

(Conj .) (Sentential

adverbial) (Sentential

topic) I As (3) illustrates, a verbal is either a verb, an adjective, or a noun with a

copula (e.g., sensei da) and sometimes involves other elements such as auxiliaries (e.g., (Vte) iru) and/or sentence particles (e.g., ka, yo). A pre-verbal element is either an NP (i.e., noun or noun equivalent) with a particle(s) or an adverbial (i.e., adverb or adverb equivalent). Verbals indicate either an action or state while pre-verbal elements indicate such things as subject, direct object, time, location, and manner. Simple sentences sometimes contain sentence-initial elements such as sentence-initial conjunctions (e.g., shikashi 'but') and/or sentential adverbials (e.g., omoshiroi koto ni 'interestingly'). As seen later, more complex sentences, such as compound sentences and complex sentences, are composed of two or more simple sentences which have the basic structures shown in (3).

B. Key Elements

The key elements of sentences are verbals, NPs, pre-verbal adverbials, and sentence-initials.

1. Verbals

In sentence-final position various forms of verbs, adjectives, and NPs with a copula appear. They are sometimes followed by auxiliaries and/or sentence particles. (4) provides some examples.

*In terms of position, NP-(Prt.)-wa normally appears before other pre-verbal elements and sometimes even before a sentence-initial element. However, when NP-(Prt.)-wa is the sentence subject, direct object, etc., we consider this element to be pre-verbal rather than sentence-initial because, unlike other sentence-initial elements, NP-(Prt.)- wa modifies the verbal. (See 4.3. Sentential topic.)

(He cried.)

b. %L& eo V Aux.

(I want to go, too.)

c. - - gL.W- t P o

Adj(i) Prt. (Is (it) cheap?)

d. m 1 3 f 2 ;la, Adj(na) Aux. Prt. (It seems convenient, doesn't it?) 7 m C L ++A*b,

e. @iAbi%& f ? ~ f : -?3 fZ0* N Cop. Aux.

(I heard that she was a teacher.)

2. NPs

As seen in (3), NPs appear as either pre-verbal elements (with a particle) or verbal elements (with a copula). There are varieties of NP structures, as seen below. Long and complex sentences often include large NPs composed of NPs with different types of structures; therefore, understanding these structural variations is essential for accurate sentence structure analysis.

2.1. Nouns / Pronouns

Single nouns, pronouns, and compound nouns are in this category. Examples:

l i L 6 3 t? I : @ $ 7Y< L l i L + b , k'

(5) $ (book); LLl Bl 3 A (Mr. Yamada); iF1. (I); Z kL (this); A 5%zt%%lJi3f (entrance examination system)

*When certain auxiliaries follow an NP with a copula, the copula drops, as in (i).

(i) E ~ C ~ B ~ ~ h k ~ ~ l i ~ , N Aux.

(She might be a teacher.)

2.2. Pre-nominal element + Noun

There are several patterns in this category.

2.2.1. Demonstrative adjective + Noun

(6) Z 0 $ (this book); 0 f & (that student); Z tv B 4 & (such a dictionary; a dictionary like this)

2.2.2. Adjective + Noun frbl). L*< Clrl

(7) % 1:li% (difficult homework); 3 B P L X (a pretty dress); &$ i ' X

0% (an ordinary house)*; 2 < T@$Ufb 7)f- b (a cheap and convenient apartment)

2.2.3. Noun (+ Prt.) 0 Noun t i l r i 3 + r = % ~ O % I T %

(the subway system in Tokyo)

&&xtv0&&mgj$

(Mr. Suzuki's father's company)

%&* 6 0+@

(a letter from my teacher)

$$&, f J9 fJ t fb~a>E% (problems such as kanji and katakana)

(+ no1 (DBJG: 312-15))

2.2.4. {Noun / Verb} + Compound particle (pre-nominal form) + Noun 1: IiL r X L W i *.L

(9) a. EI K MT a ii3 (a paper on Japanese grammar)

b. (zo&&)T& ~ = $ f i 9 ~ 0 % % (precautions before doing (this job))

*There are a handful of adjectives that have prenorninal forms ending with no rather than i (i-adjectives) or na (na-adjectives). More examples:

L S 3d'

(i) 38 < 0 (distant); h < 0 (nearby); % < 0 (many); (constant); %$$o) (the newest)

[581

2.2.5. Relative clause + Noun*

(10) a. (C&i2)2%&9 f : ~ - + ( f ? ~ ) ((This is) a cake which Tomoko made.)

*%If/r f 3- > L < 2 b. %LO-%F33 a4+ FE! %(bid - b - 4 7 f L )

(The composer that I like the most (is Beethoven.)) (+ Relative Clause (DBJG: 376-80))

2.2.6. NounISentence 2 b l j Noun

(11) a. % * k b l j y ! k (a student named Suzuki)

b. H$;Bh2$bl~bla~&f?kblj*g~(l;gL { 2bl0)**

(The idea that Japanese is an ambiguous language (is not uncommon.))

(+ - to iu (DBJG: 486-87))

2.2.7. Sentence + Nominalizer

(12) a. 3 3 7 ~ ~ 7 1 e & b l ~ b b ~ ~ ( % h b l ~ < ~ ) ((I heard) Mitsuko playing the piano.)

(e no3 (DBJG: 3 18-22)) C r i <

b. 'i's-;/x=i/v-nr+s%a c 2 ( e a n ~ ; ~ & 3 f : , ) ((I didn't know) that Mr. Jones was coming today.)

(+ koto (DBJG: 193-96))

*In Japanese, restrictive relative clauses and non-restrictive relative clauses are not dis- tinguished by form. For example, the noun phrase in (i) is ambiguous.

(i) L <'W< EI $A ((1) the Japanese, who work hard; (2) Japanese people who work hard) A proper context is necessary to make this phrase unambiguous.

**There are some variations of "S to iu N," as in (i).

2.3. Noun k Noun

Two or more nouns are connected with noun connecting particles such as to and ya to form a larger noun equivalent. A comma can also be used to connect nouns. Examples:

"Lk (13) a. i%+ki59553-(k)

(kanji and katakana) (d to1 (DBJG: 473-76))

b. 3 W 4 7 9 7 f - 3 ( 9 ) (plates, knives, and forks (among others))

( d y a (DBJG: 536-38))

c. % ~ b k f i S L & k f i (tempura, sashimi, and so on)

d. 7%')?1 , F 4 7 , 7 4 ) X Q P (America, Germany, France, etc.)

e. fi>js.@$(js.)

(a pen or a pencil) ?+A;< Z f r i Z < 2

f. H W E wn, @jZm, 3 f:lkP HZ (Japanese, Korean, or Chinese)

2.4. Embedded interrogative sentences

An interrogative sentence embedded in another sentence is a noun equivalent, as in (14).

(14) a. $!&F+&??TZI js. ( f l k g f ~ ~ ) (Who will do that (is the question.))

b. ~ & f l \ / > f i C c ~ ~ f i ( Q ~ ; i 6 , ~ ~ d ' & 6 0 )

((It is necessary to teach) how important reading is.)

3. Pre-verbal adverbials

There are several kinds of words and phrases which function as pre-verbal adverbials.*

3.1. Adverbs / Adverbial nouns

(15) @ 9 < 13 (slowly); +I (today)

3.2. Adverbial forms of adjectives

(16) < (quickly); kb C: (quietly)

3.3. Adverbial forms of auxiliary adjectives .h **

(17) 5% 9 +-if < (in an easy-to-understand fashion); % L? i I: (sadly)

3.4. Quantifiers

(18) a. ~:<s/v(&<a) ((eat) a lot)

e h x k m b. ( t - - lb2)5$(&?5)

((drink) three (beers))

3.5. Phonornimes, phenomimes, and psychomimes

(19) a. (%F) 7 'J 7 7 (& < ) ((a dog) bowwows)

b. (!3*Z2)-ifb-ifb(%t.f) ((read Japanese) easily)

c. 2%Y2%Y(-if&) ((be) nervous)

3.6. Quotation + 2 ** (20) a. rm~ iu&x

((say) "Good morning")

*The contrastive wa may be affixed to pre-verbal adverbials.

**A quotation can be a complete sentence or part of a sentence.

[611

b. % ~ ~ l k ( k ? i ) ((think) that s.t. is difficult)

(e to3 (DBJG: 478-80))

3.7. Noun 1 Verb + Compound particle (pre-verbal form)

(21) a. ~ ~ ~ 3 1 % i = g b l - c ($&) ((talk) about Japanese culture)

B t i< Or< t i t5

b. ( % Q ) k6GL3;kT(ZEllKBPgi?&o)

(As one grows old, (one's memory fails.))

3.8. Vte L.3 V t

(22) $b>T (on foot); %.b)T (hurriedly) ( 6 -te (DBJG: 464-67))

3.9. Vmasu + 1:

(23) (&sc : )A~~G: (5kf:)

((came) to see (s.o.'s friend)) ( 6 ni5 (DBJG: 297-99))

4. Sentence-initial elements

Sentence-initial elements modify the clause which follows. They include sentence-initial conjunctions, sentence adverbials, sentential topics, and sentence- initial clauses. Sentence-initial clauses are elements of complex sentences. (See E. Complex Sentences.)

4.1. Sentence-initial conjunctions

Some conjunctions appear in the sentence-initial position. w . ~ i = a c

(24) a. %iFK~;kl&k!7?~ Lfi>L, N&%ii&& iiTf?o (This is truly a difficult problem. But there should be a way to solve it.)

b. - ? D ~ ~ ~ L $ L ~ ' ~ T % & 1 ~ i i X 3 -$ ? L T , t i i r k 20

C:KBQl/vRo (That job was too big for me to do by myself, so I asked for help from some of my friends.)

4.2. Sentence adverbids

Sentence adverbids are usually phrases, as seen in (25).

H t Lh c r i l r i

(25) a. @EIL\L~:E, k #&O? 4 ~ O ~ P & ~ P % i t r . ~ k , (Interestingly, the advanced class did a poorer job.)

b. .j ;t,17c=.t, n 9 4 Q&Q -ma o 72%~1:~ (It was stupid that I forgot to bring my camera.)

4.3. Sententid topics

Unlike the pre-verbal NP-(Prt.) marked by wa, sentential topics modify the entire sentence which follows.

B r i .I bt,h-+ ^;A - L

(26) a. 3 3 l b ~ d ~ ~ ~ ~ % L L b > h . (Speaking of Kyoko, her father practices law.)

d'L b, L r i C +A.

b. ; . n W B l 3 4 L - i l ~ b , ~ A _ ~ : ~ ~ L ~ B ~ ~ & E ~ (With regard to this problem, it is no use to discuss it further.)

4.4. Sentence-initial dependent clauses

Sentence-initial dependent clauses are internal sentences which are dependent on the clauses which follow. Sentence-initial dependent clauses represent such things as condition, time, reason, purpose, and manner. (27) provides examples.

(27) a. ~ ~ ~ $ $ h f i ~ % T : % h b * T ? 2 k ~ ~ (Please let me know if Mr. Kobayashi comes in.)

t B

b. $ L ~ ~ ~ ? L ~ Z L \ T L G C Z ~ ~ & % G ~ Q ~ ~ ~ . T I : , (There was nothing unusual when I was there.)

c. $ ~ f i f % a - i l % i c . a ( ~ ~ j G Q$lf 6 b l f 1:b>fi>hb>, (Because a friend of mine is coming to see me, I cannot leave my house.)

' ln i A'< -iL b t i

d. $LCiEI*EB ~ T ~ T c ~ ~ E E ~ * Z % % S & L 7 k > 3 - F 0 (I'm studying Japanese in order to study in Japan.)

If a sentence-initial dependent clause and the following clause have a com-

mon element, the element usually appears only once. In (27d), for example, the sentence-initial dependent clause and the following clause (in this case, the main clause) share the same subject watashi 'I.' Thus, watashi appears only once (in this case, as the topic).

C. Verbal Connective Forms

When two verbals are connected through an "AND-relation" in a sentence, the first verbal must be in the connective form, as in (28).*

I*( C S I h

(28) a. %.d;t$flf;@Ki&Z?, R+ @ ~ 5 & b , (I get up at six in the morning and go to bed around ten in the evening.)

b. z a)$+S.Bd2?fi< T@8Jf0 (This dictionary is cheap and useful.) I L t! r ( LL

c. gff l3 Ld2Z+IQT8%BT%o (Mr. Yoshida is thirty-two and single.)

The affirmative and negative connective forms of different verbals are given in (29) and (30), respectively.**

(29) Affirmative connective forms:

a. Verb: Vte (e.g., 2Z 3 T ) ; Vmasu (e.g., E 3 )

*If two verbals are connected through a "BUT-relation," the connective forms are not used, as in (i).

(i) a. $~1dgk%&3~:.t-h'$$~f~f3~~6733~~~ (I like fish but I don't like vegetables.)

b. ~0@g1%Qb'lf?LYB fh?Pt?73~E$~lEo (This dictionary is cheap but pretty useful.)

**As seen in (29), there are two kinds of connective forms. In general, the first kin( (i.e., te-forms) are used when the first verbal is strongly related to or dependent on thl second verbal. In (i), for example, the first verbal yasukute '(it is) cheap' gives thl reason why the speaker feels that the apartment is good (the second verbal). In thi case, the te-form is used. (e Vmasu)

(i) Z07'1f- I- 12 {%< TI*%< 1 b>b>o

(This apartment is cheap and (therefore) good.)

(30) Negative connective forms:

a. Verb (neg.): Vneg ts ( T (e.g., j? 2 < 7 ) ; Vneg I h b l

T / 41 (e.g., q?J1;S1tsb\T; {?&d') (+ - nai de (DBJG: 27 1-73))

Q

b. Adj(i) (neg.): Adj(i)stem ( ts ( (T) (e.g., & ( h < (7))

D. Compound Sentences

If a sentence involves two (or more) simple sentences (i.e., clauses) and these sentences are conjoined by means of coordinate conjunctions such as ga 'but' or continuative forms of verbs, adjectives or the copula such as Vte, Adj.te and Cop.te to mean 'and,' the whole is called a "compound sentence." The clauses in a compound sentence are connected through the AND-relation or the BUT- relation. (3 1) provides examples.

Z * ) z < C L d . L Z < C L (31) a. 7 ;/';;/UCi+ HAT+.& 3/UCi$$E!Al?,

(Mr. Wong is Chinese and Mr. Kim is Korean.) d. * * I

b. A h h a 7 7 >xWB%-i?aiSr@,I&B-@tsbl, (My wife can speak French but I cannot.)

When the clauses in a compound sentence have an element in common (e.g., the subject, the direct object, the verbal), the element usually appears only once. For example, in (28a-c) the subjects are shared and in (31b) the direct object is shared. (32) provides an example of a shared verbal.

* * .b%L?*<< ?A.

(32) Y 3 2 l k @ @ I f 9 , - f ~ ~ - l 3 . ~ ~ 1 f ~ ~ ~ ~ T b ~ & ~ (John is majoring in mechanical engineering and Nancy in electrical engineering.)

The structures of compound sentences can be generalized as in (33). ([S] represents a clause.)

(33) a. AND-relation: [Sl]-[S2] ([S1] ends with a verbal continuative form.)

b. BUT-relation: [S1]-"BUT-conj."-[S2] (('BUT conj." is a non-sentence initial conjunction such as ga.)

E. Complex Sentences

If a sentence involves a clause which is dependent on another element or clause in the sentence, the sentence is called a "complex sentence." (34) provides complex sentences which include different kinds of dependent clauses (or subordinate clauses).

(34) a. Relative clauses (See 2.2.5. Relative clause + Noun):

Z t ~ & E + f l @ q 7:?-=F720 (= (10a)) (This is a cake which Tomoko made.)

b. Internal sentences before " 2 b l 5 Noun" (See 2.2.6. NounISen- tence 2 b l j Noun):

s$ecihblabla%%7'?2bli%2liBL < 8 b ~ (=(l ib)) (The idea that Japanese is an ambiguous language is not uncommon.)

c. Internal sentences before Compound particles (pre-nominal form) (See 2.2.4. {NounNerb} + Compound particle (pre-nominal form) + Noun):

d. Nominalized sentences (See 2.2.7. Sentence + Nominalizer):

93-;/;;fIX.fiQ4EI%62 k&%Ub1;h;J1gI:, (=(12b)) (I didn't know that Mr. Jones was coming today.)

e. Embedded interrogative sentences (See 2.4. Embedded interrogative sentences):

%$+&%-Fa fid'L7E1?0 (= (14a)) (Who will do that is the question.)

f. Clauses before adverbial forms of auxiliary adjectives* (See 3.3. Adverbial forms of auxiliary adjectives):

JAX.27FL < h 2 2 & L 3 I=, 7 4 98429TYSbL (Please use a microphone so that everybody can hear well.)

g. Internal sentences as indirect quotations (See 3.6. Quotation k):

'i'a - Y C ~ U ~ P C ~ C L < a b ~ t : a g w a . (George says that kanji is not difficult.)

h. Internal sentences before compound particles (pre-verbal form) (See 3.7. NounNerb + Compound particle (pre-verbal form)):

At&4% k & b=~;kTi?El'lBSX2&. (One's memory fails as one grows old.)

i. Sentence-initial dependent clauses (See 4.4. Sentence-initial dependent clauses):

E l m $ ~ & ~ ~ r : ~ 9 ~ b ~ ~ ~ s b ~ o (Please remain silent even if you are asked questions.)

The structures of complex sentences can be generalized as in (35).

*The adverbial forms of auxiliary adjectives preceded by clauses are sometimes classified as conjunctions (e.g., yani).


(35) Sentence- Pre-verbal Verbal initial element element

NP-Prt.

Conj. Adverbial

{V/Adj/NP[s] + Cop.](+Aux)(+Prt.) Topic Adverbial

[SI

...

[S]: Clause NP[s]: NP containing [S] Adv[s]: Adverbial containing [S]

That is, a sentence which contains at least one of the elements containing [S] in (35) is a complex sentence.

F. Missing Elements

Such sentence elements as illustrated in (35) are not always explicitly present. In fact, sentence element ellipsis is very common in Japanese. When clauses have shared elements (e.g., subjects), the shared element is usually ellipted in the second (and following) clause(s). Sentence elements are also dropped when they have been mentioned in a previous sentence, are contextually known, or situationally known, or when they indicate a generic agent such as "they" and "we." (36) provides examples.

(36) a. Shared by two clauses:

8%3/v;?lr-?D~ 2 9 ~ b 1 - C 6 2 91 [%&Kl&;ihb1~7; 3 blo (Even if Mr. Sawada asks about that, please do not tell [him] [about it].)

b. Mentioned in a previous sentence:

@EIXTF--+Q&~ko [ji-kLd;f;l t T 6 k j b > L $ 7 f i O (I had a steak yesterday. [It] was very good.)

C. Contextually known:

Y r - > j 5 ' [$LC:]+-&% - F a ? r + - Q < k L 2 , (Jane gave [me] some home-made cookies.)

d. Situationally known:

Watching the hearer eating ice cream: [ji-kLd;f;lkjbl Lb)TJpjs', (Is [it] good?)

e. Indicating a generic agent: bhfifi I, la? i b d.L l i? It ; b w

[ R ~ C ~ ] ~ ~ $ ~ ~ & ~ : ~ C : ~ ~ ~ @ Q L L ~ > L ; ~ . I L Y - $ Q ~ ~ LLGj-ndPa I; h b l ,

(In order to protect the earth, [we] must develop a new energy source which does not destroy the environment.)

(2) Guidelines

With the basics of Japanese sentence structure presented above, the reader should be able to grasp the structure of a given sentence by following the guidelines illustrated below.

Guideline 1: Identify major clause breaks.

Major clause breaks can be identified by looking for verbal connective forms (See (1) C. Verbal Connective Forms), conjunctions such as ga 'but,' ba 'if,' to 'if; when,' kara 'because,' and node 'because,' and other conjunction equivalents such as ni mo kakawarazu 'in spite of the fact that,' tame ni 'in order to; because,' and no ni taishite 'while; whereas.'

In the following examples, clause breaks are marked by "11" i b > : ( +L1L6'< Ls L u b i l i b ' r, d.W b<*V It-ltL

(37) ~~onai;+s1r-1j5', a*, a> L ~ B A H R T ~ ~ ~ T Z E G ~ B It- V -) ~ r : t , N l - k i l o f H 5 % Uf4 . f : - J +-%&~f:d ' , / / ~ k L d f ~ $ i ~ T, //%&!i;f;%% L L b > 2 t j5'%$9 k o

(@i#f$l. 6.92 8%


Vocabulary notes:

7 7 ;i. b B "Planet B" -& a little more than - m'i* a to fly !kg Mars

El circling orbit

$OS-$ 6 to arrive

- b:hk 0 over

@8l] observation

~ v a to continue

38 schedule

*The connective form Vte with the preceding W(s) often functions as an adverbial to represent manner or reason. In this case, Vte does not mark a clause break. In (i), for example, - o mochiite is better interpreted as 'by using. . .' than as 'use. . . and,' as the English equivalent shows. Compare this Vte with the Vte in (38).

~ * i iw ~ 2 3 t z i v h i i L L n rL 15 rh L

(i) w W E WZS, z~ETzF~!~~>T 'G~T 3 rz0 (bEE .fEE TABT?f7'1.1L3 1.Dz3X9 p. 19)

(The conventional information transmission and processing have been performed (lit. we have performed . . .) by using electric waves and electrons.)


Vocabula~y notes: -3 on the other hand if 7 1. .z 1/ 3 1. o 3 2 opto-electronics ZkL3T uptonow BE progress

& to look back; to examine 357 7 4 1q-BE optic fiber communication $EBB thrust

Guideline 2: Identify the skeleton of each clause.

For each clause, identify the skeleton, i.e., the major elements, such as the subject, the direct object, and the verbal, elements which tell "who did what," "what is what," etc. Note that major elements are sometimes shared with another clause or are not present explicitly (See (1) F. Missing Elements).

In the following examples, the major elements are underlined and missing elements are supplied in parentheses. (Dotted underlining indicates elements to be examined in the following step, Guideline 3. These elements include constructions such as "NP[S]-Prt. + Verbal" (e.g., [S] koto ga wakatta 'it was understood that [S]'), "Adv[S] + Verbal" (e.g., [S] to ieru 'it can be said that [S]'), and "NP[S] + Cop." (e.g., [S] yotei da 'it is scheduled that [S]'))

By identifying the skeleton of each clause in a sentence, the idea of the whole sentence becomes clear. For example, (40) conveys the idea that "a British astronomy group announced something, but it was a miscalculation and akhe


planet does not exist."

It should be noted that in identifying major elements, the entire NP or verbal does not need to be examined. For example, if an NP contains a long relative clause, examining the head noun should be enough at this stage. The important thing in this step is to grasp a rough idea of each clause identified in the previous step.

Guideline 3: Identify the scope of key elements, including conjunctions, nouns, nominalizers, quotative markers, and auxiliaries.

The scope of an element X is defined as the range of a sentence part which is dependent on X. (See DBJG, Appendix 8 Improving Reading Skill by Identi- fying an 'Extended Sentential Unit.')

In the following examples, the key elements to be identified and examined are set off by boxes. "[ 1" identifies the scope of the boxed element which follows.

(A British astronomy group announced in last July's issue of Nature, a British science journal, that [they had for the first time discovered a planet outside the solar system,] but this was due to a miscalculation (lit. this was a miscalculation) and it turned out that [the planet does not exist.])

(Planet B is scheduled [to travel for a little more than a year, reach Mars' circling orbit in October 1997, and continue its observation for over two years.])

It should be noted that in this example, the scope of yotei 'schedule' extends beyond the immediate clause break.

*In (43), the scope of koto can extend from "wakusei wan or from "kore wa."

[721


(45) [-3, ( % A j S I ) ; S 7 " b ~ k 3 b ~ ~ 3 Z a > Z k L I T a > B E B @ k & ] 0, 11 [ % ~ T / I . I ~ - B E ~ S I ~ $ Q B B ~ ~ : Q ~ - T - $ I Z ] asna . (= (39)) (When [we examine the progress in opto-electronics up to the present, on the other hand,] we can say that [optic fiber communication has been a major thrust (in terms of progress).])

L + Z l i Li•‹?tr?i b, t d . b . 3 3 * i L

(46) $tEfl& R T 3 8 ' 4 ) 7 5 b //[FdHa>GZ%Ii+kC:i'b 0 1 mio (Because our president cannot attend, it looks like [tomorrow's meeting will be cancelled.])

t i $2 nlhh. G

(47) 19925?O%,~+--T--> s --TI$, [3 f & R W r 2 Y 2 P [ 2 [l i5";,II 2

c:&b&] [ I $ f i L ~ \ ] m 1 ' * 9 $ u # L I : ] p - m 1 2 4 # % ~

I;] ~ 3 & & g & f i I&**

(In the Tokyo Motor Show in 1992, many autos3 were exhibited [which contain (lit. mounted) fuel-efficient engines and engines2 [which utilized new energy1 [to replace ga~ol ine . ]~]~]~)

Guideline 4: Identify the modifying and modified elements accurately when an NP contains an ambiguous modification relationship.

(48) provides examples of NPs which contain ambiguous modification rela- tionships.

*Here, Enerugi 'energy' has a double modifier.

**When a structure is complex, using scope identification numbers may be helpful, as in (47).


(48a) is ambiguous because {S / Adj 1 N1 no} can modify either Nz or "N2 no

N3." (48b) is ambiguous because {S / Adj / N1 no) can modify only Nz or it can modify both N2 and N3. (48c) is ambiguous because N3 can be modified either by "N2 no" or by "N1 to N2 no." In these cases, the ambiguity can he resolved either by context or by the reader's knowledge of the world. (49) provides examples of the situation in (48a).

((1) difficult homework in Japanese [X modifies "Y a) Z," i.e., X m a ) ] ; (2) homework in Japanese, a language which is - difficult [X modifies Y and "X Y a) " modifies Z, i.e.,

x 0 Q,l) 3 L 3 iit :+:+ &L:+

b. H%K& b YBRa) 9 R - -

X Y Z

((1) Y High School's branch campus which is in Kyoto [X modifies "Y a) Z," i.e., X ma); (2) A branch campus of Y High School, which is in Kyoto [X modifies Y and "X Y a)" modifies Z, i.e., fl a) a>])

The interpretation of (49a) depends on the context and the interpretation of (49b) depends of the reader's knowledge of Y High School's location.

The ambiguity in (48b) can be illustrated by (50).

((1) the development of new materials and the marketing of those materials [X modifies Y and Z, i.e., X m]]; (2) the development of new materials (for something) and the marketing (of that thing) [X modifies only Y, i.e., a k Z])

Whether (50) is interpreted as (1) or (2) depends on the context in which this sentence is used.

(5 1) provides examples of (48c).


((1) Yoichi's and Kayoko's child [X and Y modify Z, i.e., X 2 Y a) m ] ; (2) Yoichi and Kayoko's child [Only Y modifies Z, i.e., X 2 Y a) m ] )

((1) a joint corporation consisting of P Corporation and Q Cor- poration [X and Y modify Z, i.e., X 2 Y a) m ] ; (2) P Corpora- tion and a joint corporation including Q Corporation [Only Y modifies Z, i.e., X 2 Y a) m ] )

Once again, whether (5 la) is interpreted as (1) or (2) depends on the context in which this phrase is used. There is little ambiguity in (51b), on the other hand. This is because a joint corporation constituting two or more companies is common knowledge; therefore, (1) is the likely interpretation.

Guideline 5: Accurately identify each element's modified constituents.

Particularly important is whether an element modifies a noun or a verbal. As an example, an explanation of modification in (52) is shown in (53).

s L L r Z t+?bl V 7 2 i

(52) C O Y 7 t- 9 r 7 K L ~ T * ~ a ) ~ $ & i : 8 ~ 7 ' 6 & $ 0 ~ & ~ ~ 2 ~ 7 ; ?? b l o

(53) A modifies B

2 0 7 7 b 9 r 7 k Z . L ~ T B 2 T T 3 b l

(by means of this software) (please learn)

*Sa)mkK 4sts (for the creation of documents) (necessary)

4\37 ts (necessary)

3&w7@i+ (basic operation)

w = M t t B B 2 T T ? ? b >

(basic operation [Direct Object]) (please learn)


Note here that ni yotte is a form which modifies verbs; thus, in (52), it modifies oboete kudasai. (See Appendix 3 Compound Particles.)

(54) indicates the scope of sdsa and (55) provides the English equivalent of

(52).

(55) With this software, please learn the basic operation necessary for creating documents.

Compare (52) with (56), where sofutowea is followed by ni yoru rather than ni yotte. (57) illustrates the modification relations among the sentence elements.

(57) A modifies

Z077 b 3 r 7 K k 6 (by means of this software)

*f Dl+& c = (for the creation of documents)

(necessary)

3&*0#i$Q (basic operation [Direct Object])

*fa+& (creation of documents)

!Pi!.Wh (necessary)

m='N%l+ (basic operation)

%L-cTSb> (please learn)

Note here that ni yoru is a form which modifies nouns (or noun phrases); thus, in (56), it modifies bunsho no sakusei.

(58) indicates the scope of sdsa and (59) provides the English equivalent of

(56).


(59) please learn the basic operation necessary for creating documents with this software.

&own in the above examples, misunderstanding a modified element can lead to an entirely wrong interpretation.

A DICTIONARY OF

INTERMEDIATE JAPANESE GRAMMAR

(Main Entries)

Seiichi Makino and Michio Tsutsui

EI*wZ$&wQ o+#E%)

because of too much -; because that involves excessive action - too much; so - that -

(REL. sugiru]

+Key Sentences

(A)

$LM-O% & 2 0 @bkLhd.7lz0

(I was so excited that I couldn't sleep that night.)

I Topic 1 Subordinate Clause I Main Clause I

1 (This textbook has turned out to be an uninteresting one because it I stressed grammar too much.)

k%b & 2 0 (because of too much anxiety)

6 6 2 (s.o. is SO cautious that)

-mm a?.: + r i a

(a) tk-3.li&IrJO62 l)@h&hd.71:o (Akiko was so frightened that she couldn't even make a sound.)

(I was so happy that I hugged the person beside me without thinking.) I: l t h i i l Z L . l i b , ~~~$kBii*%4illS65 A S f l n b h Z 4 %'&2a>?&i&ill@;3.GZG- T I />& L 3 (As for English education in Japan, it seems that because grammar is emphasized too much, the development of conversational skills is neglected.) L h P * L I Z $ I t b % L S

(d) 4 ~ 0 2 e i i m ~ & 3 ~ m Q%&?!L < G ~ T L ~ ~ I : , (The last meeting ended up having little content because it focused too much on formalities.)

1 . Clauses and phrases involving the conjunction amari can be rephrased using the adverb amari and the conjunction node or tame ni, as in (1).

2. Adj(i) and Adj(na) cannot precede amari, as seen in (2) and (3).

(2) $LC& I ~ ~ L ~ U * ~ L L \ I h a v % % ~ j h ; 3 . ~ ~ : ,

(I was so sad that I couldn't even cry (lit. even tears didn't come out).)

(3) fibhi {&EUl / *&Eal h b 11%&b!i~%bGb&*i?~ I: , (It looked like they were so anxious that they couldn't even eat (lit. even foods didn't go through their throats).)

3. Vinf can be either past or nonpast when it represents a past action or event, as in (4), although the nonpast form is more common.

The auxiliary verb sugiru expresses a similar idea. For example, KS(A) and (B) can be rephrased using sugiru, as in [I].

However, there are some differences between arnari and sugiru. First, arnari is always a part of an adverbial clause or phrase which expresses a cause. Sugiru, however, does not always express cause and can be in the predicate of a main clause. Second, arnari is used only when the verb or noun represents a psychological action or state. Thus, the following sentences are unacceptable.

d r i h/;P bv:

[21 *V$ E - I L B ~ C & ~ Z ~ I + B R ~ W , (Yesterday I drank too much beer and I have a headache today.)

[3] ha$% b!%$i;3'aPo (I am so tired that I have no appetite.)

Third, sugiru is used in both spoken and written Japanese while arnari is limited in use to formal written Japanese.

(+ sugim (DBJG: 423-25))

= . - - b a - h o d 0 --I$--C32 str. - - - - EBg - - - -

the -, the - pens in proportion to the increase [REL. hodo]

+ ~ e ~ Sentences

1 Topic I I I

(The harder you study Japanese, the more interesting it will become.)

1 (At a party the more the merrier.)

Topic

1 - 4 3

1 (A machine is harder to break, the simpler it is.)

( i ) Vlcond V2inf.nonpast 1% Y (where V1=V2)

%-@l2%-b l2 Y (the more s.0. talks, the more -)

(ii) Adj(i)lcond Adj(i)2inf. nonpast G2 ? (where Adj(i)l=Adj(i)2)

Sentencel

x;Sr$cfh128L\G2tr'

Sentence2

gLbl,

&hj &l2%b>C3 k' (the more expensive s.t. is, the more -)

{%sPtis>T&hlfdj6 / 32.2 L;3;3'21 12 P (the quieter s.t. / s.0. is, the more -)

(,) ~0i~ik&ih&3lfmc3rm L < a 0 a*, (The more you drink this sake, the tastier it becomes.)

@) k%li L Gf itlfL b l l 3 PA6 od'% LblTTO (The better the university, the harder it is to get in.)

(c) 7,f- l.ik5RC:Zhtitlf2b~Cak' (&%@) Abl,

(The closer apartments are to the station, the more expensive they are (to rent).)

(d) %,%z%a L ; z % ~ c ~ PW:%+W ~ : Z ~ S ' L I I / ~ T T L ~ (The healthier you are, the more careful you should be about your health.)

1. The construction of - ba - hod0 is very close in meaning to the more -, the more - construction in English.

2. Other conditionals tara and to cannot be used in this construction. Thus, the following use of to and tara are ungrammatical.

(2) X%li ~fiVbl%/*filtLff%l ;3'itrEPP+fllii&, (As for brown rice, the more you chew it, the tastier it becomes.)

3. When the verb is a suru-verb as in KS(A), it takes the form of either N- sureba N-suru hod0 or N-sureba suru hod0 as in KS(A). If the verb is not a sum-verb as in Ex.(a), it always takes the form of Vcond Vinf. nonpast hodo.

8 - ba - hod0 / - bakari ka - (sae)

4. The conditional form nara is used only with Adj(na). So, the following - = = = ' B g % - . - --

sentences are ungrammatical. - - (3) *Z0gCL$kitr&%&itrC2PBbaL<Gb0 (cf.Ex.(a))

- bakari ka - (sae) -- Iff)' t) f)' - ((P x ) comp. prt. / conj.

which is used to connect two nouns or two sentences, the first of which is s.t. normally expected and the second of which is s.t. nor-

not only - but also [REL. - bakari de (wa) naku - (mo); - dake de (wa) naku - (mo); dokoroka]

+Key Sentences

1 (In Japan not only children but even adults are reading comic books.) I

Topic

E I ~ K T C ~

I (He not only enjoys looking at pictures; he also draws them.) I

Noun

3g

Topic

12+11751

Sentencel Sentence:!

Noun

AA sf t BBB&,A,TWZ,,

- bakari ka - (sae) 9

{z&T / 56 Lf: 1 If$% 0 f i (not only does / did S.O. speak)

{$+$fie / %-h.f?9 f:l If$.b f~ (not only {is /was) s.t. / s.0. quiet)

(84 / %4f?9 f:] If 2' 4 f i (not only {is / was] S.O. a teacher)

fit< +k~% ^fL $ 1 3

(a) 7% '1 75Tdi75?%Cffiri, dl, 8&, B@kS; iEI lZQ% %LT b l 6 ,

(In America not only college students but even junior and senior high school students are studying Japanese.)

(b) &ogo i fBEI&Rbl I f f i ri, f i , a$? ii hbl/vTT, (My room in the dorm is not just small; it doesn't even have a window.)

(c) l 'kG&ZHjST%M)Gb~df2~0d., W E % $ ? k 3 W G b l 0

(It's not just kanji that Tom cannot read; he cannot read even hiragana.)

(d) Xd&h<&a>jSTkW2 7kI f j3 .9 d., ?@Bt&Dh;k$3$T-r t0

(My father not only loves to eat, he also loves to cook.)

amm 1. Before bakari ka comes s.t. / S.O. normally expected and after bakari ka

comes s.t. / S.O. normally unexpected. If the order of the two is reversed an unacceptable sentence like the following results.

2. The particle sae can be replaced by the particle mo esp. in spoken

Japanese.

10 - bakari ka - (sae)

I. The phrases bakari de (wa) naku - (mo) and dake de (wa) naku - (mo) are very similar to bakari ka - (sae). Among those three constructions bakari ka - (sae) expresses the highest degree of unexpectedness between the content of S, and Sz. If such unexpectedness is missing, the bakari ka - (sae) construction sounds awkward. Examples follow.

[1] a. &a>Ad&.B5& { E I f /lifi>bGl] T(lb)Q<x;l."-';r&d:{ &&ao (He is not only good scholastically; he is also good at sports.)

b. ? ? z o $ l & . ~ ~ b ' l i f i ' ~ I h ' f ~ t b C : S x ~ & , (+ dake de (wa) naku - (mo) (DBJG: 97-100))

11. S1 dokoroka Sz, a construction indicating that s.0. / s.t. is very far from a h (un)desirable state, is quite different from SI bakari ka SZ, when S1 is affirmative and Sz is negative or when S1 is negative and S2 is affirmative. Examples follow.

bit, k'

[3] %&.EI$z~'s*& {ZL3fi' /*lffi>blfi>l, -E&BS&Lf:L 275'69 ash, (I am far from being able to speak Japanese; I haven't studied it at all.)

- bakari ka - (sae) / bekida 11

(Mr. Smith is far from being unable to write Japanese; he can - - = = - - - even write a novel in Japanese.) - - - - - - - - - = - ~f both S1 and S2 are affirmative or negative, the two constructions are interchangeable.

*A: < z 34-3SLCt.El$iiWE&if.tf-5 {E'Z5fi>//I;Yfi>1)%1>}, @jZl$g

s m i f a . (Mr. Clark is not only able to speak Japanese; he can even speak Korean.)

d.1. *, $ b > { E ' Z 3 f i , / [ f f i ,1)f i%},

$i% L t l % a b l 0

(Jim is not only unable to converse in Japanese; he cannot even make simple greetings.)

bekida 4 3 fi aux.

speaker's judgment that s.o.1s.t. should do s.t. or should be in some

+ ~ e y Sentences

should; ought to [REL. hazu; hoga ii; mono da; -nakereba naranai]

1 (This thesis should be rewritten.)

12 bekida

1 (You shouldn't say that kind of thing to people.)

Vinf . nonpast

(You should have come, too.)

(Dl

(I shouldn't have told that to Yamada.)

1 (I told you everything I should tell you.) I

(El

( i ) Vinf. nonpast 4 3 1:

& < 4 3 1: (should go) (Exception: $ b + { $ / $ b 1 4 3 I? (should do))

Relative Clause Noun

bekida 13

@Jx t l$!3%TT(&)d$ 7 2 (You should look after yourself. (lit. You should do your own business by yourself.))

q, &&5<3 E p a b l ~ ~

(You shouldn't buy a house now.)

+fLl$g&:%gQ~J% < <$7?97:b,, (We should have told that to our boss, too, shouldn't we?) dlfi Cf?:L

@i&%@QL7M-(&)d3 E?Qfi97:L7% (He shouldn't have married.)

t i e i r e $!$Ti&% L-BIJZDW&~<$ rz,, (We should be more creative.)

Eli f;LI I f L t - 3

Za>dA%fPg%T&&d$ I?, (This state should be the reality.) 5 2 5 2 It, 6, firs dBa>$6%, 26 < 4 3 Z t d'&j~.q 7z0 (As a result of the investigation, a surprising thing (lit. something one should be surprised at) was discovered.) f; 46. hf; 1 t k - e

B+caf < %Et..:$%z~?, (Tanaka is indeed a despicable man (lit. a man whom one should despise).)

t : s BCa? &&<3EC:%&$$2b10 (There's no description where there should be one.)

1. Tense and negation are expressed by conjugating bekida. (See KS (A) - (D) and Exs.(a) - (d).)

14 bekida

== - 2. The prenominal form of bekida (i.e., the form which modifies a noun) - . - . - . - ' B g . - . - -- -

is beki. (See KS(E) and Exs.(g) - (i).) - =

3. Bekida usually expresses the idea that s.0. / s.t. should do s.t. or be in some state because it is his 1 her responsibility or duty, because it is the right thing or a good thing to do, or because it is the right state or a good state to be in. (See KS(A) - (E), Exs.(a) - (f) and (i).)

4. Bekida also expresses the idea that S.O. is expected to do s.t. (See Exs.

(g) and (h1.1

5. Adj(i)stem + ku aru bekida, as in (I), is a possible form but this form is not commonly used.

*.he t L ::* b*,

(1) @ C L + B ~ ~ T Q J L \ G L ~ < ~ ~ B ~ ~ ~ : , (Even if one's body gets old, one's mind should be young.)

6. Bekida is not used when the speaker is younger than the hearer or lower than the hearer in status. For example, (2) is not appropriate in the given situation.

(2) [From a student to his 1 her professor]

?X&, + f i ~ i ~ ~ ~ ~ : ~ & & d ~ ~ ~ (Professor, you should forget it.)

[Related Expressions]

I. Mono da also expresses the idea that one should do s.t. as one's duty, as in [I].

i f < + k b r e h l ~ i

[I] qw-a~ w a .tar:, (Students should study.)

However, mono da is used only in a generic statement to express a social norm. Thus, in a specific situation, as in [2], it cannot be used.

[2] ZG~%S&bS I43 / *.tOll E , (You should study.)

(+mono (da) (DBJG: 257-61))

bekida 15

11. In terms of forcefulness, bekida is weaker than -nakereba naranai and - - - - - - - - stronger than ta hd ga ii, as in [3]. - B g - - - - - - - - - - -

[3] a. Z d i & ~ k % $ & L a C f h I f & % & L \ ~ stronger (You must study harder.)

b. ZCib T k%$&$rtKbE, (You should study harder.) 1

c. z ~ ~ & T ~ % $ & L ~ L % L \ L \ , (You'd better study harder.) weaker

(e - nakereba naranai (DBJG: 274-76); hi5 ga ii (DBJG: 138-40))

111. Ham also expresses the idea of "should." However, ham is used when the speaker's expectation is involved. Compare the following sentences.

[4] a. Za>L;f;"- ~ . G ~ L L I H S A ~ ~ " B ~ E T I ~ ~ " ~ ~ , (Yamada should rewrite this report. (=I expect that Yamada will rewrite this report.))

b. Za>L;f;"-bliLL1H3Aj5"B3ETKbff, (Yamada should rewrite this report. (=Rewriting this report is Yamada's duty.))

t L.t;e% 151 a. z o % ~ i z z a > o ~ g r i ; i + , w s ~ ~ ~ ,

(This book should be in this library. (=I expect that this book is in this library.))

b. za>*cizza,HPgC=.i+,&K:'Cf:, (This book should be in this library. (= Housing this book is this library's responsibility.))

(e ham (DBJG: 133-35))

- = -bun 53 suJ: -- - - BZ - -- - -

for -; - worth; amount equiva. lent to -; portion [REL. -mael

+Key Sentences

Number + Counter

(I put in ten dollars worth of gas.)

(B)

Number + Counter

b O L 3 r i

(Today I did three days worth of work.)

I 1 I

(I'll pay the remaining amount (lit. the amount for which cash is short) by check.)

( i ) Number + Counter 53 (0 N )

( i i ) Noun 53

I?& L 5 g &ft (the amount by which s.t. decreased) - +&% :g#% 2 r; e , , A & & L - c ~ ~ ~ - c Y ~ ~ ~ ~ (please get six sets of materials ready for the meeting.)

b, t z zkM$T+f4 2 f? L ~ ? O T ? ? < % & ~ $ T S ~ ~ T T S ~ ~ ~ (Please leave two lines (of space) here because someone will sign there later.) hT;Lt:G $ ~ g c ; t i . i & K 5 3 O ~ - ~ x % Q 1;->k.

(We were paid a bonus equivalent to four months pay.) %her, T

1- 4 Y ?ZQ%a>C&$Liik, (Three trucks-full of garbage came out.) C(.% h V f; :;t,

ii&$fkk+%~%o>&$f Q$&&~Ic:%~ f , (The government sent food for 100,000 people to the disaster-stricken area.) d % : i b i i ' r < L i p , 0 . P i ds C * C r i O r i ;h b,

942% Eci%&Boi9Ba%f?$?2 2% $40@kIS'~j5 1 2 - L dr 5 k LTL\ 75 0

(The school authorities are trying to cover the increase in expenses by raising tuition.)

m m Either a number + counter or a noun precedes -bun. When a number + counter precedes, it means s.t. worth that amount (e.g., KS(A)) or equivalent to that amount (e.g., KS(B)). When a noun precedes -bun, it means the amount or portion of something represented by the noun (e.g., KS(C)).

Related Expression]

The suffix -mae also expresses a portion of something, as in [I], but this use is limited to food. A number + nin precedes -mae.

111 % H ~ ~ - L B ~ A ~ ? ~ ; I S ' T : , (Yoshida ate five orders of sushi.)

18 daga

but; however; yet; nevertheless [REL. dakedo; demo; ga; keredo(mo); noni; shikashi]

- -

+ ~ e ~ Sentences

(A)

I Sentence, I I sentence, 7

/ will last.) I

1 (Urban life is convenient. But there are too many stresses.) - --I

&info Eht , &info U.k i t 4 L S l L h

&OAOggil@jQl,i, f h i , '&$j$~l/\,

(His talk is interesting, but there is no content.)

bt:L + m C r dL

(a) ~ L M E ~ ~ I ~ % ? ~ T & ~ ~ : ~ E$, & ~ { ~ ~ - c ~ ~ ~ : . L 5 ~ $ j ~ , h g ~ C f , (I met her for the first time; but I felt close to her as if I had known her for a long time.)

daga 19

+ f b t b, L P B / r r ~$pr~&E22k:lflB& kif Q?&& k k:g;h;kfi, I:@, ? & & k d 2 2 b l b LblO (yamamoto was told by his doctor to quit smoking, but he doesn't seem to have any intention of quitting.)

P b m i

~ ~ O A ~ : W W W ~ & , & ~ I:$, ~ o ; s ~ ~ & ~ - c L ~ ~ w ~ (He is talented, but he is not using his talents.)

- ; h & r i T S Y~O&%O~:~+C:&~L~TB $&LC, E;s', s - > G ~ o y j % ~ j ~ . - > p , (I studied hard for today's exam without sleeping, but I couldn't do it at all.) &it: 6 121 (@$&-$& L, '&*& blb1, f:$, %#prCia-if;3.d; ( CI,~,

(My younger sister studies hard and she is intelligent, but somehow her grades are not good.)

a m Daga is not used in spoken Japanese unless it is followed by ne as in (1).

(1) A: ~ a > % z ~ ~ ~ ; 3 . ' r s ; 3 . $ l ; k & ~ 0 (That guy is really sharp, isn't he?)

B: f i A f h , & & ~ ; ~ ' ~ b l , L j ? ~ (But, he has a bad character, you know.)

In spoken Japanese it is usually replaced either by keredo(mo) or by demo. The formal version desu ga can be used in both spoken and written Japa- nese.

(2) A: &%G&'FLL~T L d: i (Your job must keep you busy.)

B: Lk, W.f l ~ b t / r l lf h F . f l , ~ E I ~ ~ , L T - $ , (Yes, but it is interesting.)

(3) 6%+&3k < - C & % @ Q ~ ~ A T - $ ~ {TG l T T A f l l fhZ. f ) , $3

Z m b l f i b , qTbt-aalt, (I'm dying to go to Japan. But I don't have money, so I can't go there.)

20 daga

[Related ~x~ress ion]

The first difference between daga and ga / keredo(mo) / noni / shikashi 1

dakedo /demo is the way they combine two sentences. Daga, dakedo, shikashi and demo are always used as a sentence-initial conjunction, but ga and noni are normally used as a non-sentence-initial conjunction, and keredo(mo) is used either as a sentence-initial conjunction or a non-sen. tence-initial conjunction.

Sentence-initial conjunctions:

Non-sentence-initial conjunctions:

e. S1 tif, Szo ???S1, hf Sz, f. S1 OIL, SZO *S,, aC= Sza

(Non-)Sentence-initial conjunction:

The second difference concerns semantic difference. Ga and keredo(mo) can be used to in two senses of 'but' and 'and.'

v $ t i I t 3

[I] +R%l:&~b4.f i W / cfhz /*cnK), RZG2, TCiP, *di ?I a - m , (I'm in Tokyo now, and I feel that Tokyo is full of energy, after all.)

For the difference between keredo(mo) and noni, see DBJG: 333-35. Among the four sentence-initial conjunctions, the most colloquial is demo, followed by dakedo and the least colloquial one is daga, followed by shikashi.

dakara to itte 2 1

- - - - However, it doesn't follow g

- - ing that even if one accepts a from this that -; But it doesn't EZZZ - premise expressed in the preced- mean that -; because of that ing .sentence(s) one cannot jump to [REL. kara to itte] an expected conclusion from the

+Key Sentences

Sentence, I I Sentencez

r (Mr. Cheng is not good at Japanese. On a test he cannot even finish half of it. But it doesn't follow from this that he is not smart.)

Sentence3

able to teach Japanese.)

22 dakara to itte

- - s S,, (S2,, ...) F f ~ b ~ Z T T S,, (where S, often ends with ihlf Titab' or gDg 2 b i R b a&>) & z z s

+h h d ,

@i&zb l , & & b f ~ b ~ , I?il.L;kS->T%;iL;kLGbl { h I f t l i & b l / PEb&b~lo

(He is young. He has little experience. But it doesn't follow from this that he cannot teach.)

t b ? l < c , (a) Y S 2 d & $ / v 0 Z k Q 6 ~ k $ ~ & ~ b ~ , 6 4 1 1 1 ~ 3 j t r . t s b 1 ~ 2 $ &

Z i , 7':jtr.L; 2 8 9 T , ~ $ ~ . 9 % ~ T b ~ G b ~ i h l f ~ C ; t : & b ~ ~

(John does not praise his wife at all. Sometimes he doesn't talk with her. But it doesn't mean that he doesn't love her.)

(b) @li&'%&&% LTb1ZiL0 &<&~:b?jff ~ T b 1 Z i ~ L;3.L, 7':d.L; k = ~ T T , ~ ~ ~ $ z ~ # $ ( c ; ~ Q L . ~ ~

(I am doing exercise every day. I am also paying attention to what I eat. But it doesn't guarantee that I will live long.)

L * i PA"?"

(c) El$ACi%~~~djSf&3~1:k~ihkLb0 - tA,- ?$QtZil:bi'?&b:?Zi. L & L , IZjtr.6 k g ~ T , @ I A ( T % $ ~ < GbrihlfTC&$b1, (They say that Japanese like group activities. Whatever they do, they do together. But it is not the case that there are no individual activities.) a+* I &:i d+f

(d) %l&k@k:blbao L*L, 7?;3.L; k S T T , fi,lfjtr. ?I @<Tblk 6, +$ h.5

C:Eb>t&-j-Ro (Fish is good for you. But if you ate nothing but fish, it would be bad for you.)

biAlri h ( B - 3 (e) ~~~g~~~ <$Lb1&+2gbfi60 *$jgj~fg +LA am dW:< CA t*

# E E L , R+Q%;ib a*%&:, jzjtr.6 L - Z ~ T , f i m ~ j ~ f y < j b ~ 1 i h l j ~ t ; f ~ ~ ) ,

(Japanese is often said to be difficult. The grammar is complex and kanji are hard to memorize. But that doesn't mean foreigners cannot learn it.)

dakara to itte / dake de 23

a- le

Dakara to itte is a conjuction which indicates that while the speaker / writer accepts an assertion / fact in the preceding sentence, he argues that what is normally expected from the assertion / fact is not (necessarily) applicable. Thus, for example, SI and S2 of KS(A) may lead to an

that Mr. Cheng is not smart. But the speaker denies that extrapolation in S3. TO paraphrase it, it is something like: 'Mr. Cheng is poor at Japanese and he can't even get half way through tests. So you probably think he is not smart, but I don't think that's true.'

2. Dakara to itte often occurs with wake de wa nai or to wa kagiranai, as shown in all the examples except Ex.(d).

dake de f2tf T phz

a phrase which expresses the idea just V-ing is enough; can just -; just by V-in; that just doing s.t. is enough for

+ ~ e ~ Sentences

Vinf

(You can just sit (lit. be sitting) here.)

24 dake de I

I I I I

(I knew who wrote it just by looking at the handwriting.) 1

. i 3 i:L*3 *A. b%$ ? 2,f

. (a) ZO$B*C~IBB~G:-E&B?&I?~~-C"~L~, Watering just once every other week is enough for this plant.)

(c) F~C:& m j ~ k l ~ l / v ~ - j - j 5 . .

(Are you sure that I don't have to do anything except attend?)

(d) ?o%&Tl&$~iiI:I:&9 ~ k ~ z l I ? b Y T k $ 9 I : ~

(At that meeting all I had to do was sit there.) C,w, < A < A S * ? Lli!., t%

(e) $ $ k ~ C i - B B ~ @ $8 Lf I?b f T&O%%%C:BKJ I:? i I?, (I heard that Murakami passed that exam just by studying for one week.)

. ??iiLIfV S (f) $3$2xi 'LT%9 2e&-$~?b$T~~$l/~?--$;.fl&~ { &&BY&%@

f l h b .

(There is a vending machine which serves hot ramen (lit. from which hot ramen comes out) just by inserting coins and pushing a button.) h t f S L V Z 1 L i L

(g) R a - ~ ~ B $ i i ~ c f ~ E & e ~ k & j ~ 3 * , (If you just pay 10,000 yen as deposit, we'll deliver the product.)

(h) i # j < j ~ ~ f ~ ~ ~ ~ < ~ ~ ~ j & k o

dake de / -darake 25

(.lust hearing that story makes me sick. (lit. It is a story that makes me sick just by hearing it.))

not the action expressed by the verb (Action 1) was taken in the past, and (2) whether or not the actiodevent expressed by the verb (Action 1) precedes the actiodevent expressed by the main verbal (Action 2). If A1 precedes A2 and A1 is a past action, the verb must be in the past tense (e.g., KS(B) and Ex.(e)). If A1 precedes A2 and A1 is not a past action, the verb is commonly in the nonpast tense, although the past tense is also acceptable (e.g., ~xs.(f) - 01)). If A1 does not precede A2 and A1 is a past action, the verb is commonly in the nonpast, although the past tense is also acceptable (e.g., Ex.(d)). If A1 does not precede A2 and A1 is not a past action, the verb must be in the nonpast (e.g., KS(A) and Exs.(a) - (c)).

(e dake (DBJG: 93-97))

full of; filled with; covered is covered or filled with s.t. unde- with

+ ~ e y Sentences

(A)

(Mr. Smith is always wearing shoes covered with mud.)

1 (This comp6sition is full of mistakes.) 1

- = = - - D g - - - - - - -

( i ) N1 R b C f O N 2

Z k l ? 23 Cfa)&% (a room filled with rubbish)

88E la L"a5.E 23 I f 7: (The room is full of rubbish.)

Topic

z 07&bca

rr ili WP 9 < i ii (a) ~ b l z k % k e ~ ~ ~ l a ~ ~ r : b ~ < , R ~ ~ I J D ~ ~ B Z Q E ~ W Z T

7: , (Apparently they have not cleaned the room for a long time and the floor and the tables were covered with dust.) D i w!.. d.2 t b kt: f B

(b) $3 K K ~ H S & A ~ ? @ , +0%0@b2&??23 l f E T 7L (When we carried him into the hospital, the man's face was covered with blood.)

& L IWd

(c) %7'? b l f 0~r(r-h3 - (r&81/1~~

(Don't come in with muddy feet.)

(d) ?g&:23lf~r& ~ - ( r b l 3 - f - ~ (I am living a life with many debts.)

Noun * G*' E m \

d i r to (el z OW I A ~ ~ I Z I; W & ~ K < I/',

(This seashell contains a lot of sand, so eating is difficult.)

-darake is used when s.t. is covered with s.t. undesirable, but if s.t. is covered with s.t. desirable -darake cannot be used.

I? 23 C f

- -

TTo

. . (On the floor were scattered bundles of monev.)

(In the student's paper there were a lot of good ideas.)

[Related ~xpressionl

The difference between -darake and -mamire is that the latter means 'totally covered I mixed with dirty liquid 1 powder such as blood, sweat, mud or dust,' excluding intangible objects, whereas the former can be used not only with liquid 1 powder but also to cover holes 1 pimples, and intangible objects, as in KS(B) and Ex.(d). More examples to show the difference follow:

[I] 7 ~ h l % * l f ~ {E%Cf /*$Ah1 7?-,7:, (My composition was full of corrections.)

[Z] ~ O X S ' J C ~ E { E % l f / * g & h ) 72, (My pants are full of holes.) L l i h/r

[3] $ %OI%I~.G:$ 73. {E%tf / * $ & h l 7 2 ~ 7 : ~ (The boy's face was covered with pimples.)

BL t d.h i h T h [41 El5 I E G C ~ / * Z A ~ I I O % B Z ~ ~ ~ B + Z L T T , % ; ~ T L ~ ~ I : ,

-(I got tired after driving on a bumpy road for as long as three hours.)

de T prt.

for; per quantity, for each of which certain [REL. ni tsuki]

+Key Sentence

1 (We will pay 2.000 yen per page for this translation.) 1

- - = .- - - - D - 2 -. - - - -

ilf C d./-.

(a) Z 0 7 I L l f - r ' 1- li-@Bm7TTH#L:1,3T < ;kaT, (They will pay me 1,000 yen per hour for this part-time job.) 3 0 i (1.3b:f ilk C 0 4 < L

(b) k+H l k - E l r ~ ~ 3 i 5 ~ - ~ ~ % / v 7 ' : o (Yesterday I read 500 pages in a day.)

(c) & < T & / ~ P , % K T , z % H CL;L\T ~ f i , (We ate and drank and it cost us about 70,000 yen for five persons.)

DtB3 I:0+c

(d) zo Q / v r c k - w c m r " p 0

(These apples are 200 yen for one pile.)

mmm De can be omitted if the relation between the basic amount and the associated amount is more or less fixed as in KS, Exs.(a) and (d). In Ex.(b) five hundred pages for one day is not fixed, so it is impossible to say ichi-nichi

gohyaku peji. The same is true of Ex.(c) in which the cost of 70,000 yen for five people is not fixed.

e elated Expression]

In the sense of 'per,' the particle de can be replaced by ni tsuki, if the relation between the basic amount and the associated amount is fixed as in KS, Exs.(a) and (d). There is also a stylistic difference: ni tsuki is more formal than de.

Topic

a )

I- * h i / - .

= ~ m

. \

2 $ & x ~ 2 ~ o i s 3

-4-9 r

probably urliter's conjecture which is not [REL. dar6; mail

based on any particular informa-

+Key Sentence

Sinf

I: vbw :L - t t b . 3 t i 99

~ l * k i 8 ~ 2 . 4 6 b ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ t b T d j 6 i 0

(The Japanese economy will probably still keep growing (lit. from now on, too).) I

(% / 3 L 7z 1 T d j 6 i (will probably talk / probably talked) t,

b / 7: I T dj 6 5 (is / was probably expensive)

{ / 3 7 7: 1 T & 6 i (is / was probably quiet)

{ / 7 7 d j 6 9 (is / was probably a teacher)

m!mm I: k' H

(a) z ~ k i a 7 ' - - & ~ ; f . e i = E k W z I ; t ~ b ~ ~ a & , 5 i . (Such a boom will probably not happen again.)

I: LA. LII: 7 Sh:

(b) zD%:sz ai+hsC2.9&K*$ b>-P&6 5 k + % s f i a o (It is expected that the next earthquake will (probably) be very strong.)

Z i L r i $ b (c) ~ 0 2 $i2.@&~%?&7?&55 5

(That negotiation will probably be very difficult.)

(I think that this area was probably a lake a long time ago.) - - = - S D g - - = - - - - -- - - -

De aro is originally the conjecture form of the copula de am, but it is used as an auxiliary of conjecture. This is used only in written Japanese.

(+ de am)

e elated Expressions]

I. Dar6, a less formal auxiliary of conjecture, has the same meaning and function as de ar6 except that de ar6 can appear before a noun as p a of a relative clause but daro cannot, as in [I].

b L L L 3

[l] %L ~ C & L . > ~ % & Z & ITibj3 5 / *f:3 5 1 Z~~JKT?L-C@;~ -C;k;fiaCf ;km c, aL.r, (We must be prepared for a strong earthquake, which will probably take place someday.)

(e daM (DB JG: 100-02))

11. Mai can be used to express a negative conjecture. However, it can be used only with Vinf .nonpast. aff.

[2] fit& Q 5 Z Z " . l & b & ~ \ , ( = @ I i b 5 Z Z " . I & & ~ L . ~ T & ~

i ,) (He probably won't come here any more.)

( e mai)

de aru T& b cop. <w>

a copula which is used in formal be [REL. da]

de aru 31

L w a t e r shortage this year is extremely serious.) 1

( i ) N t W & *&it* .

St;& T 63 ZI (be a teacher)

(ii) Adj(na)stem T h 6

kh1" & 6 (be quiet) - lKA.l7L *.A*'

(a) ~ ~ i a g k a % ~ 6 3 s , ("Man is a thinking reed.") K i t & - if& - d+S

(b) ~$&%.,~a~~la&-pi&,a k~.a j o~rf:;gb ~636, ((The idea) that Japanese is an ambiguous language is wrong.) H B f S L , U. t 9 h I t w i i ~

(c) A%!SGZ-AT&& oirf:$%i~~63&~ (Using a big car for one person is uneconomical.) *'h !! + 6'k

(d) ~ f i ~ ~ 1 u ~ ~ + ~ ~ ~ P ~ ~ f i ; 5 ' k & ~ 6 3 f i , (I wrote him many letters but it was useless.)

32 dearu

I&++<

(el ET*STC~*R$~&-~~~& z ~ ~ ; t f $ % j k ~ - c + i ; h a ~ w m ~ ~ . (In principle, in Japanese we do not say what is understood from con. text.)

hh.Lai (f) @ b f l & & 8 b > 0 C i & # ~ ~ ~ b ~ ~ b ~ $ l ; T a k , & ~

(It is because they haven't practice that they can't do it.) - 1. The conjugation of de aru is as follows:

Plain Form 1

( Negative I T b i h b \ 1 T i I TCi8$6i 1 Affirmative

Polite Form

conjecture

nonpast

T h 6

2. The plain forms are used in formal writing, for example, in professional articles and editorials. Although the de aru style is more formal than the da style, the two styles are often used together. Note that the de aru style and the da style cannot be used with the desu style.

past

T h 9 7 :

Neg.

3. In writing, the formality level of the copula is as follows:

conjecture

Th65

~ ~ i h 9 %+?A T t i h 9 3-tSATLI: T G i 2 b > T L b 5

dearu 33

4. The polite forms of de aru (i.e., de arimasu, de arimashita, etc.) are used in formal speech, for example, in public speaking. In

speech, the formality level of the copula is as follows: - - - - - --- - - - - - - E D - - - - Formal -- ~nformal - - - - --

4---------------------- * gi / 72 Tt T&!l$-f

[misted Expression]

~lthough da and de am mean the same thing, there are some syntactic differences between them. First, N da cannot be used as the prenominal form while N de am can, as in [I].

r)r. I: B L hi < [I] a. f 60l'i;Sl% IT& b / (D / *f 1 U%, 6 ?All cL%l%? + h

qC:P-nl;kt:, (Botchan, which is Soseki's representative work, was written in the 39th year of Meiji.)

Second, {N I Adj(na)stem} da cannot appear before expressions of uncertainty such as rashii and ka mo shirenai. {N I Adj(na)stem) de aru does not have this restriction, as in [2].

[2] a. L ;kGLr%60%ba7: b 0 IT& b / 0 / * E l I5 LL\ / 5'6 L h QL\l, (This {seems to 1 might} be Soseki's writing.)

:i ?+ r* b. ~03720%fl5$%& { T & b / 0 / *El 1 5 LL\ / Lh&

L \ l ,

(This method {seems to / might} be more effective.) (+ - wa - da (DBJG: 521-24))

34 dokoroka

dokoroka E'Z 6 75' conj.

far from; not just; even s.t. is very far from an expected [REL. - bakari ka - (sae)]

*Key Sentences

(I am far from being able to speak Japanese. I haven't studied it at all.)

I t unabli to converse in Japanese; he cannot even make 1 I simple greetings.) I

( i ) {Vinf 1 Adj(0)inf .nonpast k 2 5 A'

&< & if Z 5 75. (far from eating) h's k 3 b3 if 2 6 71' (far from being big)

( i i ) {Adj(na)stem (G) 1 N} ? 2 6 If!.. 3 Z% ( 2 ) PZ 5 75. (far from being healthy)

%&. Y Z 5 A. (far from being ill)

dokoroka 35

9 s ;/'/'/3/Uci;&+j5r%ctlrbb'rz5*, T4E%bBGflrbblo (Mr. Johnson is not just unable to write kanji; he cannot write even

hiragma.) L r i +

x:%3/UdiEI*S-h'~lfab1rZF,~, Ei$.%T/J\$i-n'Pcf&("b bl7Z0 (Mr. Smith is far from being unable to write Japanese; he can even write a novel in Japanese.)

94-3S~ei$1~&i5 '&4c; ;k&rz5j~1, @&?l~h4b ;k&. (Mr. Clark is not just able to eat sashimi; he can even eat mttd.)

hoX&m~rrz5-hl, mqkg3-a a ~ , (He is far from reading books; he doesn't even read newspapers.)

F[&&-f& rz5*, g*r;~g$,&~,,>o (My father is far from doing exercises; he doesn't even step out of the house.) ' t L l f f d ' 7 Bb

++OAR ca!&\r~ s*, %*9 j:, (This August was far from being hot; it was cold.)

+~oxci$$(a) rzs*, $7: 3 9 T*. (My father is far from being healthy; he is bedridden.) L < k&ci~,&g~zs*, ~ D ~ S W ~ ~ V % ~ & !

(The meal was far from being a feast; it was like food for pigs.)

mm 1. In S, dokoroka Sz is used to indicate that s.o.1 s.t. is very far from an

expected state. In Sf appears a situation quite different from the situation expressed in S1.

36 dokoroka / demo

2. In S1 dokoroka S2, the distribution of affirmative / negative predicates is as follows.

dbmo 2'5% adv.

Type 1

Type 2

Type 3

Type 4

I don't know why but; I cannot not make a definite statement manage to; just; from what I about s.t. due to lack of hard gather; seem; no matter how -;

I gather that -; for some reason

Aff.

Aff.

Neg.

Neg.

+ ~ e ~ Sentences

i I Predicate 1

Aff.

Neg.

Aff.

Neg.

(I tried, but I cannot understand the meaning of this Japanese sentence very well.)

/

Ex.(d)

KS(A), Exs.(a), (e) - (i)

Ex.(c)

KS(B), Ex.(b)

0

'not just; even' ----

'far from'

'far from' ---.

'not just; even'

$ 6 {

Neg. /

;rbblo /

I I I

(1 gather that Mr. Suzuki wants to enter Kyoto University.)

[ (I don't know why, but that instructor's class is uninteresting.) I

Ir' 5 6 b l (no matter how one tries, S.O. can't talk)

Ir' 5 Q $4 tj b l (no matter how one tries, S.O. doesn't eat)

I r ' i B 1 < t s b l (I don't know why but s.t. isn't good.)

I r ' i C .e 2 b l (I don't know why, but S.O. is not good at s.t.)

(ii) I r ' i b- {V/Adj(i)]inf I6 L b l / d: 5 7 3

Ir' i b Z6-j- I 6 L b l / d: i El (I gather that S.O. is going to talk.)

I r ' i { L ; L b l / k i f ) (1gatherthats.o.isgoingtoeat.)

P i Q g b l { b L L . ~ / d: i 7':) (I gather that s.t. is expensive.)

B@;3. ( 5 L b l / ;Fb k i 7:) (I gather that s.t. is quiet.)

dl$? %riL

(a) Z o r 6 r j b$$OWF$L < Q1.ltvT-T. (I don't know why, but lately I don't feel very good.)

1: Eh, z (b) & I O ~ 0 E l $ % k k ~ ? b & $ K < b l o

(I don't know why, but his Japanese is hard to listen to.)

(c) %&, Z O K $ @ & & f l Y j b9&6aL~tvT-To (Professor, I can't manage to grasp the intent of this problem.)

(d) Z ~ ; ' s b ~ & ~ : & + o > l i Y j b$$$E, (It is just inconvenient to live in such countryside.)

(el 5 t j ~ + ~ i y L ~ t f ~ 4 BT, Y j %%&a Q L ~ , (I don't know why, but our kids are always watching TV and do not read books.)

(f) &IO%&tiY5 b & ~ b l L 5 7Z0 (That teacher seems strict to me.)

(g) Y 3 > t i . E l * $ ~ % ~ ~ O l i k ~ E $ , $FWOIi Y j 1 5 T-$o (John is good at speaking Japanese but for some reason he seems poor at reading it.)

33 LtiCti

(i) Xii.%4R@b L T Y 5 b7FtvKG~f:b Lbl,, (Judging from the symptoms my father seems to have cancer.) d W E l It 2 PAL?

(j) WOF+%ESOYT%K$Q 7:: L P Y ~ &&I:Q-~:~ (What she said to me this morning in the train somehow bothered me.)

1. Ddmo is an adverb that indicates the speaker 1 writer cannot make a definite statement about s.t., because s h e cannot identify / pinpoint the reason. For example, in KS(A) the speaker has made an effort to comprehend the meaning of the sentence but she cannot pinpoint the meaning; in KS(B) the speaker has no solid evidence about Suzuki's

domo / donnani - (koto) ka 39

entrance to Kyoto University. In KS(C), the instructor's class is boring but the speaker / writer cannot identify the reason.

- - 2. The final predicate is overtly negative, as in KS(A), (C), Exs.(a) - (c) ID

and (e), or covertly negative as in Exs.(d) and (j). When the final pred- k icate is not negative, it normally ends with an auxiliary adjective -rashii or -yoda, as in KS(B) and Exs.(f) - (i).

3. DdmO is used with arigatd (gozaimasu) to mean 'Thank you very much,' or with sumimasen to mean 'I'm very sorry.' Ddmo alone can mean a very casual 'Thank you' or 'Sorry' without the following arigato (gozaimasu) or sumimasen. Examples follow:

(1) %E122iB (& rld'k 3 c"Fb13 LI:), (lit. Thank you very much for what you did for me the other

(I'm sorry.)

donnani - (koto) ka 2')

mation about the degree to which

+Key Sentences

how - (!) [ REL. dorehodo - (koto) ka; ikani - (koto) ka]

I Sentence I I I

(HOW glad my elder brother was when he recovered from his illness!)

40 donnani - (koto) ka

/ (How dearly my father loved my mother!)

:- - - s = E .DS - - - - -

?/,,a G?%LL~ Z 2 -n., (How difficult s.t. is!)

(ii) ?A 2 C: -2. Predicate

Sentence

2 ~ ; f g ~ r t u a c : ~ t , - ~ t \ t ;

F A c:%E'J~~&I CJ tb b l o (S.O. doesn't know how interesting s.t. is.)

h ' I ?:A. :kt, S/uhA. t i 6

(a) E%G~&K+C:~WB~CJ;~~.~F:%C=.~/~~~C:B~~:,E,~~: t $, (How disappointed Hideo must have felt when Yumiko refused to marry him.) <A. $ 2 5

(b) $gd'@b1l?~ f:~&C:Gi~$G:~& 015'?,4,tb1c@ff$~ I:& (For Yoshio, who didn't like to study, how hard it was to enter college!)

b * i A'( (c) % % G ~ ? A . ? F ~ c : ~ ~ ~ x ~ c B ~ ~f:$31:Ltt$!

(How strongly Keiko wanted to go to France!) d r ( Q v 6 8

(d) f & ~ ~ t + & ~ b ~ ~ & Q r t v a & {!g/vjX t$ ! (How strongly the students hated their strict teacher!)

. 2 ~ - 2 > ~

donnani - (koto) ka / d6se 41

am= 1. In the exclamatory structure of donna ni - koto ka, Adj(i/ na) or psy-

chological 1 physiological verb is used before koto ka. The psychological verbs include, among others, aisuru 'love,' nikumu 'hate,' konomu 'like' and the physiological verbs include, among others, tsukareru 'get tired,' ase o kaku 'sweat,' furueru 'shiver.'

2. When the structure is used as an embedded question, koto is omitted, as in KS(C) and Ex.(f).

lkani - (koto) ka and dorehodo - (koto) ka can be used exactly the same way as donnani - (koto) ka. The only difference is that the former is a more formal written style.

in any case:-anyway; at all er writer's feeling that no matter events; after all; at all what s h e does or how s h e does it,

42 dose

+Key Sentences

I (If you make a trip abroad at all, it's better to do it when you are young.) ]

(A)

L O < t3. ht Pi*Z/v2f :{ S , L D @ B , &$abv;3IabvM, z & z k i : L 7: L 0 (I cannot do this much homework anyway, so I've decided to play.)

X % [ ~ ~ - j - @ & a h / v f ? & ~ ; , & ( ~ { I ~ L ~ ~ - ~ $ & ~ ~ S P ~ L ~ ~

(Since we humans are bound to die, it is no use working hard.)

F i a & T b ; k a o c : , F i LT%!o?~Q$~ D ? (Why are you following him, when you are well aware that you are going to be dumped after all?)

I f " Z L P 1 Y j *&D2& ii%h%Yi%?kb'L0 g< $ 3 b@k3;3ILlblL0 (You cannot marry that woman anyway. You'd better give her up as soon as possible.)

A: & L Z t v a Z 2;3I&;3.bi'sbwml ? (Don't you understand this simple matter?)

& b j ~ - r $ ,

- (I decided not to try for the Education Ministry's Scholyship, because I'd be doomed to failure.)

Pi-+?

. l L d: Lli V a i f l < + k b , L ItA.

&81?;3.b, *9I3%D@ 3 % ! 4 3 % 9 $ b j 2 b l Z 21; L 3 L P ,

B: r5 *%~iifaTt~~ (I'm stupid, as you know.)

5 v L w i K IiL

(0 r i r f f ; ~ ~ * - G s rtae. toi&Ylfs;~~f ~ i r f .

(I'm going to Japan next week anyway, SO I'll buy that dictionary over

there.)

a- The adverb Mse often indicates the speaker feels helpless and / or angry that nothing can be done to change a given situation, but as exemplified by KS(B) and Ex.(f), the adverb can also he used to suggest finality of one's

decision.

with an appearance I style I tone 1 in - manner; after - style; g 1, - manner of - - - -; like = =

- - - - [REL. y6ni]

- - - =-

+Key Sentences

(A)

Noun

(The yard of my house has big rocks arranged in Japanese style.)

I 1

(If he studies like that, he won't get good grades.)

(C)

Adverbial Clause

(I was often told by my teacher that I have to study harder because I am smart.)

( i ) { N / Z L h /-?Ah / & A h / ? A h ) (like (Nlthisl that i that - over there}, in what manner?)

G V I ' @&K (in Western style)

: b Q I C = (likethis)

(ii) sinf k b l i I 1: (like) - - = = = - - = F $

& + 2 b ~ k b x i R l : ( h b l ~ b l & ) ((1hear)thats.o.doesn'tgothere) - I S ? h L t +;.BC27- b , B H d 2 3 2 V - l - k ~ . ~ i R b ~ (likeadateonedayand

a concert the next)

A: zk~d2r/vamb:&9fZbblbltvTt+, (How should I hold this?)

B: ; / " 2 m 1 : ~ 9 T ~ S b 1 , (Please hold it like this.)

d j /v~~~ :&i%" tv~~ .~ f~ r ; , 3 9 ~ % ~ E Q E , T L L j. (If he keeps drinking like that every day, he will surely become ill.)

Z ~ > ? J L - ~ ~ ' X C ~ ~ ' ~ F R G : , 2 7 6 3 < L T % b d T , (We have made this cumed rice very spicy like an Indian version.)

t* YX: -jj.'smms&hs Lf :w: t av9 < 9 LIZ, (I was surprised when Jemmy bowed 6 la Japonais.) *A? : I t * ti, 4 a c 2 2 7 ~ , $ t i ; t ~ n k ~ l i m i l b = , @~%;f i ' t ?%b11 :4~9 T b l z l 0

(Kyoko goes out every day to take lessons, like flower arrangement one day and dance, the next.)

$gS ty&ygG 9 fz I,> j RC;x;fi'1;gb13 Lkjj.', b~+$T- f ; f i ' ~

(I heard that your mother has been hospitalized, but how is she?) *i? b % < zw*h.

& B W S a > f . & G b , - c ~ b r b > , 2 b l i m i : a ; k i f b l b l / v T t $ ; t a , (I wish things could change in such a way that we can spend as much money as we want to, if it is for educational improvement.)

1. The adverbial phrase fu ni includes the noun fii 'wind' which has extended meanings of 'appearance,' 'style,' 'manner' or 'tone.' That i, why the adverbial phrase {N / konna / sonna / anna /donna} fu ni in& cates appearance I style I manner in which s.t. is done.

2. S to iu fii ni (as in KS(C) and Ex.(f)) is used when one wants to quote s.t., as if to evoke in the mind of the listener the manner in which the original communication was made. The meaning is 'the content to the effect that -.'

3. S to iu fii ni (as in Exs.(e) and (g)) has a meaning of 'in such a way that -,' in contrast to a quotation case of Note 2.

4. N, fu no N2 as in Exs.(c) and (d) means N2 with a style of N1. More examples follow:

(1) a. 3-D y / < m ~ g g

(European-style architecture) 9/uB'<

b. I < y /\Aa)g>g (Bach-style music)

c. =WU--RO%

(a woman like Monroe)

hi elated Expression]

The adverbial phrase fii ni can be replaced by ybni, if the construction is S to iu fD ni. If the construction is {konna / sonna / anna /donna} fu ni, it has to be replaced by {kono / sono / ano / dono} yoni. N fu ni has to be replaced by N no yoni.

+Key Sentences

('4)

Topic Vmasu

tend to; be prone to; be apt to; be liable to; be subject to; often [REL. -gimi]

(Tanaka tends to miss classes these days.)

(B)

(That's a kind of misunderstanding which foreigners who stay in Japan for a short period of time are subject to.)

I

5;kCi

I was often ill when I was very young.) I

Noun Topic Relative Clause I

I: i%L ?:A b d*LT;vB'r> Arb,: < C L

EI$GZ$~BQB~&~EL~~~!ZIAGZ z +m 3 75'6

Vmasu

& k l ? L o 2

Noun

( i ) Vmasu 75'672

- - - - - - -

Z G ~ - - - - - - - - - - -

bt 5&75% 7: (tend to forget)

75'6

(Around here many people are often away from their houses during the day. (lit. Around here there are many houses which residents are often away from during the day.))

(ii) N 75'62

%'+ ;3' 6 72 (tend not to be home)

Noun

g

i L X L & + <

Edk??&-if& tm-d'T1;,&!Ld'%~?, (Our bodies are apt to lack salt in the summer.)

k l j b l PblSLS< z ~ @ z t t ~ g z B & d ' % ? f O (This watch tends to lose time these days.)

C XL 9 ri 60-t d.LP Xck 2 &%a 2 Q ~ O $ [ ~ W N ~ W L i ~ a s ~ g ; i ; 3 ' % ~ , (People tend to think (about things) in a way that suits themselves.)

% I & 2 75 < $!@~%~&i:g;i$3j:~ (Young people tend to think (about things) too seriously and narrow- mindedly.)

L * i $9

%Lc&E%a *6 i %%&ifd'%r-F, (These days I seldom stay home even on weekends.)

a'<**, ad. z n c 2 7 ~ 11 ~ ~ A O Y L W ~ L L ~ ~ ' % aiq&j:, (This is the kind of mistake which American students are apt to make.)

- -

d'&, -

7 7 x e : i t t i f % ~ % o ) r ? w % X ~ ~ b ~ a .

(There are some students in my class who often get ill.) 3 . o e ~ i L 0 1 go

(i) @&~i&@$% Kd L k 0 (She talked hesitantly (lit. with a tendency to hesitate).) -

1. -gachi is usually used to express an undesirable tendency in someone or something. Thus, -gachi is not acceptable in such contexts as in (1).

(1) a. * b 1 b 1 7 d 71' 71i < q 3 b 1 T b 1 & 9 1 : R ~ \ 3 d @ 5 7 ' ? 0

(Good ideas tend to occur to us when we are relaxed.)

b. * s a s i i 4 m f r . ~ a ) x % ~ ~ a i ~

(It will be mostly fine tomorrow.)

2. When -gachi modifies a noun, two forms are possible, as in (2).

(2) a. flk$% I & / O l q& (a student who tends to miss classes)

b. %%$% { & / a 1 +# (a child who often gets ill)

3. -gachi can be paraphrased using the adverbs yoku 'often' or shibashiba

'frequently,' as in (3).

4. -gachi is often used with such adverbs as yayamosuruto, tomosuruto, and tokaku for emphasis (e.g., Exs.(a), (c), and (d)).

The suffix -gimi can also express the idea of "tend to" in some contexts. The major difference between -gachi and -gimi is that -gachi usually describes a general tendency in someone or something while -gimi describes a visible

indication of a tendency. For example, in [la], Taeko has a general tendencB to gain weight but she is not necessarily overweight at the moment of speech. In [Ib], on the other hand, Taeko is showing signs of being overweight.

[I] a. $$+i i t& 0 ~ , ~ G I z ~ (Taeko tends to gain weight these days.)

b. WFiiEZk 0 $?&fL (Taeko is showing a tendency to gain weight these days.)

In addition, -girni also expresses the idea of "touch of" or "a little," as in [2], -gachi does not have this meaning.

[21 mi%$ t; th%?i'mc-wifa (I have a slight cold today.)

cannot; un-able; can hardly; expresses the idea that for s.0. to difficult to; impossible do s.t. is virtually impossible or [REL. -kaneru; -nikui; -zurai]

+Key Sentences

(A)

Topic Vrnasu 1 I I

(What he did is unforgivable.) 1

# E$*% l.1 (hard to believe ; unbelievable)

(B) Relative Clause Noun

@ 0 ; ; i $ i & G ~ f l 7 : b ~ ~ (His behavior is hard to understand.)

&0%t&@$ s T w : l & x & 0 f17:bao (That professor is so respected that I can hardly approach him.)

k s % ( D L :?HP P

ZOI-Dl%%l&EBZ.If Gff17:b~0 (Between these two works, it is hard to say that one is better than the other.)

Z D Y D Y L 9 1 ~ 3 3 ~ 7 : 2 t&sbaf l f :bao (It is hard to say that this project was a success.)

'i - 2;C&d&&flfibaX"$7'~0

(Mr. Jones is an irreplaceable person (lit. a person hard to get).) bhbfi iqgo$#k:gT&&,j, L f l f : , , a j ~ & g ~ , j , ~ 7 z o

(We obtained an indisputable piece of evidence concerning his crime.)

~ ~ t & A & k : $ ~ , j , b ~ 2 f l 7 : b ~ ~ ~ g ~ ~ f j : ~ (1 was intolerably humiliated by him in the past. (lit. received an intol- erable humiliation from him.))

- - = - - - . - - - . - - - 0 - - - - - - - . - - - - =

Vmasu - $Lbz2->T -

(This trip will be an unforgettable one (lit. memory) for me.)

bt

h k3f:l.l -

8 6 7'

, E , b l ~ K Q & 7 . 6 5 0

- -gatai is used when it is virtually impossible for S.O. to do s.t. Thus, KS(A), for example, is equivalent to (1).

(1) %&%$a, L72 z 2 li8*7kl/~, (I /We cannot forgive his conduct.)

-gatai, -nikui, and -zurai express a similar idea, i.e., "difficulty in doing s.t: However, their usage is significantly different. First, -gatai is usually used only in written language or formal speech, but -nikui and -zurai can be used both in spoken and written language. Second, unlike -gatai, -nikui and -zuraj

do not imply virtual impossibility. For example, in [I], where Mr. Yamad& handwriting is hard, but not impossible, to read, -nikui and -zurai can be used but -gatai cannot.

[I] ;i;a~~%$a,+~&d;r {c;< L \ / ~ % L \ / * ~ P ~ L L \ I ,

(Yamada's handwriting (lit. characters) is hard to read.)

Third, while -gatai and -zurai can be used only with verbs which require an agent, -nikui can be used with verbs which do not require an agent, as in [2].

b. ~%$a,$lik~ {I:< L \ / * 3 % L \ / * W T L L \ I O

(This wood doesn't burn easily.) (d -nikui (DBJG: 307-08))

Fourth, -zurai is used when doing s.t. is physically (sometimes psychologi- cally) hard on the agent. Thus, -zurai always describes undesirable situations, as in [3].

b. & 7 5 ' ~ ~ \ o > ~ ~ ~ ~ x t - + ~ & 4 { 3 5 L \ / C;< L \ / * ~ P " ~ L c \ ] ~

(Because I have bad teeth, tough steaks are hard to eat.)

-gatai / gyaku ni 53

If the situation is desirable, -zurai cannot be used, as in [4]. f%b,X!-. b , ~ L t SIT

[ql & & b f ~ * 2 -@brs ~ k ; k l % Z h (E< L \ / * 3 ' 5 ~ \ / * j $ f i ~ \ ) ,

(You will not forget vocabulary items easily if you remember them in sentences.)

In the sentences in 131 and 141, -nikui can also be used. However, -gatai

cannot be used in these sentences because they do not convey the idea of impossibility.

gy ku ni @I= adv.

an adverb to introduce an event which takes place contrary to one's expectation 1 intention, or an action or event which is converse to that stated in the preceding sentence or clause

contrary to one's expectation; contrary to one's intention; conversely [REL. kaette]

+ ~ e ~ Sentences

(A)

Subordinate Clause Main Clause ( $ 0 &

-

(Contrary to expectations, when I took medicine, I got a fever.)

f 'z , - 7 -2- -' ..,7mfi,

54 gyaku ni

(B)

Subordinate Clause Main Clause

6 I 0 , b G3&6kLI:,

- (I expected to be scolded but, contrary to my expectation, I was praised.) - - . - . - -

Sentencel 1

(If we emphasize conversation, their grammar becomes inaccurate.

Sentencez

I

Conversely, if we emphasize grammar, they are (lit. become) unable to speak.)

hL L n i L I f b 1; @ F!Q LLfP7I : I ; , & : % % d ' 4 ~ I : ~ (I didn't practice for some time; then, contrary to expectations, my performance improved.)

&-j-ga 2 , z & ~ : a i ; a v l ~ , ~ c : & L - c L ~ t : o (If you sleep too much, you don't feel well; instead (lit. conversely), you feel tired.)

~4%57-C-?6 $ k , R q T b l I . 6 , i!&b:*@%gbfiT L 5 9 k 0

( I was thinking of complaining; then, contrary to my intention, I had to listen to complaints.) r.9 LtilfL4L.1 L :t - !& !@&fk$Q L k ~ l : , 3C:@i7b:&bfiT ~5 9 I:, (I worked very hard, but, contrary to expectations, my peers hated me.)

gyaku ni 55

f: 0

(1 was expecting to fail the exam, but, contrary to my expectation, 1 passed it in first place.)

b l 9 i i / r

Xb:@Gb:t& Z kbk-&"x~b>blZ 2f?k*g;ir;;k-Cb~&. L$L, $J

gc:.t&zk$, Zb:hQ!&bt&~k $ & a , (In general, being kind to people is considered to be a good thing. However, contrary to one's intention, being kind sometimes hurts peo-

ple.)

& O ~ b ~ ~ ~ ( ~ & k f i b f ~ i F & ~ f f b ~ g ~ ( ~ 6 k f ("&(. (If I try to be gentle to the boy, he takes advantage of my gentleness. Conversely, if I try to be strict, he cries readily.)

$ / . % t i

b>b>$k&Q-t&l:at,1:~;1:% %LtFTG;tb>hf a b > L ~ L , Zl:1l 5 7 3% L t FT b b>b>i@@b;t:&&tsb>, (In order to perform well, you mustn't be too tense. But, conversely, if you are too relaxed, you cannot perform well, either.) -

1. The basic meaning of gyaku ni is "conversely." However, it is often used when something takes place contrary to one's expectation or intention.

2. When gyaku ni is preceded by a clause, the clause often involves tam,

to, or noni, as in KS(A), (B), and Exs.(a) - (f).

[Related Expression]

When gyaku ni expresses the idea of "contrary to one's expectation / intention," it can be paraphrased as kaette, as in [I].

111 a. %5B&Ll?b, {Z6 / f i > % q T } BiFttlk, (=KS(A))

b. Pkb;k& k,R~f:Ol:, {ZK / 5 > A 7 7 1 bZ&bt~T:~

(=KS(B))

56 gyaku ni

However, if gyaku ni simply means "conversely" without the sense of "con, trary to one's expectation fintention," kaette cannot be used, as in [2].

the -, the -; as; to the extent extent or the degree to which [REL. - ba - hodo; kurai]

+Key Sentences

Topic Adj(i)inf. nonpast

(The closer (you sit) to the stage, the easier this music is to hear.)

(B)

Vinf. nonpast

I I

(Oxygen is less dense at higher altitudes. (lit. Oxygen becomes thinner as you go higher 1 the extent to which you go higher in the air.))

0 get more motivated by a harder job.)

( i ) {V I Adj(i))inf . nonpast kf lr' -L%ti

5% S&.fa la r (the more S.O. studies) f i6.

k l l z k (the more expensive s.t. is)

$ { 2 / T 6 1 2 k (the more convenient s.t. is)

(iii) Relative Clause + N CA k +.M i).t h l r n r b v t

Z k f S @ % B Btl 'b A I 2 k (the more logical a person's way of thinking is)

- - - - - - . - . -

dr < $&s&T a $& 12 > (a student who studies harder ; the harder a - - E H g - - - - - -

student studies) - - - - - -

: k'l : Zk ItLiil

(a) + R G ~ / J \ s B ~ ~ I3 YE%?& )t Of?,

(The more you nag children, the more they disobey you.)

(b) % ~ d h 2 l 2 Y & ~ & P ' b b 1 ~

(The quieter it is, the more uneasy I feel.)

(c) k R m < 2 a 13 &&@a < 'b a (The closer to the station, the higher the rent.) ?A,.?? d$ f % r i L

(d) iE@Tb I3 Y#o~+F$$c: (The more I exercise, the worse I feel.) If& 3

(e) jE~'b~I~Y&$!??Ljtrrfjf?, (Stronger people tend to strain themselves more.)

(f) %a$$~ab .~c2 r$+&$b1 ,

(Lazier people complain more.)

1. Hodo can express the idea of "the -, the -" as well as "(not) as - as -" and "so - that -." (e hod0 (DBJG: 135-3811

2. Sentences of the pattern KS(C), which involve noun phrases before hodo, can be rewritten using the pattern KS(A). For example, (1) is equivalent to KS(C) in meaning.

(1) %LILff~hf%LL\t3z.t.aB@ffiT < a, (The harder the job is, the more motivated I become.)

60 igai

other than; except (for); bur; "s.t. / S.O. other than" besides; as well as

[REL. hoka]

+Key Sentences

(4

I (Everybody except Yarnada knows it.) 1

1 (Can you speak any foreign language besides Japanese?)

1 (I have nothing to enjoy other than drinking.)

Topic ht L

$ 1

( i ) N I%% (ON)

3 - t - ~ 9 + (O&&.&) ((drinks) other than coffee)

(ii) Sinf J43C (Da after Adj(na)stem and N changes to de aru.)

Sinf

& ' ! - 1: {q$$$lh;(l'2bl,

igai 61

$ $8-5' 6 H91- (besides studying)

%I,,W~{ (besides the fact that s.t. is expensive)

r L li ~ $ U - P & & PA!?+. (besides the fact that s.t. is convenient)

*A**' %&-F& 6 1%M (besides the fact that S.O. is a teacher) - 1: I P L L I

(,) +LIA 8 ~jczm.pcoi~~i&a a w, (1 do not drink any alcohol but sake.) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - E I E @ot+$-cr&f %-I i- i 1) ~af ioB i .& i i caar . . - - - - - - - -

(At present our company is not dealing with any countries but Aus- tralia.)

IfLI*? LI 1

(,) 7 9 1 ) 8L%fioEl+L;Bk< SlUWRZ;5'%I:, (Many researchers came from countries other than America, too.)

(d) K B l i z f i u f i l ~ g ~ b k L a b ~ ~ (I can't think of any causes other than this.)

3b,K86% 3 L Y ?

(e) +L~&&UWCZB@EIBL . \Z~B L T ~ \ & , (I take (other) light exercise every day as well as taking a walk.)

(f) z z ~ & 9 T b ~ 6 a % a b l ~ (There is nothing to do but wait here. (lit. There is no other way but waiting here.))

(g) Z b + M $ W J + b \ b ~ z 2 73% !I a Ti% (Is there any merit besides the price (lit. besides the fact that it is cheap)?)

+LA 3 86'

(h) zoZ& ~ g + o g d g ~ w & 6 ;5', +fiuficaBrz, (This sentence (or passage) contains a few kanji mistakes, but other than that, it is perfect.) C * i B k i ~ X L

(i) f% % AU#~%& [Door sign] (Employees only. (lit. Entry of those other than employees is prohibited.))

62 igai

1. "X igai no Y" refers to the referent of Y excluding the referent of x $ 8

member of Y. In "X igai no Y," "no Y" is often omitted, as in (1).

- - - - - - - 1 g - - - - - (=Ex.@))

- - - - - - 2. " X igai ni" means 'besides X.' In this phrase, ni is often omitted, as in

Note that if ni is followed by rno, ni cannot be omitted.

Hoka can sometimes be used in place of igai. For example, igai in the following examples can be paraphrased using hoka.

Note that N igai can be followed by no N, as in [la], but N no hoka cannoL The difference between hoka and igai is that hoka can be used as an inde-

pendent noun while igai is always used as a dependent noun. Thus, hoka can

igai 63

e,, in sentence initial position but igai cannot, as in [2] . aPP

[ZI a. { ~ w / * u f i } 0 6 ~ & ~ . l - r b l a * t v + , (Are you available on other days?)

b. {HA3/ *Wtl (0 & o)ikk&& !I 3-t?tvo (There's no problem with the others [other things].)

c. IRfi> / *Hfil b:m+&%li& 9 'a-@tv+, (Do you have any other questions?)

Another difference between hoka and igai is that igai can be followed by - - - - - - - conditional forms such as nara, datfara, and deareba but hoka cannot,

- - - 1 - - - as in PI.

[31 a. &$ r w t / * m f i > } {as / ~ 7 t ~ 5 / ~ ~ n c b } ~ + C B $ L -rdiCf"& L o (I will lend you anything except money. (lit. I will lend you anything if it is something other than money.)) *- C * A

b. {Hfi/*(DCSfi>l I & % / E 7 k 5 / TShldl @JTB+? !I 390 (I play everything except mahjong. (lit. I play anything if it is not mahjong.))

Finally, igai can be followed by case markers such as de and to but hoka cannot, as in [4].

d.11 6 141 a. &++G I W ~ / * D C ~ ~ ~ > I t ~ t f i ~ & b e ~ > ~ tr K L T L . ~ & ,

(I make it a practice to socialize only with rich people. (lit. I make it a practice not to socialize with people other than rich

people.))

b. ZO&& {Hfi/ *(T)MA~l T ~ n ~ 9 & ~ 2 b ~ T ? ~ b ~ , (Please do not eat in rooms other than this one.)

64 ijd (wa)

ij6 (wa) Mk(lb) conj.

since; now that; once; if , er / writer's feeling that there

at all; as long as; so long as

I should be a very strong logical 1 [REL. kagiri (wa); kara ni ~ ~ y a ] natural connection between what precedes the conjunction and what

Sentence, Sentencez

Vinf <A. S r i

1 (Since I came to Japan, I would like to study Japanese hard.) I

Sentence, Sentencez 1

1 (So long as you are a student, you should study.) 1

( i ) Vinf lLk(li) Id*

1B-b / 3 L 7: I Lkli (since s.0. talks / talked)

( i i ) N Th6M.tli (as long as s.o.1 s.t. is N) */"*L,

X%Th 6 Llkli (as long as S.O. is a teacher)

ij6 (wa) 65

(NOW that I have begun to study Japanese, I will hang in there until 1 can speak and understand what I hear, and read and write well.)

education.)

(d) & 6 9 f:LXkli, h a f : & k $ $ $ k , ~o&r.f, (Now that you have given this to me, it is mine, no matter what you

say.)

(el %%L < ~ % ~ L T ~ ~ z L J L ~ & , X?$O~*&ZLG~~~ ~ b l ~

(So long as you are very active, your body seems to stay strong.)

(f) X ~ % % L ~ : L X _ ~ C ~ , + ; k ~ ? 1 ; a l f ; k ~ m r ; a b l ~ (Once you have made a promise to someone, you have to keep it.)

1. The construction S, ijo (wa), S2 can be used when one feels strongly that there should be a close, necessary connection between S1 and S2. The structure cannot be used to express an objective causal relation. Exam- ples follow:

S h L * h hh (1) *ZB+Be$6%blfAXt, 2 T &%;k-Cbl&,

2. S, of this construction always ends in a verb or dearu; it never ends in

an adjective.

66 ijd (wa) / ikanimo

I. When S1 ijd Sz means 'so long as' as in KS(B) and Ex.(e), it can be replaced by S1 kagiri (wa) Sz.

$'

[I] ?&Ti6 6 {Hk(Cb) / $Bb)(Cb)}. @J$&f 4 3 72, (=KS(B))

11. S1 ijd Sz cannot be replaced by SI kara ni wa SZ, if the former means 'as long as,' otherwise the replacement is possible.

A ' W [41 % - n ' & $ ~ v a I H + / * ~ P G C = C ~ I , ~ % C = T ~ ~ E B B S Q ~ H

10 (As long as I live, I won't let you go without anything.)

[5] #ii;tkr&k$hc~..b IHk/*fJ>%CZib}, %kdi%r;;+h~l~~ (So long as you keep drinking, your illness won't be cured, you know.)

[6] H $ Z a ) 4 ' i ; S % R b l T b l S IHk/*fJ>%Etb), EI$ZQlfil '5+6 r v , +

< A l i 1 4 ; T L ; + h b l T L d : ib., (So long as you listen to Japanese radio, your listening skills won't deteriorate, I presume.)

ikanlmo C\fib5'C:% adv.

really; truly; indeed er / writer's emotive conviction [REL. hontd ni; tashika nil

ikanimo 67

I

(From an American perspective, Japanese society is indeed closed.)

( ~ t is snowing outside, and it looks really cold.)

(The bookshelves of his study room are packed with books of all ages and countries, and it surely looks like a scholar's room.)

68 ikanimo

they do not do behave individually.)

I 1 1

(He is behaving as if he were buly a gentleman, but he is quite calculated.)

Sentencel

(a) j & o % & h i b l @ ~ : B EI*BJE, (His manner of thinking is very Japanese.)

L r i C * I LL Dl-6. ( A L L (b) +o&Bo~n%iib~6.G: bE?+&f 897%

(The professor's knowledge is really encyclopaedic.)

Sentence,,

i b L b ' L r i L r i f P < l h

(c) 7 - 3 ' 4 Y FC;f;*SC%B&ogY&d'B b k ~ , bx$i:B 3 kLLt j l?3Izo (David was able to get a Ministry of Education scholarship and he looked really happy about it.) I% *b,bv..

(d) X ~ ~ G S L T , lil$~: $ $ A t j i : ~ ~ f i , (My father left the hospital and became really healthy-looking.) i l w c r 66.

(e) %&&ii&h < , $AT, b l $ i ~ & 7 3 l l ? Jhb Lblo (She is light-hearted and cheerful, and is truly like an American.)

Bblil<< * i C L

(f) @ D A Y O ~ A ~ ~ ~ V N : B ~ & G c; L < , r / l - B ~ ~ f i f i & ~ & - c r / l b ~ (A friend of mine in college appears to be truly rich, and is always wearing fancy clothes.)

ikanimo 69

2 %

(i) bljlr.~:it&9L;ebB13~-if, (It is exactly as you have said.)

t r m if& - (i, ~ ~ & i i r l $ l h : t %~'ilgS~ia;k,aj5', Y X s -&&ablhbtriaa

b>o

(Japanese is indeed a difficult language, but it is not the case that you cannot master it.)

(He is talking as if he truly understood everything, but in reality he understands nothing.)

aim The adverb ikanimo is used when the speaker 1 writer wants to express his emotive conviction. The adverb often occurs with such conjectural expressions as - soda (as in KS(B), Exs.(c) and (d)), rashii (as in KS(C), Exs.(e) and (0) and ydda /ydsuda (as in KS(D), Exs.(g) and (h)). Also it occurs with the conjunction ga (as in KS(E), Exs.(j) and (k)).


I. Every use of ikanimo in KS and Exs. can be replaced by another adverb hontd ni 'truly' without changing the meaning. The only difference between the two is that the former is slightly more formal than the latter.

The adverb tashika ni can replace ikanimo when the latter is used in the Pattern of ikanimo S1 ga Sz, as in KS(E) and Ex.(j).

70 ikanimo / Imperative

[I] B + A ~ ~ + B I R B ~ % ~ ~ > C M L ~ l t a a s , ARB^- L G ~ , ihlf T l k h b > , (cf. K S Q )

Imperative

(Don't) V.; No -ing; (not) to V mands or requests [REL. koto; -nasai; te wa ike-

nail

+ ~ e ~ Sentences

(A)

1 (stop it now.)

Vcond

k-+?

Quotation

k , 4

I I I

Vcond

I I I I

(It says here to pay before December 3 1 .) 1

Imperative 71

(A) ~ffinnative

( i &. 1 Verbs: Vcond (Write!)

(ii) Gr. 2 Verbs: Vstem (6 [Spoken] / d; [Written] 1

$f2 S (Answer!)

$$ ;i_ d; (Answer.)

L6 [Spoken] (Do!)

[Written] (Do.)

(B) Negative

Vinf enonpast 2

%t2 (Don't talk!) A . 2 (Dont't eat!)

(e na (DBJG: 266-67))

Rk! (Shut up!)

G < C! (Don't move!) **'rrl .Lw L r i t < C R w C L

lh qg $1 IW@%%+? dr ! [A demonstrator's placard] (Yarnanaka must go! (lit. Prime Minister Yamanaka must leave his office immediately !))

$09 Q %%Q dr . [An examination direction] (Translate the following sentences into English.)

72 Imperative

(e) &O !k$& G L $ $ ; ~ L , [An examination direction] (Answer the following questions.)

(0 %a ts l;&itrts, % ~ ~ l ; ; $ a ts , (If you drive, don't drink. If you drink, don't drive.)

(g) %&%.I ts k ~ b ' - c & & ~ (It says (lit. is written) not to send cash.)

(h) # ' i : & i 0 9 3 > - i & 72 k&3fL7Zo (I was told by my boss not to use taxis often.) -

1. Imperatives without sentence particles are rarely used in daily conversa. tion. In spoken Japanese they are usually used when the speaker is angry with or threatening the hearer or when the speaker shouts slogans in demonstrations, as in Exs.(a) - (c).

2. Imperatives with the sentence particle yo are used by male speakers in very casual situations (e.g., between close friends, between a father and his child), as in KS(A).

3. Imperatives without sentence particles are frequently used in directions in written examinations and mottos, as in Exs.(d) - (0.

4. Imperatives without sentence particles are used in indirect speech, as in KS(B), Exs.(g) and (h). In this case, the corresponding direct quotations are not necessarily imperative. For example, the direct quotations of KS(B) and Ex.(h) may be:

(1) +-8 3+- EI i T G Z ~ , ~ 7% L \ ~ (Please pay by December 3 1 .)

(2) &-a 0 5'3 L-di@;h&L\P< h&L\fi~, (Would you mind not using a taxi often?)

Imperative / ippo de (wa) - tahd de (wa) - 73

[Rdated ~xpression~l

I. Vmasu + nasai and Vte + wa ikenai 1 ikemasen are milder than the imperatives introduced here; therefore, they are frequently used in daily

Examples follow: ^rA B r i

[I] ; t9LB%LaPe\ , (Study harder.)

(d - nasai (DBJG: 284-85))

n. ~ o t o also expresses a command, but it is used only in written rules and regulations.

i 7 B A L 7 I i t tL

b. BEJ%$TlitZ&% L h b > L k O (No talking in the reading room.)

(e koto)

a structure used to describe two on the one hand -, on the other concurring, contrastive actions I hand States of s.0. or s.t.

74 ippd de (wa) - taho de (wa) -

- (Prof. Kanda teaches physics at college on the one hand and does

1; - - 1 research on Japanese language on the other.) - - - - = -

(This medicine, on (the) one hand, alleviates symptoms but on the other hand, it has strong side effects.)

(a) ho%'ii, - f j ~ i ~ g f i ~ H ~ E ~ B & P I : 9 L T ~ \ & P, I&ZTCWY ~ - ~ L ~ ~ % L L ~ X ~ - Y Y L T L ~ & . (That man draws quiet Japanese paintings on the one hand, but plays a very competitive sport like soccer on the other.)

C Q L ' 3 i L k i l i b .

(b) ~ k i f , -fj$S&&'~ 9 O a s h , 4&TfjTfiQ b h < Fb.i$ X'c L T b . 6 kLl$@7'& (On one hand, Mr. X is engaged in charities, but, on the other hand, rumor has it that he is engaged in a ruthless business.)

rb,c.i O r i KbQb, 9 < t < (c) ~ g ~ f t ~ " , -mimmm~-w "$6, ~ f j ~ i i P ! b

C n i S 7 L

W m % % i . b ~ B h % b f %WL-Cb~Tcb~ , (The President has promised tax-cuts. But on the other hand he doesn't think much about waste of tax-payers' money by his entourage.)

ipp6 de (wa) - tahd de (wa) - 75

&&$&%it, -?i~~f,fi&%i:~d.ejaljc: + r ( + ? ~ i k L T L I @ ~ Q ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ , w ? j r i i s Z b l e : ~ a s a s . & * ~ b l e i , %bi.;tielaa, m e answering machine is, on the one hand, very convenient for both , person who calls and a person who is called, but, on the other hand, unnatural because you can't talk directly with the other person.)

(Life in a foreign country is, on the one hand, enjoyable because one can encounter new culture, but, on the other hand, it is sometimes hard because of culture shock.)

aim The construction is used to give two contrasting facts about a given topic. In other words, it is used to show both sides of the same coin so that the hearer / reader can get a total picture of an action / state.

a suffix which indicates the idea of from the viewpoint of; for (th e "from the viewpoint of," "for the sake of); for (the reason); j4 sake of," "for the reason," or "in (terms of); relating to; in -ing terms of" [REL. no ue de wa]

*Key Sentences

I I I

(This film is not good from an educational point of view.)

- - - - - . - . - . - . - - i d " . - - . - . - - - -

Noun

1 (I keep the key to this mom for the sake of convenience.)

ca>%iiita

1 (I will skip a detailed explanation for lack of time (lit. time limitation).) i

Noun b i l k ' < ~ t ?

_t -

L < G W ,

(In terms of calculation, this is correct.)

I (I've decided to retire for health reasons (lit. for a reason relating to my 1

(E)

health).)

(Read "Warnings for Use" carefully.)

Noun

h"d a>

Noun

i

P&L (from the viewpoint of hygiene)

T$S&&Z k K L k , +_

Noun

r&m

(a) :a>& j ~ $ ~ ~ ~ & & _ t $ $ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

(Such conduct cannot be forgiven from an ethical point of view.) C i l A.

z 04 /& Z ;k7+6 a > ~ ~ ~ k ~ ~ ~ ~ $ u ~ ~ ~ (This condition is extremely disadvantageous for our future business.)

0

Noun

3 m i V at]

LZt 9 Z j

(c) ~la>tb&k~ tvQg~1.>~ 79 3 '/ b:&tv~b>& AT?, (I live in such an expensive condominium because it's convenient for

ab: (&tv+'~t,>,

commuting to work (lit. for business convenience).)

(d) ~SO%&, ~ Z D @ % @ f i & b V K i & b ~ $ G b ~ / " T - f 0 (For business-related reasons, I cannot leave this town.)

(e) & g k b ; t ~ j 7 e c b l & ~ G D f ? d ' , S & r j G & $ d & & ; 3 % 1 ; ~ ~ l ~

(In theory it should turn out like this, but it's not known how it %y actually turn out.)

(f) ggkb;tf&7%&;t~~=.i~b 1; a b x ,

(Legally his conduct is not criminal.)

-j6 can be interpreted in several ways depending on the context. More specific phrases can be used in place of -j6, as in (1) - (6).

(1) [Viewpoint] (KS(A), Ex.(a))

ZD@Eib&3k%? {k / c D & 3 > % = 3 ~ 1 dr < GLl, (=KS(A))

(3) [Reason] (KS(C), Exs.(c), (d))

(4) [Domain] (KS(D), Exs.(e), (f))

80 kaette

kaette 7 7' adv.

contrary to one's expectation an on the contrary; rather [REL. mushiro] (Ant. yahark yappari)

+Key Sentence

(I took medicine, and the illness got worse (contrary to my expectation)).

Subordinate Clause

i i f C * h (a) A: -%~e$ b%b'T, $ h - F L r 5 ,

(You must be tired after swimming as long as one hour.)

Main Clause 1

I l h s B: b.?, $2 9 T Z X K ti 7 I: L

(No, on the contrary, I feel fit now.) I: i t L Z C i i S

(b) 6 % ~ $ ~ ? 7 : b ~ f ~ ~ k ' 1 ~ t ' d & d . k % ~ ? , C I ~ L L ~ XL,: B b . + f i q k A t - $ P , **

B$Ak8ZGTifd.OSLTb~f:OT7 d . k ~ T , ? + K ~ ~ T T % $ Q T $3 LIZ, (I went to Japan, believing that my Japanese will improve (if I go) there, but I spoke only in English with Japanese there, so (contrary to my expectation) my Japanese became worse when I came back here.) L a i Lt < 2h1:h *L<LX

(c) % l O i t kTZAO%&G:7 F)<I.X% L T b b 9 k O T 3 V , 7 F rnr+$X ,

~ ~ I ' x ~ F ~ ~ ~ s ~ o T , $kq-c, $+r;ti< t i 9 - c ~ ~ a 1 a L P , (I was given advice on job searching from three professors, but their advices are so different that I am rather at a loss.)

kaette 81

((Contrary to your expectation) if you study at a small, private college, you can receive better education than to study at the so-called first-rate

university.) TS 9 r i m d.56

(4 7 1 b 2 - 1 ~ b % S & 6 k Y , f ik-37, @ K b b b l ? - 5 jZ0

(~ lcohol is said to be rather good for your health if you drink it in moderate quantity.)

m The dverb kaette is used when one describes a situation I event that occurs

to one's expectation.

[Related ~xpressiod

The adverb mushiro 'rather' can replace all the uses of kaette in KS and Exs. - - - - - z - - K a - - - - - - - - [I] a. %$&AlZb, I-h'k.97 / @La] $?js#U'p( g 9 j:, (=Ks)

However, there are many cases in which mushiro cannot be replaced by kaette because the former is used when between the alternate choice between action I situation I characterization one is judged to be better than the other, but the latter lacks this particular meaning.

121 a. ho>Xii$&kbl5 L 9 hi {@L3 /*fi>X~Tl RB%?Zk,F,

5 , (I believe him to be an educator rather than a scholar.)

82 kaette / kagiril

kagiril PI3 11 conj.

as long as; as far as; while; idea "as long as (a certain condi- the extent; until; unless tion is met)" or "as long as (= to [REL. aida wa; uchi wa]

+Key Sentences

Subordinate Clause Main Clause 1

I (As long as I am here, you don't have to worry.)

Subordinate Clause I Main Clause

(As long as Mr. Tanaka is not here (lit. does not come), we cannot begin this meeting.)

I

(AS long as this is the fact, he probably cannot escape being found

Subordinate Clause

am- ( i ) Vinf Pi3 11

,&b PE cl (as far as s.0. sees) L 5 $@I: PE ")as long as s.0. examined)

Main Clause

&a a blPE 11 (as long as s.0. does not read; until s.0. reads) C r)

&%b PI4 cl (as long as s.0. can do; to the extent s.0. can do)

(ii) N T {&b / C b > ) Pi34 d'< CV

f &T& b PI4 0 (as long as s.0. is a student; while s.0. is a student) I: i i hu

T I 4 (as long as s.0. is not Japanese; unless s.0. is Japa- nese)

*T'* ? @ g & l i $ ~ * ~ t v I t b ~ " ) 'I i&afP9ko (As far as I read, the document contained no errors.) S l i W < L * a ~ g ~ b j a ~ ~ ' ~ + A G Z 2 ~ ~ E K T ~ ? ~ T G ~ G V , (While you are an educator, you shouldn't say things like that.)

C r i S i a i z ~ @ c : % l ; a w ~ ~ ~ a3 4 x G = c ~ % L z ~ ~ ~ , (Until you pass this exam, you cannot enroll in the advanced class.)

$$if; 3 L h 6 . 0 3 .,. h * b 1; Gb% 'I +H:/l_t@@@~ii$riJ'dti.T-rt~ (Until the situation changes (lit. As long as the situation doesnlt change), we cannot provide additional support.)

7'Z 1) j5ATablPR'I 2@&~b~G&Cf 2 b l o

(Unless you are an American, you cannot be employed for this job.) ?;r, b6.i

%L2EG&73@% < FE 'I i bb l IL

(We rowed as long as our strength lasted (lit. to the extent that our

strength lasted).)

&%aPJ! ' I -P9TJhZ-rto (I will try my best (lit. try to do as long as I can do).)

1. Adjectives cannot precede kagiri.

(1) *% L \ PE 'I L I f 6 9 B 'I 7'2, (Acceptable form: EI 8 bl 5 5 (2 ......)

(As long as I find it interesting, I will continue to do it.)

(2) * " ~ ~ ~ P J ! ' ) ~ T 6 b ~ b ~ T . f 0 (Acceptable form: k 4 I I 2 9 f : b / TbjkLCf / 1; 1 ...--a)

(As long as the person is good at it, it doesn't matter who does it.)

2. Nouns before the conjunction kagiri must be followed by the copula de aru (or de nai), as in (3).

E X P R ~ ~ ~ O ~ I

id^ wa 'while' and wa and uchi wa

cates a time interval.

uchi wa 'while' are used in similar contexts. In fact, can be used in place of kagiri if the kagiri clause indi-

However, aida wa and uchi wa can occur with adjectives while kagiri cannot, in [z]. (See Note 1.)

[z] a. EZIB~~ I5%lb/Mlb/*BEbJ) %%if&-b !I??, (=(I))

b. %$u~'s I ~ % M / W U / * R ~ I I & ~ ~ k j < ~ I / > ~ > T L L jo (It would probably be a good idea to borrow it (and keep it) while it is convenient.)

a suffix which expresses the idea the last; only until; from - on; limited to; only

+ ~ e y Sentences

I Noun (time) 1 1 1 I I I I

(This is the last time I am going to any of his parties.)

Number + Counter

I I I --. (Tickets are limited to two per person.) .

( i ) N (time) FR Q LL Lwi + 3 Pi2 Q (limited to this week; This week is the last week.)

( i i ) Number + Counter lra 0 - - - vt, 2' E -

I(; g -$, PR 0 (limited to one time; only once) L - -

i v 7$. 9.. :A179

z D @ a i g i i + a pi2 w%$k tL2-F0 (This movie house is open only until the end of this month.)

V : ' $ ~ ~ m f & , ~ : i f ~ e ~ ~ d , a . t , (From today on I will give up both drinking and smoking.)

+ - I L C L & ~ P E Q TT, (Tomorrow is the last day of the sale.)

f D$j~Rl,l 03gi;f: Lal/$$j5rb~l/~, (You'd better not make an empty promise (lit. a promise limited to the moment).)

b . ? d ' r x s L r 9 & L& L~;~:--EwFE cl TT. (Check-out is limited to three books at a time.)

% ~ ~ L ~ ~ - B [ J ~ ! Q T T . (You can rewrite only once. (lit. Rewriting is limited to one time.))

mmm 1. -kagiri is preceded by either a noun or a number with a counter. Nouns

before -kagiri are usually those which indicate a certain time.

p+kagiri is used when a repeated or on-going action, event, or state lasts 2. only until a certain time.

whether - or -; or possibilities about which the

(J don't know whether or not I can go to Japan next year.)

(J don't remember well whether I left my umbrella at the station or in my office.)

( i ) (V, 1 Adj(i),}inf 73. {V2 / Adj(i)~}inf * 4 L 6 r i

&& /%/Vl?l 73. $&"pa /%$&Ll:I 73. (whether s.0. plays / played or studies / studied)

88 - k a - k a

{ i i % b 1 / m ~ @ ~ r : 1 21 { 3 a 1 ; a ~ / - = a l ; a @ ~ 1 ~ 1 + (whether s.t. is 1 was interesting or boring)

( i i ) {Adj(na)]stem 1 N1) I0 / 729 1 ~ 1 @ {Adj(na)2stem 1 N2} ( 0 / t;'= 7:) +

6%~ / @?Uf?97ZI 7 5 (%$/ ~ @ i ? 9 j Z l 2 b (whether s.t. is 1 was convenient or inconvenient)

f%/%fW: l 75 t g / W ? - d Z l fP

(whether s.0. is 1 was a man or woman)

(iii) {Adj(na)]stem 1 N1) {(d / l? 9 7: {Adj(na)zstem 1 N2}neg dl (where Adj(na)l = Adj(na)~, N1 = N2)

- - - - . - . - . - : K g {@?O/@?OE-31:1 @@dO { c e / T I c a b > / a @ 9 k I @ = = - - (whether s.t. is / was convenient or not)

{5'3 /597?9fZl &% ( L e /TI {ab1/ aiP9fZI @ (whether s.0. is /was a man or not)

L * i L r < F$e&T&b3 R - j - ~ f i j & $ b z ~ a @ 2 &&Tb>2+Ao

(I haven't decided yet whether to get a job or go to graduate school after graduation from college.)

%& ~#%#&3@~&Jqf3@, ~ b 1 - ? 3 b & & 9 &

(Please ask the guest in advance whether he likes meat or fish.) ??Bt z ~ k i : c i = - u . ; l , c e & f + t a ~ , 7 3 ~ ~ ~ & & + a + , a m a -Cb>aa /v , (I haven't yet decided whether I should travel in Europe or work in Seoul during the summer break.)

b < t i U S k i 5 V %#*?em f?9 k @ & @ E i 7 ~ 9 7:@, 5h-C L 3 b > a L k o (I forgot whether the meeting was on Thursday or Friday.)

%&-C977 k & ~ k ~ f l l f - ? f - T ? ? ~ ? Z @ , 7 - 1 b T i ? ~ k $ , %L-Cb>a+Ao

- k a - k a 89

(1 don't remember whether it was at a party or at the pool that I first

met Tamara.) I b,$b> *A:?

& ] ~ S ~ Y ~ A Y T # Z ~ ~ ~ ~ & L I : ~ > ; ~ . , 8&*sm~m;tr., h9Tk. 6 -S*o

(DO you know whether Mr. Kimura majored in economics or politics at

college?)

@I&%$, %Tab.*, **b&b>L 5 &&)Lo (Lately, it's hard to tell whether a lot of men are men or not.)

If?ki t b s l i

&%tifl1;3.*1(7NE L T T S b..

(Please make the meeting Monday or Wednesday.) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - m e - ka - ka construction is used when one is not sure about two K - choices or possibilities. (6 ka2 (DBJG: 166-68))

Normally the construction is used to deal with two choices or possibilities, but when one lists the choices and possibilities more than two ka's can be used as in (1).

IfL be? E r i t 2 5

(1) % w G ~ , % t : ~ s fid#a~s fiw R < f i>, a I Z R ~ -cb>3+?Lo

( I haven't decided whether to stay here or make a trip or work at the research institute during the spring break.)

If the same verb is repeated as in KS(A), the second one can be replaced

by do ka as follows. (+ ka (db ka) (DBJG: 168-70))

(2) %+ E $-4W s * E 5 fi', a 7?** 0 3 +?Lo

90 kana

cates a self-addressed question or question addressed to an in-

*Key Sentences

I wonder if -

1 (Can you figure out this problem?) !

Vinf

( i ) {V / Vvo1)inf d.2

I%% / L k / 8+ 5 I i5'2 (I wonder if s.0. talks 1 if S.O. talked I if I should talk.)

( i i ) Adj(i)inf $2

{% 3 b, / A 3 $9 f i I 9.2 (I wonder if s.t. is / was big.)

-

(iii) {Adj(na)stem 1 N} (0 / i? 9 12 I 75'2

@d. I0 / t? 3 7; J d.Q (I wonder if s.t. is I was quiet.)

6LCb' L X

*/r+i, a& ( 0 / i? 9 7: I 5'2 (I wonder if s.o.is 1 was a teacher.)

kana 91

s+roEBii r i sa , (I wonder what life is like in Japan.)

(d) 4 a ~ $ $ ~ % ~ i ~ z l ' 2 0 (I wonder what today's dinner will be.)

(el 71f- b ' & @ i i 8 b ~ @ h 0

(I wonder if the apartment rent is high.)

(f) 5k4ti&kjS.ao (I wonder if my teacher is in good health.) 1 h , 6 < + w $ 3 J

(g) -$-%%O%Rflh b A7?-lf r , ~i&lj&il.h, (There is a concert ticket, but I wonder if you can go.)

mm 1. The sentence-final particle kana is used when one asks himself about s.t.

In essence kana is a marker of monologue question, so this cannot be used as a straightforward question addressed to others. Compare the following:

(2) r z - . ~ 7 3 E t f i ~ o (Where are you going?)

(3) P;+?l; jZj f i>a, (I wonder where I should go.)

92 kana / kanarazushimo

The questions of (1) and (2) are straightforward questions addressed to

others, but (3) is a monologue question which does not need t O be

answered. However, if it is a yes-no question and if the addressee is an equal or younger one, kana can be used as a question addressed

to others, as shown in KS(B) and Ex.(g).

2. If one asks himself what one should do,Vvol has to be used as in KS(A, and Ex.(b)

3. Kana is normally used by a male speaker, but it is often used by a female speaker, too, in casual spoken Japanese. The normal c o u n t e ~ ~ is kashira. (+ kashira (DBJG: 181-82))

kanarazushimo d!*T L & adv.

I an adverb that indicates that the not always; not necessarily proposition expressed in the sen- [REL. itsumo wa - nai; minna

wa - nai; subete wa - nai; zenbu wa - nail

+ ~ e ~ Sentences

Adj (i)inf

I I I I

(I don't think that a Japanese is always a good Japanese language teacher.)

(one cannot always say that people with good memories are good at foreign languages.)

!!Z,!.fLB (%- / % 3 b 4 k d & F R b Q b ~

(s.o. does not always talk I s.t. is not always big)

- = - - - - - - - E K E - - - -

(ii> &!.4 L 6 {Vinf l Adj(i))neg

- -

G P L h { S L i k L Q b ) / k $ < CiQbs )

(s.o. does not always talk I s.t. is not always big)

94 kanarazushimo

45TLd {b$dl/%41 I?tliPi?r;gbr (s.t. is not always quiet 1 S.O. is not always a teacher)

(iv) 434 L 6 { Adj(na)stem 1 N} T CL ts b'

U\TLG {%i9tjS1/%41 T l i ' r b b 3

(s.t. is not always quiet 1 s.0. is not always a teacher) - (a) & # L T $ J & F L ~ $ ~ ~ c : ~ & kGigL2bxo

(One cannot always say that marriage brings happiness.)

(b) % B L < * s ~ d i ! w ~ 6 ? & 3 ~ & t i i ~ ~ r ; t s c . 1 ~ (People who exercise regularly do not always live long.)

(Students who have been to Japan do not always become proficient in Japanese.)

(d) B&LAQHL %++EG:~L L ~ W , (Money does not always bring happiness to people.)

iih 2 * i L4 $ 2 5 w < L*

(el &tt~:m % 8 ~ 2 , ~ L BWLI:R ~ g ~ a t i , & b ~ ~ i i t s ~ 1 , (It is not always the case that an able researcher is an able educator.) I r i a c < % -p <tb

(f) g ~ c i a ~ ~ ~ ~ k g i d i , gb18;5'a\4~6~3~3tri;tpi?r;a1/1, (They say good medicine is bitter, but bitter medicine is not always good.)

L e i f h L 5 k ' C X .

(g) &;5'bBdllf 7, 2 9 7 B+lf '7, M B T ~ ~ ~ T ~ ~ & % $ A ; ~ ' ~ ~ - T L 6 El$ATiiab~, (An oriental wearing glasses, carrying a camera and walking in a group is not always a Japanese.)

1. The adverb kanarazushimo is used with a negative predicate. Typically, the final predicate is to wa kagiranai (lit. 'not limited to -').

(+ to wa kagiranai)

kanarazushimo 95

Kanamzushimo - nai is often used in a proverbial expression in which 2. the tense of the final predicate is usually nonpast. However, kanarazu-

shimo can be used with the past tense as in (1) below.

(1) a + O ~ ~ * ~ R ~ ~ Y ~ C ~ G T L I B ~ Z $ ~ F C : ~ ~ ~ ~ Q + I f & (The students who went to Japan that summer not always became proficient in Japanese.)

f7]ag3359:-)b. i J i n ~ ~ ~ y 0 ~ # & @ p L & b. *.A<*

$ $ g T l d 2 ~ 9 fz0 (The performances of the virtuoso pianist Vladirnir Horowitz were not always perfect.)

[Related ~xpressiod

~~~arazushimo - nai expresses a partial negative. The partial negative can also be expressed by other expressions such as minna wa - nai, zenbu wa - nai, subete wa - nai, itsumo wa - nai. Examples follow:

[I] %a&* {&ha /Z% / T4-c) & m L \ o (All that glitters is not gold.)

[3] &0%8a;fkC;f {&A* /Pi% / b4Tl Ib%+i & L \ ,

(It is not the case that I understand everything that the professor has to say.)

Among these partial negative expressions, kanarazushimo and subete is much less colloquial than the rest. Note also that minna 'all,' zenbu 'all,' subete 'all,' and itsumo 'always' do not always require a negative ending; whereas kanarazushimo always requires a negative ending. Examples follow:

b. $Eta {ei%/*a~~.t~ F ~ T L ' ~ ~ ~ : , (I've done all the homework.)

96 kanarazushimo / -kaneru

c. $LG;f. { L \ ~ & / * & T L & I Z%R, (I'm always healthy.)

-kaneru fP,'h b aux. v. (G,: 2)

an auxiliary expressing that s.0. cannot; be not in a position to;

cannot do s.t. even if s h e wants to hardly possible; hard; hesitate a do it to [REL. do -gatai; -nikui]

(I am not in a position to figure out that matter, so please ask the departmental chief.)

/ (He might (lit. can) do any stupid thing.)

Vmasu fi1;la6 / 7 3 . h h b ~

&a;l&ila 6 (s.0. cannot drink s.t.)

& k 7 3 . i l a h b l (it is possible for s.0. to drink s.t. / s.0. might drink s.t.)

CZ-

(Next week I am making a business trip to London, so I cannot attend the meeting in Nagoya.)

L r h b ' O t 9 3 L ; 1 . 2 ~ z ~ f o ~ ~ e - ~ -rci&bf: LjSr.taa-wo 0 cannot handle this many documents in a month.) I;&,..& " 'd'h P h ftgj+&@c:8 c a m , rEEl:~i% c;~.&a-b, 0 t is a great regret, but we cannot comply with your request.)

0 wee zAa3haid 9 b, E!3*taa-T0 0 cannot accept such an expensive gift.) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 'Ki @ti$~ok&% e l l 9 * ta-Cbl& 1 5 fzo

- - - - - - - -

(He appears to find it hard to understand my feelings.)

$$#1:&11: < b l Z 2 GOIT, s-~$o&E&$J 9 #I L&;ta~bl&, (It is such a delicate matter, so even the departmental chief finds it hard to break the ice.)

arbscv, r!%v&t;ata~~ (Midori, your husband is waiting for you with impatience (lit. cannot wait).)

hw~~r t . 2 AT& a b l ~ 2 eg~l*tai'bbl*1;, ~ $ & L ~ & F L I ~ ~ ~ L . (He might say outrageous things, so watch out.)

i l i b i < h09t;t:tj L 2 L ~ Z Z ~ ~ % h ~ & & b ~ ~ " s b ~ ,

(That man might use violence at the slightest provocation.) ' i h 9w61< . t i E L L <

~ o + h i : ~ % $ ~ j t r . t a i ' b ~ , (It is possible for this incident to develop into resignation of the entire cabinet.)

C r i 3 t i &b&L 9 7$>taabl1 5 a%%Lf:lg m?9f:o (It was such a tense situation that even a riot could have taken place.)

1. Vmasu kaneru (GI: 2) is often used in formal spoken or written Japan Qe

to express politely that the speaker 1 writer cannot do s.t. owing to Olne

circumstance, as shown in KS(A) and Exs. (a) - (d).

2. The negative version, i.e., Vmasu kanenai is actually a double negati, e,

so it literally means 'can do st.,' but it actually means 'it is very possi, ble' or 'might.'

3. The verb that can take -kaneru is a verb that takes a first person human subject. So verbs such as kowareru 'break,' am 'exist,' kawaku 'dry up; harem 'clear up,' kumoru 'become cloudy,' etc., cannot take -kanem. r, contrast, the verb that can take -kanenai can take either the third person human subject (as in Exs.(h) and (i)) or the third person non-human sub. ject (as in Exs.(j) and (k)).

4. None of the regular potential forms can take -kaneru either, because it creates double potential meaning.

However, there are two exceptions: wakaru 'can figure out' and dekiru 'can' (used with a Sino-Japanese compound) can take -kaneru, as shown in KS(A) and Ex.@), respectively.

5. Ex.(g) is an idiomatic case which comes from Vmasu of machi-kanem 'cannot wait' and is exceptional in that it takes a third person subject unlike other cases of the Vmasu kaneru. No other new combination like o-machi-kane is possible.

6. As explained in Note 3, -kaneru takes the first person, but when the

-kaneru / - kara - ni itaru made 99

main predicate is in the progressive form, -kaneru can take the third per-

son, as in M e ) and (f).

[Re,atd ~x~ressionsl

nere are two auxiliaries similar to -kaneru. They are Vmasu nikui and gatai. The crucial difference is that -kaneru conveys the meaning of

but the other two don't; rather, they convey the meaning of 'hard to do ~ . t . ' The auxiliary -gatai is used in written Japanese, so it sounds very awkward in [lb] but is acceptable in [la].

C l i i A.

111 a. 206 5 a% kcltJZ~ 111%~3 / C < L \ / ~ $ ~ ; L \ ) , (It is hard for me to accept such a condition.)

- kara - ni itaru made -- %P % --KT b d T stl: <w>

starting with - ending with -; from - to - [REL. - kara - made]

+ ~ e y Sentence

I I I I I

(Mr. Smith can read Japanese widely, ranging from weekly magazines to scholastic books.)

100 - kara - ni itaru made

&LA. B L r L I • ‹ L l i N l a l i %i+7

(a) w&mbae+it+ ao 5 o a a & i i s a w & a r , i r ah,, b l & o

(That newspaper reporter knows everything about the premier, rang from his public life to his private life.)

'B

@ ? L A 41 C (b) $L%EI;P-&~~?~$, ~ ~ 0 i l i ~ S / r i i 8 % - D & % i - h . b % t I L ~ f

%Kg& $T, Zb:$'%;jj~: L T < ;t.Lf:, (When I went to Japan, my friend Mr. Yamada was very kind to me. H, did everything from picking me up at the airport to making the hotel reservation for me.)

ti&* D L

- (c) W ~ D A ~ L $ L G H ~ O Z 2 & b h%okhi:s& a ~ , - - . - . - . - 1 K g (That lady told me everything in detail, starting with her family and . - - - - - ending with the worries of her life.)

L - B r i *'?b

(d) R iwzmf:s;tc:ii, ?&-h.~%wa:za a T, AT& T ~ v : ~ (When the president of the company arrived, everyone from the guards to the vice-president was waiting in front of the gate.)

&?'l L r i ? < (e) 1L-',-bt@jS~b#~~:36 aT, WOZ % f ? ~ f : ,

(Lucie was dressed in green, from her shoes to her hat.)

The construction - kara - ni itaru made is used to express a wide range of coverage. The construction is primarily used in written Japanese.

- kara - ni itaru made is replaced by - kara - made in spoken Japanese. Thus, for example, KS, Exs.(a) and (b) change to, [I], [2], and [3], respectively. (e karal (DBJG: 176); made (DBJG: 225-28))

- kara - ni itaru made / - kara - ni kakete 101

Since - kara - ni i t a r~ made Cannot express range of physical distance or

time, - kara - made has to be used in that case. I t i t LW..~L S L E ~ P L

+fi)ljz8fi (ZT / * K Z ~ *TI kffiw~~~+~i)li)lz,. ( ~ t takes three hours by bullet train from Tokyo to Kyoto.)

>b+ -@ZS I%T/*CZZB&T) F - X B Ll:,, (Yesterday morning I played tennis from 9 o'clock till about 11 o'clock.)

through - into -; through - on from one time I location into the to; from - till I to

[REL. - kara - made]

+Key Sentence

( n i s summer I travelled on the Chinese continent from July through August.)

102 - kara - ni kakete

L h L e i 6 < k i (a) + ~ l $ * i ; 1 6 ~ ~ ; ~ ~ G : f i C f ~ ~ j s ' ~ & ~ ~ d 5 ,

(This week it will probably snow from Thursday through Friday.)

(b) b % 1 $ 2 8 fir;-kfl~:64j--(r65js'%<. (In Japan the rainy season continues through June and July.) :i I h? C i i i L M L t i I * i L * i

(c) &%&-nr$fl%+sfil;h t[.ll:fiCfT&o & L T ~ \ & , (High atmospheric pressure extends from the Korean Peninsula up through Kyushu.) -

The kakete of - kara - ni kakete is Vte of the verb "kakerv" whose basic meaning is 'to hang s.t. over s.t. else.' This basic meaning is reflected in the meaning of the structure, that is, 'extended span of time 1 space across time/ spatial boundaries.'


- kara - made is similar to - kara - ni kakete, but not exactly. The former indicates a spatial I temporal 1 quantitative beginning, and the end point is clear, but the latter indicates a spatial I temporal beginning and the end point is not clear. So, as shown in [I], - kara - ni kakete is ungrammatical or

marginal, because the end point is clear. - * A < C - - -

[I] a. +fitif~~+fi>%+&& ( 3 ~ I * ~ : f i > t f ~ ~ Xgjs'Lit 0 a*, h he water will be shut off from 9 a.m. till 5 p.m.)

1. C* t fTl $%G:~QTI /~~

-3-0

(JR trains are held up from Shinjuku through Shibuya.) (+ made (DBJG: 225-2811

kara to itte 103

ka a t e ' 5 2 7 conj.

reason for s.0.'~ action or for s.o.'s having some idea, and conveys disapproval of the action or idea

+Key Sentences

just because; even if; even though [REL. kara; tatte; te mo]

r x o r d i n a t e Clause 1 Main Clause (negative)

I I

(I cannot forgive him just because he is a child.)

(Even though I don't complain, it doesn't mean that I'm satisfied with the present situation.)

@I

I Subordinate Clause

I Subordinate Clause

1 Main Clause (negative) I

Main Clause (negative)

I (You don't have to be so pessimistic because you didn't pass the exam.) I

1 04 kara to itte

gbl75' I; k Sq -C (because / even if / even though it is expensive) - 4L Li i

(a) # @ L k ~ \ I ; k g 9 - C & - ~ r k k T l i G b \ (It is not a problem which will be solved because you have paid / will pay compensation.) C t i L 4 b ~ f i w

(b) kSJ0@*7?75'b k g 9 - C R 9 T L g 5 bkj-l:iib175'Gblo (I cannot obey the order without asking questions even if it is from my boss.)

(c) 7 3 11 W+MI; kg9-C&h:%&d'"ii+c:aa ~ O T I ~ G L ~ , , (Your English will not improve (itself / automatically) even if you go to America.)

r ~ I r 3 .* C r i t C 4 *h,Bri (dl k ~ k % K & T P ~ ~ ~ I ; ~ S ~ - C ~ ~ B K B G ~ L - C ~ ~ ~ L ~ K ~ ~ Q ~

Gb', (Even though he goes to class every day, it doesn't mean that he is studying seriously.)

(e) ~ / v t i ? ~ k ~ = ' f i t ~ k = a 3 ~ - C $ G G = & % L - C ~ ~ ~ ; ~ L Y T G ~ G L ~ , (Even though I tell you such a thing, it doesn't mean that I'm criticiz- ing you.)

(f) ~ ~ 0 ~ 7 ~ ~ e G b ~ 7 5 ' I ; k ~ ~ ~ h b ~ ~ Q ~ ~ b ~ a a ) i i ~ < e b l ,

(It's not right for you to be indifferent just because it's not your problem.) SL* ha?

(g) &i?fih k S 9 T @ 9 - c i i b ~ v G b ~ o (Don't take her lightly just because she is a woman.)

1. Kara to itte occurs with a main clause in the negative form. "S, kara to itte Sz {wake ni wa ikanai 1 koto wa nai / etc.}" is used in the following situations:

kara to itte 105

When the speaker expects the hearer (or someone else) to think SZ because of S1 but disagrees with it (e.g., KS(A) and Exs.(a) - (d)) or denies it (e.g., KS(B) and Ex.(e)).

When the hearer (or someone else) does something because of S,, but the speaker disagrees with that action (e.g., KS(C), Exs.(f) and (g)).

2. Kara to itte can be contracted to karatte in conversation, as in (3).

(3) ~ d : 2 & & , 3 t ~ 5 3 7 , + ~ ~ G G : & % c ; G < - C Q ~ ' ~ ' T L L

i (You shouldn't boast that much just because you are better than others.)

[Related ~x~ressionsl

Kara cannot be used in place of kara to itte. Compare [I] and KS(A).

[I] +Rl?;tr.r;zW;h~f b : ~ i b ~ ; t r . h b 1 ,

(I can't forgive him just because he is a child.)

The difference is that the scope of wake ni wa ikanai in [l] is yurusu '(I) forgive him' while that of wake ni wa ikanai in KS(A) is kodomo da kara

yurusu '(I) forgive him because he is a child.'

Te mo and tatte are similar to kara to itte. However, unlike sentences with kara to itte, sentences with te rno or tatte do not convey the speaker's disapproval of using S1 as a justification for Sz. (See Note 1.) Com- pare [2a] with KS(C), and [2b] with Ex.(a).

[2] a. M4%L:$i5bb { & < 76 l & < f ; 7 7 ) %tv2G:%RT,3 z k CiGb', (You don't have to be so pessimistic even though you didn't pass the exam.)

b. ( L 7 6 1 L f c ~ T l %itrL7EITb;fhb', (The problem will not be solved even though you have paid compensation / even if you pay compensation.)

probably conjecture which is not based on [REL. daro] any particular information or evidence

+Key Sentence

1 (It is probably difficult to predict what one's self will be like in ten / / years time.) I

336 Lh

EI $ $>?I i (s.o. 1 s.t. is probably interesting)

k 75'5 i (s.0. / s.t. is probably good)

6 5 (s.o.1 s.t. does not probably exist)

( i i ) {Adj(i)stem < (hi) 1 {Adj(na)stem 1 N} TCi ) t s 7 l l i j i (LO. / s.t. is probably not -)

BE! < (12) hA>6 i (s.0. / s.t. is probably not interesting) ZL8L

H%T C;f: 22~~6 i (s.t. is probably not hard) f l < L+ ?%TCi7's53aS i (s.o. is probably not a scholar)

iih Lr.5 rrt,hL d.Lrb.

(a) zow % B - $ T % R - ~ - & D ~ & ~ s , T % L ~ ~ . ~ j.

(It is probably extremely difficult to complete this research in one

year.)

k a ~ 107

4: I i A C L H$Aa)qb: &8$~a)ab~&~i:2$$T&~li82>6 5 (Even among the Japanese, there are probably a lot of people who oppose education without creativity.) eLL m A + L m i S r i -6 < &a)& 5 G:*lLii$&a)L 3 7k&01?f l~; i -C1/16~l i$hd~~ 5 ,, (Few people probably think, as I do, that culture is something like religion.)

d'(ct-b, S i i L D l - 3 6 .

7 s 11 n a > S b ~ c:, ~ % a ) k ~ ~ & ~ 4 c c & ~ @ a > ~ ~ B s*z, t Lj s .S io (It would probably be good if Japanese universities allowed students to evaluate instructors as American universities do.) CLL@-AWA IKAITA h mfi,

ABGBki YABB'JG:$R~%L\& ~dihjs.6 i (Nothing is probably as deep-rooted in humans as racial prejudices.) "KI %+ L l i $ L % 1 : 6 4 b % f i ~ A l j b ~ %S

- - - - - 3~1:~ %t: E I % F W % C : ~ ~ %%I"hihi516 i - - (There will probably not be a big change in the US-Japan relationship in the near future.)

h f: 0 h*Vd'$

I~~OIAOBB'~ & c i & ~ < l i hd .6 5. (The relationship between the two is probably not close.) Y A F i i r h k i S * i

~ ~ ~ ~ - c r B ~ ~ T a ~ ~ c i ~ & - r . c i h i 5 1 6 i . (It is probably not unreasonable to ask for pay for overtime work.)

fk~:di711/f4i~~dj&a)7?*1;, $ ~ ~ ~ i i h i 5 1 6 j . (He has an alibi, so he is probably not the culprit.)

mQm 1. The conjectural auxiliary karo is the contracted form of the no longer

used Adj(i) ku aro, and aro is the conjectural form of aru. ( e y e )

2. The auxiliary karo is connected only with an Adj(i). When Adj(na) and N are connected with karo, they have to be negative, because the negative nai is an Adj(i).

3. V cannot be connected with karb, as shown in (1). *t;LL% t,b.*L

(1) *$L aiw& za)% HWRQ%V& t ~ 5 .jO

(We will probably continue this joint research next year.) -- %L%dL%4? $ Z o>%RR%B%bf & tf.5 5

[Related ~x~ression]

Another auxiliaq daro can replace karo without any change of meaning, as in [I]. Note that the connections for the two auxiliaries are different: the ones for dar6 are {V I Adj(i)inf] dar6 and {Adj(na)stem l N] { @ I datta] dar6, whereas the ones for kar6 is Adj(i)stem kar6. (See Formation.)

Also to be noted is the fact that kar6 cannot be connected with the past tense, but dar6 can, as shown in [2].

f:w8w I r i r $A%

[2] a. 'i 3 2 k:di B *%GltRPiki%;5.3 7': I(E)3 i / * % ~ 3 5 I, (For John the stay in Japan was probably intriguing.) l i ~ d ~ b ~ ? i

b. ;~t%f&to%~&d.~ 7': 5 / *@?I 5 I, (The winter in Hokkaido was probably cold.)

The most basic difference between dar6 and kar6 is that dar6 can be used in both spoken and written Japanese, but kar6 can be used only in written Japanese. (cr> daro (DBJG: 100-02))

do s.t. in a - fashion / manner /

+Key Sentences

1 (Akira views things in a peculiar fashion.)

(Prof. Hayashida teaches in a strict manner.)

1 (Mr. Brown thinks like the Japanese.)

- - = - . - -

(Dl

Vrnasu

i $ 5 k i Q

(Please write in such a way that anyone can understand it.)

- =Ki - - - . - - . - . - - - - -

(B)

1 10 -kata o sum

( ) {~dj( i ) inf / Adj(na)stem 9 ! Vinf 1 + ( ~ o u n 0) + Vfnasu k 5 ';J- &

0 if 5 B t 6 (lose in a terrible way)

2 ; - 3 9 & 0 a) Bk e -if & (view things in a unique fashion)

k < %& b #kf i B 3- & (teach clearly (lit. in a way one can under. stand well))

( i i ) N a ) k i Q + ( ~ o u n ~ ) + ~ r n a s u k ~ t &

$ b ! a k i Q b a > a ) % b ~ k B T b (talklikeachild(lit.talkina child-like manner))

- - : - = (iii) Vinf k i 2 + (Noun a)) + Vmasu fS B T 6 (Adjectives rarely occur : K g . - - - - before k 5 ls)

%F%&-if b k 5 ls ii$ L k B -if & (speak in such a way that people are impressed)

~ a c . ; , ~ - r - ~ k 3 8 1 / l i & ~ f k ~ - i f ~ ~ (That pitcher throws (a ball) in an interesting way.) i L t! ( L $ALP' i L 7 L

g m ~ i ; t ; g t d ~ ~ ~ o ~fj~-ifz,o~&-ix e 1; i o i ~ ~ % b ) ,

(I'm afraid of getting a ride from Yoshida because he drives carelessly (lit. in a wild fashion).) t t : L ^ r L ? i t i

~cicasoY&r:&Lf:% ~ & O L ~ Q LT1.16 L 5 I?, (Tadashi seems to study in a different way from other students.) h t L m : i a 8 $ $ ~ m 1 5 l s ~ ; i f j i i & & ~ 1 , (I cannot think like Prof. Nomura.)

%B&$L < & a k 5 ls&;ikQ L T I ~ L ~ ~ , (We'd like to be taught in such a way that we (come to) like studying.)

80 ~ 0 ~ @ ~ : 9 b l ~ $ i i k ~ ~ k 5 i+;i;ik~-ifb~iig< 2 b l T L a 5.

-kata o sum 1 1 1

(There wouldn't be many people who think about this problem in the same way as I do.)

( ) $$jrisoXE** < i l -waa i QaLfi*ba. ((1) Tamura's talk sounds like he knows the minister well. (2) Tamura talks as if he knew that minister well.)

1. -kata o sum is used to indicate a manner in which someone does something. When this phrase is used in a main clause, the manner is under focus.

2. When a suru-verb is involved in Vmasu-kata, the noun part of the verb is followed by no, as in (1).

(1) a. 2EE {0) /*01 Lfi (the way S.O. drives; how to drive)

b. 1 .;, 3 (0) /*@I Lfi (the way s.0. knocks (on the door); how to knock (on the door))

(+ -kata (DBJG: 183-87))

3. The direct object of the verb in Vmasu-kata is marked by no, not by o,

as in (2). Thus, when the verb is a suru-verb, no occurs twice in the phrase, as in (2b).

(2) a. 7 s l.;f;-)L {0)/*;Jl El73 (the way S.O. throws a football; how to throw a football)

b. 3 L - 2 {0) /* ;J l m.ZoL7-i (the way S.O. operates a crane; how to operate a crane)

4. The expressions like ycina hanashi-kata o sum or ycina mono no ii-kata o

sum can be interpreted in two ways in some contexts, as in Ex.(g).

[Related ~x~ressions]

I. In some cases, the manner in which someone does something is expressed by the adverbial form of an adjective, as in [I].

[I] % H B ~ I ~ % ~ Q c j a < /%zl m a , (Mr. Yoneda is good at teaching grammar (lit. teaches gramma, skillfully).)

(e Appendix 1 (DBJG: 581))

However, "Adj(i1na) Vmasu-kata o sum" and "Adverbial form of Adj(i / na) V" are not always interchangeable. First, the adverbial foms of some adjectives cannot be used as manner adverbs (i.e., an adverb to mean "in such and such a manner"), as in [2].

[2] a. *&a) r 4 T - GAB8 < EGP6 (Acceptable form: ...-@

Q b > E m Q T a O )

(That pitcher throws (a ball) in an interesting way.)

(Kazuo smiled strangely (lit. smiled in a strange manner).)

Second, "Adj(i / na) Vmasu-kata o suru" cannot be used when the manner can be described objectively without involving any personal impression, as in [3].

[3] a. * ~ ~ b < ' & 3 3 Q ~ ' i C ~ ~ b ~ ~ (Acceptableform: 13T CGZ$b>'iCT;S b>,)

(Please walk straight.)

Third, "Adj(i / na) Vmasu-kata o sum" cannot be used to describe how a person feels, as in [4].

-kata o suru 1 1 3

<'X y6ni V" and " X ydna Vmasu-kata o suru" both indicate a manner in which someone does something. However, "X yoni V" is used when expressing an exact likeness. Compare [Sa] and [Sb].

[5] a. % L d ' S i k 5 K?&~-C-FS I/L

((1) Please write it down just like I tell you. (2) Please write it in the way I tell you.)

b. % L d ' S i ki&?S37iBLTT3b~, (Please write it in a way similar to the way I tell you.)

Similarly, [6a] implies that Mr. Green's command of Japanese is like that of a native Japanese. [6b], on the other hand, implies that some aspects of Mr. Green's way of speaking Japanese are like native Japa- nese speakers.

[6] a. 3") -2ShIrS.B$Ao>ki~ZH*~giO.Z&.f. (Mr. Green speaks Japanese like a native Japanese.)

b. ~11-2Shdrf.El*Ao>ki8H*ZEo>BLfSBtho (Mr. Green speaks Japanese in a way similar to the way Japanese people speak.)

Because of the "exactness" that "X ydni V" implies, this expression is unnatural if it is unreasonable to expect that someone does something exactly in the way indicated in X, as in [7].

[i'] a. ??7432S/vbrS.l\ll x~ /va>kiC~b~iO.BhO (Mr. Brown views things just like Mr. Harris.)

b. 7"332S/vda7\Vx3 ho>kiCcbo>o>HfSiO.th, (Mr. Brown views things similarly to the way that Mr. Harris does.)

(@ ~ 6 n i l . ~ (DBJG: 553-56))

ka to iu to B3 2 i 2 conj.

a conjunction to indicate the you would think that - but speaker's assertion that a popular (that is not right) belief is not right

+Key Sentence

= (You would think that all the Japanese like sushi, but that is not true.

- - - - - - Some Japanese don't like it.)

( i ) - {V/Adj(i))inf 2 l k Z ? k , So

{;&j- / 3 L f: I 75.2 B 5 2 (you would think that s.0. talks / talked but -)

b / f i 9 f: 1 2 k S k (YOU would think that s.t. is / was expensive but -)

LC {%fi / bfif?? 7: I 2. k % 5 2 (you would think that s.t. is / was

quiet but -)

I%%' / %&f? 9 f: 1 2.2 S i 2 (you would think that s.0. is / was a teacher but -)

ti d I f ~ l t L (a) 7 5 r / v i i : $ ~ ; ~ ~ . , " : $ k i l . k ~ i t , t B B ~ W B $ ~ ~ I P ~ G ~

t S b f i - c b > & o (You would think that cancer is not curable, but that is not true. If it is detected early it is said to be curable.)

*Ah/* i : C r i T fl$m9-c, :, 3+i$&bfE*zgflk+b:a&&kg5 2 , + i T & 2 b l k 5 E o & 2 9 ~ ? + b : a & z k & & & ~ (You'd think that if you went to Japan and lived there for a few years, your Japanese would become good, but that doesn't seem to be true. On the contrary, your Japanese may become worse than before.) ~r 'vd ' ( 2 6 -tt~,($ b(-t tr . ~ + d . i . C*. : i ;k~o>@b:b~blfi@o>~&jS'$f&Tfi@~&&k~5 2 , ' s , '~~&+i T C & ~ I / > k 5 E , (You'd think that a college student with good grades would be suc- cessful in society, but that doesn't always seem to be the case.)

& ' $ % B e * f i d & 2 e * & & k s 5 k , ? 5 T&as+ i 7%

(You'd think that if you did exercise every day, you would live long, but that does not seem to be true.)

04% S*%C&%Lb~&kSi k , %~1:13hb>7':13$&~kd&?L%b:%~ < %b>o (You'd think that Japanese would be hard, but speaking and listening are not that hard.)

< b 3 + b , d ' 7 L <A, # L l L

$% b 7Toqa LO&i%fl$@7?9k&kZ5 2 , &%+5 Tl&a$a 97':LT-fo (You'd think that my life without a car in Boston must have been inconvenient, but it wasn't at all.)

The conjunction can be used when one makes an assertion that a popular belief or what the listener I reader may believe is not always true. In SI ka to

iu to S2, what the listener / reader is expected to believe is expressed in SI. SZ is often sd de wa nai or its variations as shown in KS and Exs. However, the S2 part is sometimes omitted as in the following examples.

(1) ~ ~ A i & h L Q b L i l ' t B d . k f 5 k , &%f L B & ~ % I / ) B ~ A & Qaba&. (You would think that all Japanese liked sushi, but you sometimes encounter Japanese who don't like sushi.)

1 16 ka to iu to / (no) kawari ni

f L f

(2) 8TBj i i<RbC~1752Zi 2 , ~ ; ' ~ : l i 2 ~ b ~ ~ b ~ 8 T B j b & & ~ (You would think that comic books are trash, but some of them are really good.)

(no) kawari ni ((D)fJZb bl CZ conj. / comp. prt.

an action / state that is expressed in the subordinate clause is bal- anced by another action / state expressed in the main clause, or s.t. / s.0. that is replaced by s.t. 1 S.O. else

instead of; instead; but (to make up for -); so (to make up for -); in place of [REL. ga; kara; keredo(rn0); -nai de; node; shikashi; -zu nil

*Key Sentences

(I am going to enjoy myself in the daytime, so /but (to make up for it)

I will study at night.)

Sentencel (Subordinate Clause)

Vinf

Sentencez

(Main Clause)

(no) kawari ni 1 17

(B)

( (Mr. Yamada worked for us a bit extra, so / but (to make up-for it) we

Sentencei (Subordinate Clause)

1 paid him special compensation.)

Sentencez (Main Clause)

#$&&c~ & L ~ Z ,

-

$$s~i:~aar 9 tKi-ir

- (The former apartment had bad facilities, so /but (to make up for it) the rent was cheap.)

1 (This morning I drank cocoa instead of coffee.)

Vinf. past

' E \ T ~ ~ , ~ I ~

lrllrrimrm ( i ) {VIAdj(i)}inf lt ;h k) C:

8 b ~ b b I: (instead of talking) 7?*

7&k)R;h 4 C: (instead of being expensive)

(ii) Adj(na)stem I / 7'?9 7': I 4th 67 G:

rthn i ;

1 18 (no) kawari ni

@$ { a / f Z 9 f: 1 I f b 0 I: (is 1 was quiet but (to make up for -1)

(iii) N { 0 1 f? 9 7: I I f b 0 K

l t b b C: (in place of the teacher)

I/>I/>%!&J?3 f : l t b b C: (s.o. was a good teacher, but (to make up for -))

Ili t L t i 1 . L 4 s c a ~ m ~ r m ~ t a l t b r, c?&oi~&rm~fi, (Today I didn't study in the library. Instead, I studied in my dom room.) bfi L K IiL - , ?.iI - %& %Lii 1.1. C: El*&%ji;i-c&1~f~Rb 9 eL&b.-%fin B%ji;i-c iC, r; 9 t:, ( I taught Tom Japanese, so (to make up for it) he taught me English.)

%ii & L 9 T!.. h W ~ E ~ m m e $ c m t b 0 c:, 342% b: < & I / ~ ' ~ c I / ) ~ T , (Instead of making expensive long distance calls I often write letters.)

%Lo77f - 1. ii%Rfl&b%b 9 c:, $fib:% < -c 2 -c &%$lT-k (My apartment is expensive, but it is close to the station and very convenient.)

A$(t?b, * L Y ? %L go s*Ego)%!&ii&~I/~lt;h 13 c :~!&omla lWf l I /~b~O (Our teacher is strict, but (instead) he takes good care of his students.)

6 * i 0 r i y!oR&ci$E r, 1: &js#j &

(College professors' salaries are low, but (instead) they have freedom.) 6% * S f Lh Xii@$$$I/q-tb 0 i & k f l 2 -c iC,& (My father is physically weak, but (instead) he has a very strong will.)

zo2iig-n.aItb 0 K, < - c % % ~ $ ~ (This area is quiet, but (instead) it's inconvenient because the stores are far away.)

C r i El$EgO#g %G:I/>3 iC, OLLIHfk&Ol?,b 9 C:bq2 I / > i$FLb>%&.hi 1/>1;9 L-?9f:, (To our Japanese class came a new teacher Ms. Tanaka instead of ofl regular teacher Ms. Yamada.)

(no) kawari ni 1 19

a- The conjunction / particle kawari ni indicates s.t. being compensated by s.t. else. If the idea of balancing is missing kawari ni cannot be used.

(+ Related Expressions)

2. Vnonpast before kawari ni indicates an action that has not taken place; whereas Vpast kawari ni indicates an action that has already taken place. Consider the difference in meaning among the sentences (3) below: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - K - -

(3) a. H E ~ B B R ; ~ 9 C:&BF3 B 9 IZO - - - - - - - - - (I intend to play at night instead of having fun in the daytime.)

b. &%7%h?..Rb ?I KT@&$& Lk, (I played in the daytime, but (to make up for it) I studied at night.)

c. GiQ~7%hf2Rih W:R%$&.f&3 B 9 fZ0 ( I played in the daytime, so (to make up for it) I intend to study at night.)

d. @Bm7%.jW,b 9 I:R%X.l?, (I played at night instead of playing in the daytime.)

In (3a) and (3d), the speaker doesn't or didn't play in the daytime, respectively but in (3b) and (3c), the speaker played.

In the case of adjectives before kawari ni, whatever is expressed by the adjective holds true, but Adjl inf.past kawari ni Adj2 inf.nonpast is unacceptable, as shown in (4).

(4) a. 71f- 1. CkSL\It;h 9 G:Ef%Eo (The apartment is expensive but it is convenient.)

120 (no) kawari ni

b. 71f- b Ci&L\R;h !J b:@4r]fc*~f .~ (The apartment was expensive but it was convenient.)

c. *7/f-- b t&iSfilTf.4t;h 17 C=.@4Uff0 (The apartment was expensive but it is convenient.)

d. 7/f- b I i g f i l ~ f c l t ; h 13 G:@4l]f:~fz~ (The apartment was expensive but it was convenient.)

If an action I state expressed in S kawari ni does not actually occur as in Exs.(a) and (c), the entire sentence can be rewritten by using -nai de or -zu ni, as shown in [la]. If an action 1 state expressed in the subordinate clause actually occurs and the subordinate clause is connected with the main clause - - - - - - - - = =

; K 3 with the meaning of 'so' or 'but,' the entire sentence can be rewritten by - - k kara I node or ga I keredo(mo) I shikashi, as shown in [lb] and [lc]. However,

the choice of kawari ni will make the meaning of compensation much clearer.

The crucial difference between -nai de, -zu ni, ga, keredo(mo), shikashi on one hand, and kawari ni (as a subordinate conjunction) on the other hand is that the former can be used even when no meaning of balancing is intended, but the latter cannot be used if balancing is not implied. That is why all the following sentences would become unacceptable if -nai de, -zu ni, ga, keredo(mo), and shikashi were replaced by kawari ni.

(no) kawarini / kekka 12 1

[4] ; x : x s / u e k s ~ e : ~ ~ ~ ~ : z k ~ a ~ . ~ L L ~ > L / * R ~ ~ E I , EI$ C i i T spk+j:o un

(Mr. Smith has never been to Japan. Yet he is good at Japanese.)

kekka %% n.

as a result of; after; upon

+Key Sentences

I I I

(As a result of the vote, the proposal was rejected by the majority's opposition.)

(A)

Noun

/ (After my wife and I discussed it, we decided to buy a house.) I

Main Clause (result)

Vinf . past .ti f &

L ,

Main Clause (result)

% % & ~ z ~ : G L L ~ &

1 2 2 kekka

( i i ) Vinf .past $255

% L I:$&% (upon 1 after talking)

:A+\, O r i i il. 3 #SO@$;, 4Ha>Ef~7;ic&@%P. b Z 2 1: 2 9 I:, (After discussion, it's been decided that the planned trip will be post. poned.)

&a@%, gd&% y z i: &&W#QNZ 2fl&-*91:o (As a result of the examination, my wife was found to be healthy (lit. it was found that there was no abnormality with my wife's body).)

Wf @@%, *gLb>+&$"" w B s &I:,

(As a result of the investigation, new facts emerged.) A L f 2

$&?&,$<I:@%, gg;ic2mfZ 0&973&*k **El I:o (As a result of the police investigation, it was determined that the cause (of the fire) was the careless handling of a cigarette butt.)

l f l . t l ~ 3 * w : i &iiog~r~ ; , i- 2 LI:$~%, T + n o i f i x I B K ~ J L I : , (I've succeeded in losing ten kilos as the result of a special diet.)

B r i d , L s V < C ~ I * b + l L ~ C A

*fi~b~8~?+?327&9 f:@%, %&a&$%+ % L < 4 v f L (As a result of using a new textbook, the students improved their performance remarkably (lit. the performance of the students improved remarkably).)

e l . L r - c .SA & A ~ : W T L .+,a Y ) L ~ O ~ A & B ~ V ~ : @ Z , $%OB611,WsB L;7PC:Q9 I:D (Upon taking a private golf lesson, my problems became clear.) -

Kekka can be interpreted as 'as a result of' or 'after / upon doing s.t.' only when it is not followed by a particle. Otherwise, kekka is a common noun, as seen in (1).

5 W L * i L (I) a. 83%0S%ik%33%L;*3P.~

(I will let you know the result of the exam next week.)

kekka / kekk6 1 23

b. WF~MXUOY-~ ' .~ . ; , I. ~ ~ 1 : ~ % ~ 2 1 ? % & 2 n b 2 b ~ , (No one knows the result of my special diet yet.)

exceeds the speaker's and 1 or hearer's expectation to a consider-

+Key Sentence

quite; rather; pretty [REL. angai; igai to; wariai]

( h b Ah

Z O ~ ~ i & b ~ ~ 1 ~ V ~ , $2481 < 3 0 2 T L 0 (This car is old, but it runs quite well, you know.)

6 O x ~ i k % l f k : h ; i & T ~ a 5 . T b , %@$%?Fb~b~/~-c" - i t~ (He looks dumb, but he is quite sharp.) L d - 7

FIR I Z ~ l/>i DL:, ~ & ~ l i l a , (It is April, but it is rather cold, isn't it?) 31.1 * 3 /J\Sb)I?r;'bo~:, ~ $ R L > I / ) L x I- f ;/$&&h, (There are quite a few good restaurants in this small town, aren't there?)

zOy$&&iy ; 'bb~h j~ , $#&:& j:$L&&

(This dish is small in quantity, but it is pretty heavy on the stomach.)

E4.ti V

(f) %$ ~;1: HIH ~ O G : ~ % ~ T E R & / U T ~ Z , ; ~ ~ , (Today is Sunday, but the highway is rather crowded, isn't it?)

i ( r L r 1 L= L r < t L a? (g) 21;1:%xma~~ ~ f i i ~ ' , x a L ~ K I ; ~ : ~ ~ / u I : L j TT,

(My father was an optimist, but when he lost his job, I think he suffered quite a bit.)

(h) 27%?C;1:%mf..d:s, % t % % ! ~ ~ d : ~ (It was my first karaoke, but it was rather enjoyable.) -

1. The adverb kekko is used in colloquial speech when something exceeds the speaker's and 1 or hearer's expectation to a considerable degree. ~n the sentences that end in ne the adverb indicates that s.t. exceeds both the speaker's and the hearer's expectation (as in KS and Exs.(c) - (f)). The adverb kekko indicates that s.t. exceeds the hearer's expectation (as in Exs.(a) and (b)) or the speaker's expectation (as in Exs.(g) and 01)).

2. The adverb can be used with a verb that expresses an undesirable state as in Exs.(e) - (g) but it cannot be used easily with an adjective that expresses an undesirable state as shown below:

For that matter kekko cannot be used with any negative predicate. B l Lh

(2) a. * Z a>%I%di$3@D3E3 < QL\T.fO (This magazine is quite uninteresting.) -- z003kt#R71:.l m e < tbL'T9,

kekko 125

3. The verb predicate that is modified by kekko is subject to degree interpretation. For example, yoku hashiru 'run well' (in Ex.(a)), i ni motareru 'heavy on the stomach' (in Ex.(e)), komu 'get crowded' (in Ex.(f)) and nayamu 'suffer' (Ex.&)).


1. Another adverb angai is used to express unexpectedness about an action or a state. Since kekko also expresses unexpectedness about s.t., there are cases where kekkci can be replaced by angai, as shown in [I].

*LYW

[I] a. Z Z 0 f LGi, Z f i g b l Lblia, (cf. KS)

However, when the modified verb does not indicate s.t. that is subject to degree interpretation such as kekkon-suru 'get married,' kuru

'come,' tsuku 'arrive,' etc., kekko is out of the question as shown in

P I . ht: O It9:L

[2] a. (Z9t/*%#l #50IACL%2(P?&~6 L h a b l k , (The two might get married contrary to our expectation.)

b. I b ~ ~ G L ~ f - i i - b : l b ~ ~ ~ ~ b ~ & ~ ~ l i f ~ , +8&% k 0 h L, (854 / * E l l %6$6 L h B b ~ Q , (That guy usually doesn't show up at a party, but today is right before the summer break so he might come contrary to our expectation.)

C. {%fi / *%@I, & 0 % ; s i % l : % b ~ ~ b ~ & ? P 6 Lh3+?A, k , (He may have arrived there earlier than us, contrary to our expectation, you know.)

When degree interpretation is possible, both kekko and angai are both acceptable, as already shown in [I]. In other words, kekk6 has to be used with a predicate that is subject to degree interpretation, but the degree interpretation is irrelevant to angai.

11. There is another adverb igai to 'unexpectedly,' 'to one's surprise' which is very similar to kekk6. lgai to means that s.t. totally beyond one's expectation occurs. Since both kekko and igai to express unexpectedness they are interchangeable when the predicate is subject to

degree interpretation.

Just like angai, igai to cannot be replaced by kekk6 when the predicate is not subject to degree interpretation.

[4] a. It$+& /*%#%I h O S A I i % W ~ & i 5 1 h LkLQblh. (The two might get married contrary to our expectation.)

b. bjb13Itlf-T .f --C=GiI:L.~Tb\%Qb~G?, +El Ci8B bFDEIZL, {SVtI: /*%#$I % & f i h L;kQb14?, (That guy usually doesn't show up at a party, but today is right before the summer break so he might come contrary to our expectation.)

c. I t9t t /*%#I, % & 0 f i ; 3 ' % ~ : ~ ~ . 1 ~ ~ . 1 & i 5 1 B L;kd@/. h 0

(He may have arrived there earlier than us, contrary to our expectation, you know.)

111. Another adverb wari(ai) to l ni or wariai 'a little more than one has expected' expresses a slight gap between expectation and reality. In

kekkci / kono 1 2 7

other words, the speaker has some expectation about something, and believes that reality is relatively higher or lower than his expectation. ~ e k k 6 in the KS and Exs. can be all replaced by wari(ai) to / ni or by wariai.

hr) hW

[5] a. Z La)? LC&, 3J(B) kBblLbl;ta, (cf. KS) (The sushi served here is rather good.)

b. &a>AC&.Bd&VG:E;i&TLd 5 , T $ , B j k R W l b l A T*, (cf. Ex.@)) (He looks dumb, but he is rather smart.)

c. +El I&. s @ H G a ) K & ~ d ' B J 8 ? B A T b l 6 ; ta (cf. Ex.(f)) (Today is Sunday, but the highway is rather crowded, isn't it?)

The replaced versions express the speaker's comparison between the expectation and the reality. So, for example, in [5a], the speaker expected that sushi served at the restaurant would not be delicious because the store did not look good or the price was cheap. But he is pleasantly surprised that sushi served there is pretty good. If such comparison between the expectation and the reality is difficult the replacement becomes impossible as shown in [6] below.

kono Z 0 dem. adj.

the last; this past; this; this indicates a time or time period coming

128 kono

+Key Sentences

I I I

(Miss Akiyama will many (this spring / this coming spring) .) -

(A)

I I I

(Yamashita has been absent from class for the past (one) week.)

& * L a)& (this autumn ; this coming autumn)

. ~ @ L ~ J P ,

1

(ii) Z D Number + Counter

Noun

$ris/vd2.

*>tihl : D--+ (this past year ; this coming year)

Z D

&b'C k LNII' (a) LOB^ ~ ~ : 4 b ~ 1 L k ,

(I met Mr. Yoshioka the other day.) d.b. ,*tb%L < +,

(b) zofitF'zo~o&RC=.fJaRTkJI:f?3 1 Lf:, (I became a member of this club at this time.)

8 * l < h f II. (c) .to!% S%ESk;i &O

(Shall we buy a car given this occasion?)

(d) zoik#t$~r: 5 ~ k ; i T T ~ P ~ (Why don't we compromise now (lit. around this time)?)

kono 129

I: 1% c r t l * i %?& it& S w i

( ) ~ 0 % 2 i m ~ a ) ~ ~ R W D W ~e LTWW. (This summer I'm doing research on Japanese female writers.)

z a ) - I i~ l l i~F~< - C % & r t . ' , b l f h 5 . (1'11 be busy this coming week and probably won't be able to do anything (else).)

Kono followed by a certain noun or a number with a certain counter is used as a temporal phrase. The time or time period indicated by the phrase differs depending on the noun which follows and the context. - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

- (1) One time in the past (Exs.(a) and (b)):

- - - - - - - - - - - - -

t i Z a) A (the other day; a while agoj; Z (last time); Z a) I: ZF (on this occasion; at this time); Z 08% (at this time; recently); Z a) { f a-9 f l / S I (this February I spring)

(2) From one time in the past through the moment of speech (KS(B)):

Z a) %(these days); Z a)%(these days); L a) - {I Bw7 / @ / I (this past week I month I year)

(3) Around the moment of speech (Exs.(c) and (d)): * f:

Z a)R (on this occasion); Z 0 2 - F (around this time); Z a)Z 9 T (around this time)

(4) A period of time including the moment of speech (Ex.(e)): 9 s

Z a) Z$ (this spring); Z a) {I / JJ I (this week 1 month); Z a) - {am / @El /*I (this weeklmonthl year)

(5) From the moment of speech on (Ex.(f)): b i t 2 S

Z Ob(after this); Z a)X(from now on); Z a)-{aF~7 / @a / + I (the following week I month I year)

130 kono / ko shita

(6) One time in the future (KS(A) and Ex.(g)): I r 3 l i V

Z 07% (next time); 07 El @ / / (this coming Sunday, February 1 spring)

k6 shita L 5 L 1: dem. adj.

I a demonstrative which refers to such; like this [REL. a shita; k6 itta; k6 iu; konna; kono y6na; sd shita]

+Key Sentence

(We do not seem to hear about problems like this in this country.)

*tat Z 5 L 2 A& (such people)

(a) z 5 ~&i$e~07~ 5 Q$&%$$< f i & # ~ E j b : h @ ~ f i ~ ~ ~ (It is clear to anyone what kind of result such behavior brings about.)

ko shita 131

K6 Shita is an adjectival (i.e., pre-noun) form. The adverbial form is ko shite.

~ x a W l e : ~ L L L ' ? d-?i

(1) $i. BO%%llibZ 5 L T % ~ . 172. (Our activity started like this.)


1, Kono yona and konna (the contracted form of kono yona) mean the same as ko shita. However, ko shita and kono yona are more formal than konna and, therefore, mostly used in written Japanese. The adverbial form of kono yona is kono yoni. Konna has no adverbial form.

- - - 11. The demonstratives ko iu and ko itta also express the idea "such; like

this." However, these expressions do not have corresponding adverbial forms like kc3 shite. (See Note.)

m. So shita 'like that' and a shita 'like that' are similar to ko shita in meaning. However, so shita and a shita cannot be used to refer to s.0. or s.t. from previous discourse.

BniEIbZOHTIbi&,f. 9 A&tLhbad: 3 (In America, when the economy goes bad, it often happens that big companies lay off a lot of workers. We do not seem to hear about problems like this very often in this country.)

In general, so shita is used to refer to s.0. or s.t. mentioned by a second person, as in [2], and a shita is used to refer to s.0. or s.t. mentioned by a third person, as in [3].

[2] A: 7 % '1 f i -(T"tb%%jS'E < a& 2, A&%jS'A%a)%@%% m w a c tr-nrd; <q~;ht~a.f , (In America, when the economy goes bad, it often happens that big companies lay off a lot of workers.)

132 k6 shita / koso

a)HTGk&2 rl E4;Sl;kGkl.L 5 T.f, (Is that so? We do not seem to hear about problems like that very often in this country.)

[3] [After watching a news report on a massive layoff by an Amer- ican company on TV, A talks to B]

It should be noted that in [3] kd shita is acceptable if A talks to B while watching the report.

the very -; It is - that -; only word, phrase, or clause (when, after, because, etc.);

in particular; precisely; definitely; [an italicized or underlined word]

+Key Sentences

I (This is the very thing that we've been looking for.) I

koso 133

B: Noun

F v e r y SOT.) 1 (No, it's me who should say that (lit. be sorry).) I

r Subordinate Clause (cause I reason) I Main Clause 1

(You can learn something only when you do it by yourself.)

(We could minimize the problem only because you explained (lit. told)

it to us honestly.) r 1

-

( i ) N (particle) Z f D t

Z 0 A Z f (this man in particular)

3 = K a - - -

(Dl - =

*fi

%$ G: Z + (to him in particular)

(ii) Vte Zf

2 z-3k-i~ Z f (only when 1 after S.O. comes here)

(Gi) Sinf f i b 6 Z + h b ?kb1fi. b Z f (only because s.0. doesn't know)

1 34 koso

LS?J:IISII? L e i d * L fib:

(a) A: -#- B4 b liil9 L T L l 7': /v I?O (What on earth were you doing for a whole week?)

B: + - j & g Z + l F J 9 ~-cbl7?,4 , I?~

(You say that but what were you doing?) * X . b , L i*h

(b) Z,Lak!(c: ) (On this kind of occasion, in particular, we all have to cooperate in order to solve the problem.)

L l t L th: (c) 4 $ Z + L 0 3 ! @ i Z 3 3 T k * & ~

(I will pass this exam definitely this year.)

(d) +kLTZ+% 0 I J - Y-7?o (That is precisely the kind of behavior we expect from our leader.)

L L 9 i

(f) % Z R f i 1 ; Z + Z / v t s Z k Z r g C = . ~ - j /vl?k, (It's because you are my friend that I can tell you (even) such a thing.)

l l t L 3 i iL L e i (g) & & ? ~ b b \ f i b Z + h l I/J&5fI:@BL~IfkLCf~1;hb~OI?o

(It's precisely because you can't do it that you have to practice more than others do.) -

The particles ga and o are dropped when koso follows (e.g., KS(A) and Ex.(a)). The ellipsis of e and the temporal, directional, and locational ni before koso is optional, as in Ex.(b), and (1) and (2).

(1) ~2 F ~ ( A / ~ z ) z & < < s r ? ~ (Lodon is the place you shouldn't miss.)

d r < L * (2) Z O ~ $ ( I Z ) z+*&TLl& 1 5 ay%f lb l&I iT7?o

(This university should be the place to find the type of scholar We are looking for.)

Other particles are not dropped when koso follows.

koto 135

(Don't) V, should (not); (not) ought to; may not [REL. Imperative]

+Key Sentences

1 Vinf . nonpast . aff /

(Do not run on the pool deck.)

- (Each presentation should be completed (lit. done) within fifteen minutes.)

(See page 23 for details.)

- - - r - K 3 - - =

( i Vinf .nonpast. aff 1 neg 2 k If* ;&'it 2 k (should speak)

3 3 h k 2 k (should not speak)

136 koto

(ii) VN 0) Z 2

&&I 0 z 2 (should use)

L : 7 - L

%L3C&RCPz 2 , (Refrain from whispering.) 8 6 6.05

~ G L ! J W Y - Y ~ & < z k O (Be sure to listen to the tape beforehand.)

&gb&ab'z 2 , (You may not consult any dictionaries.)

g&&&&b'z k 0 (Do not walk around barefoot.) <&ti *%(e)&%oz k 0 (Bring your own lunch.) cw*< $ME(%) 2. (Wear uniforms.)

amm 1. Vinf.nonpast koto and VN no koto are used only in written Japanese.

They often appear in rules and regulations.

2. In sentences involving VN no koto, the particles ga, o, and ni are often dropped, as in KS(C), Exs.(e), (f), and (1).

6 % L i Ifkl;L Tw Lea (1) a. JRFfiP1i$A(759% ffiUlZ 2,

(The application should be submitted by the applicant in person.) +ti r i U Z L! t i drii6

b. aa b n@(c:)s8 E R ( E ) !$%b;2, (Meet (lit. gather) at Tokyo Station at eight o'clock tomorrow morning.)

koto de 137

by V-ing; because; result in; cause EL. kara; koto ni yori / yotte; node; tame (ni)]

+Key Sentences

Means

I I (Vinf . nonpast 1 I I

I 0 try to lift my spirits by playing golf on weekends.)

(His appearance at the mediation scene complicated the situation even more. (lit. The situation got even more complicated because he appeared at the mediation scene.))

*Exceptions: Adj(na)stem 2 Z 2 T ; N T & 6 2 2 T

mmm ( i ) Means

Vinf . nonpast Z 2 T

138 kotode

( i i ) Cause

Sinf Z 2 T

{j7 Lj( / $7 9 7: I Z 2 P (because S.O. will go I went)

Exceptions: Adj(na)stem 2 Z 2 T ; N T h & i 2 T X L 0

@$U2 Z 2 T (because s.t. is convenient) SLtr

& T h & Z 2 T (because s.0. is a woman)

C l c i * L * L L 6 L r 3 . ?$wlt2

(a) % L @ + Z ~ F ~ ~ ~ ) ~ Z ~ T B D ~ W ~ ~ % & L ? : ~ (The problem was solved by my paying 100,000 yen.)

+ ? l ~ b l ~ I . I b ~ n';i LL. (b) @%1i 6o>B&b21, lZ kTdL+%riM.O$B%B71;L-CL>&OTt)t0

(She is demonstrating her utmost resistance to me by not talking.) 215LA~Lf<L tb,+?

(c) $ m ~ m m w - F a r z k m z 2 ~ m - 6 L ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ - c ~ - F ~ (You can maintain wonderful health just by taking simple exercise in the morning and evening.)

(e) ~ & O / T - T I' - - i :$~&2f i9 7:: ~ : T ~ E O A & ~ ; B E L ~ : O T ~ G ~ ~ ~ I ~ L L17Fo (I hope I didn't hurt his feelings because I didn't go to his party (lit. by not having gone to his party).)

i r , Z * 6 t 3 r 3 . t ~

(f) %LCiE~7F7;+2Z k T @ k $ A B L-Cb>h0 (I am sometimes put at a disadvantage because I am poor at English.)

?$'I,,: < C L

(g) Z O B T C L + ~ I A T ~ & z 2 ~ f d ~ t ) t a z k;3 'ha0 (In this country there are times when you benefit from being a foreigner.)

koto de 139

a- m e n koto de represents a means, the preceding element must be a nonpast verb regardless of the tense of the main clause. When koto de represents a cause, the preceding element can be a verb, an adjective, or a copula in &her the past or nonpast tense.


I. Koto ni yori / yotte expresses the same idea as koto de.

between these conjunctions and koto de is that "S1 koto de ST can be used only when the events, actions, or situations in S1 and S2 take place at the same time, as in [3a]. Tame ni, node, and kara, on the other hand, do not have this restriction, as in [3b].

(Because I didn't study very hard when I was a student, {my parents often told me off / I am in trouble now].)

b. %LCiY&D@rn3 [email protected]': Ifz@CZ / D T / fi\%) Ik<%!C3X%hfz / Q ~ : ~ ~ X % L T L \ ~ I , (Because I didn't study very hard when I was a student, {my parents often told me off / I am in trouble now) .)

It should also be noted that tame ni indicates a cause, a reason, and a purpose and that node and kara indicate a cause and a reason, while koto de indicates a cause and a means, but not a reason. ( e t a m e (ni) (DBJG: 447-51); node (DBJG: 328-31); kara3 (DBJG: 179-81))

140 koto ni naru

koto ni naru L 2 tr a Q phx

end up (with); cause; come action or event leads to a certain mean that

+Key Sentences

(A)

Topic

1 (If we don't do this now, we will end up with an awful situation later.) 1

(If we cannot have this draft cashed, our company will end up in bank-

ruptcy.)

koto ni naru 141

(Dl Topic

I

Sinf Sinf *

I (Ending up with such a result means that there was something wrong I 1 with our preparation.) 1 7

*See Formation (v).

$7 < z 2 d: 2 & (end up going; lead S.O. to go)

(ii) Adj(i)inf - nonpast Z t C: t? 6 trm. @ L b l Z t C: 2 6 (end up with a difficult situation)

k b l 5

(iii) Adj(na)stem Z 2 1: 2 6

k Z a Z k t: G 6 (end up with an awful situation)

- -

Z k K G 6 0

(The fact that nothing happened this time means that the system is alright (lit. the situation is alright with this system).)

142 koto ni nan,

(iv) N &c>-j;&GZah

%& k L 1 -j 2 t dr h 6 (end up with a failure; come to mean that s.t.

is a failure)

( v ) Sinf 2 k 1: 0 6 (Exceptions: Adj(na)stem 7': -. Adj(na)stem a ,, Formation (vi); N I? -. N T & 6 or Formation (iv) or (vi))

i a* BdB, TblI: 2 k Kts h (come to mean that s.t. was wrong)

jigkg Z 2 d l h A (come to mean that s.t. is alright) -6'w:c CL

9 + a A T & 25 2 t d: h 6 (come to mean that S.O. is a foreigner)

kg%?? L b l 5 Z k C: h A (come to mean that s.t. is alright)

mmm r. i L it& t1

(a) + , $ b j ~ b l b k8 ,@a)@UrblZ 2 E7'66 L o (If you don't work now, you'll end up with a terrible situation when you take the exam.)

C: ? D t i i

(b) + / v c z 2 B L I : C ; I R ~ A ~ G : & L ; ~ L ~ S I / ~ Z t I:Q~,, (If I / you do such a thing, I / you will end up not being able to appez in public again.)

L + D T < iLiL b b. ri ~ i b w d &

(c) A ?hFB EH%l?f.LT < hfLiig5t-$-~iHG:%T6 Z k C:a60 (If Company A donates one million yen, the total sum will become (lit. end up with) ten million yen.)

bb+JL+-r, Z l ? (d) ~~T$jd<b~Cjd%%~$~kbljZkC:7'6Vd?,

(If everything goes well, (it means that) I will graduate next year.) C*i Lt

(el G & & Q ~ & ~ : k b l j z 2 ~4f i i t . h 5 Z D ~ Z f i ~ : i k & ~ , ~ b l a ~ / l ~ k K 8 6 . (That the postcard came back means that he doesn't live at this address any longer.)

koto ni naru / koto ni yoru 143

m x koto ni naru is usually preceded by a topic clause (e.g., KS(A), (D), and (E)) or a conditional clause (e.g., KS(B) and (C)). This clause represents an action or an event which leads to a certain situation or logical conclusion represented by X.

2. A conditional clause before X koto ni naru can be either a tara-conditional (KS(B) and Ex.@)), a ba-conditional (KS(C), Exs.(c) and (d)), or a to-conditional (Ex.(a)).

3. In another context, S koto ni naru means 'it will be decided that.'

(+ koto ni naru (DBJG: 202-03))

koto ni yoru Z k CZk Q phl: <w>

be due to the fact that; be an event as the cause of s.t. caused by; be brought about

by; be the result of; because [REL. kara da; tame da]

+ ~ e ~ Sentences

(A)

Topic

(The failure this time is the result of insufficient discussion beforehand (lit. due to the fact that the preceding discussion was insufficient).)

Clause (cause) L B L If0 +, i L * i B A .

LLBL\tr';F+%fi-;, fi

Noun (result) p w ~ = t r b >

7 BDXR z 2 k: L & 0 fki

144 koto ni yoru

I 1 1 \ Topic

. (Susumu's delinquency was caused by his parents' lack of affection. (lit. The fact that Susumu ran to juvenile delinquency is because his parents were not affectionate enough with him.))

- - - Sinf Z 2 1: k & (Exceptions: Adj(na)stem a Z 2 G: k & ; N T & 6 Z tI, - - = = - - = - - = -

1 A ) - - - -

'@l/> 2 t 1: k & (because the rent is expensive) &%P D r i l f L L +2r+<

A %$$iE@C Z 2 l: k & (because the expression is inaccurate)

(His present success is due to the fact that he worked hard every day (lit. did not neglect daily effort).)

o : A & L O ia j ~ r ; a ~ t o c ; t ~ ~ a h & & m a '7 c:g9 T P I Z Z t c: 1 a. (Their divorce was caused by the fact that their value systems were very different.)

% & ; t r ' & ~ f f : a ) 1 i k ~ ~ % 1 3 . f ~ f c Z t ~ : ~ & . (His loss is due to the fact that he tried to win quickly.)

% & a ~ ~ $ Z ; k ~ ~ a T c : ~ E ~ ; k f : a o > ; t ~ ~ & i ; ~ : ~ ~ ~ f Z ~ t Gc1 6 0 (That his talent was developed to this degree is due to the fact that he studied with Mr. Suzuki.)

koto ni yoru 145

em S koto ni yoru is usually preceded by a topic phrase or clause. S represents the cause of the result represented by the topic phrase or clause.

Expression]

Tafne da or kara da are also used to present a cause. Thus, KS(B), for example, can be paraphrased as [I].

It should be noted that "X wa S tame da" and "X wa S kara da" can be used for "X wa S koto ni yoru" only when X is a clause. When X is a noun phrase, tame da and kara da are unnatural, as in [2].

Compare [2] with 131, where X is a clause.

(It was because we didn't have enough discussion beforehand that we failed this time.)

It should also be noted that koto ni yoru represents only a cause. Kara da, on the other hand, represents a reason as well as a cause and tame da represents a reason, a purpose, or a cause, as in [4] and [5].

L.1 a P I 4&7F1\"-Y1. -b=&j~hjS197:oli#~jS19f: (f=&fZ/ j,'%f:/*,

2 C: k 5 I . [Reason] (The reason that he didn't come to the party was that he was busy.)

151 %&jsz1+~1. --.$&oc$$k& {f~@f:/*15>5f: 6 1, [Purpose] (It is to see Haruko that he is coming to the party.)

(e kara3 (DBJG: 179-81); tame (n i ) (DBJG: 447-51))

146 koto wa nai

that there is no need to do s.t. or that there is no possibility of doing

+Key Sentences

(A)

There is no need to; not necessary; there is no pos~ib i l i~ that; there is no chance to [REL. ham wa nail

Vinf . nonpast

- - - - - - (There's no need to listen to a man like that.)

I 1 I

(I think that there is no possibility that she will forget today's meeting.)

& < 2 2 G i fb b > (there's no need to go / there is no possibility that s.0. will

go)

(a) htvtbE'ji~:#E~= L T T ~ 2 2 C L C ~ ~ , (There is no need to be kind to a guy like that.)

(b) ?h?&,/va'jiGz@~&zkGiab~,, (There is no need at all to be in such a hurry.)

koto wa nai 147

t R , ( (4

gjp%6 z thtablt,E"b12-Fo ((1) I don't think it will be necessary for you to come here. (2) I think that there is no possibility that you will come here.)

f ~ ~ b ~ b ~ & ? - ~ $ < z t i t a b l r L r i ~ ((1) There will probably be no need for him to take the trouble to go out there. (2) There is no possibility that he will go out there.)

( ) $, 5 $ 8 ~i)'i)'h z t itirb>i)'l Lh3Ckh. (I might not have a chance to see you again.) L X / r h t L BL

(f) &3 dL$frk 6 Z 2 12 2 b l t EBb5 2 To (I don't think there is a possibility that I will teach.)

dam - - - - - - - - - - - - - E K E 1. Vinf. nonpast + koto wa nai is used as an expression equivalent to Vinf.

nonpast + hitsuyo wa nai 'there is no need to V' or Vinf. nonpast + kanosei wa nai 'there is no possibility that -.'

2. In some cases koto wa nai can be interpreted as either 'no need' or 'no possibility' (e.g., Exs.(c) and (d)). The interpretation depends on the context or situation.

3. Vinf. nonpast + koto galwa am does not mean 'there is a need to' or 'there is a possibility that -.' (+ koto ga aru2 (DBJG: 198-99))

4. In Vinf . nonpast + koto wa nai, V must be affirmative.

(+ nai koto molwa nai)


Vinf + hazu wa nai is very similar in meaning to Vinf + koto wa nai 'there is no possibility that -.' Vinf + haw wa nai is used when the speaker feels that an event is not impossible but that it is unlikely. Compare KS(B) and [I].

[ll @&rk$+B o % B B ~ ~ Z J It3%.&~\, (It is unlikely that she will forget today's meeting.)

(+ hazu (DBJG: 133-35))

-ku < inflectional ending <w>

and ; so

+ ~ e ~ Sentences

I I I

(Kanako's personality was cheerful and innocent.)

- t 5 Oh: i 7 < (a) & ) L 7 ; s ) L = 7 O Z b ; t g { , %Lil.ql:,

(The Californian sky was blue and beautiful.)

*974&%~&9l:oK,

t i lri (b) 1. L\ 0% 1. a)&&bi@ ( , &$L>,

(Tom's apartment room in Tokyo is dark and small.)

(d) rz- 3 - 3 9 .f L \ ; ~ ~ ~ E f l 8 { , ~ # $ $ o ~ B ~ b > ,

(The New York Times is high in quality and has many subscribers.)

(I went all the way to give a lecture, but the audience was so small that I felt discouraged.)

3tiLwi

E%fl

-

f l 9 7 5 b L t &

Adj(i)stem t< $* <,

d.U. -.*' .h

(el t l o ~ $ u i t & i fit: < < , BfS LIZ < ra. (World peace is hard to achieve and hard to maintain.)

+ 9 a ( L + L t i SL L i d~hlt~ (n h ~ w s o ~ a a i i $ o a+ (, a 9 i m r r 2 , (That philosopher's ideas are easy to understand and his writing is sim-

ple, too.) ( A 3 ihTL Lv-h

(g) #o&gfi& ( , $o$3$i;;3Pk2fz3 (Last winter there was much snow and it was hard to drive around.) b f ; ~ L d i w h't

(h] g i a x a f i m ~ ( , % $ ~ w z t t & i & b t a b ~ (I'm afraid of failure, and I can't do anything new.)

Bb~shh: (i) $ $ j i d = A ~ b a h O&L ( , t ~ $ g 2 & J b a ~ 4 f < ~

(Yoko felt lonely living alone, so she got a pet cat recently.)

mm 1. Adj(i)stem ku is used in written Japanese to function as a continuative

form. When the ku-form connects two predicates, the relationship between the two is either a cumulative relationship as in KS(A) and Exs.(a) - (f) or a cause / reason relationship as in KS(B) and Exs.(g) -

(i).

2. As the following examples show it appears that the compound adjective Vrnasu tai cannot be used to express a cause 1 reason relationship as shown in (I), although other compound adjectives can be used that way as shown in (2).

I L IfL 5e-5 L*? lfh

(1) a. it b 9 0 ~ R2ffi E L ~ L < , ba < ~ $ ~ f f i ~ f $ ~ : % , % L-ckl<, (I want to publish my own research so I contacted several publishers.)

(2) a. ~ o $ ' % ~ z P c ~ ~ T B & ~ c c ~ < < , & h ' ~ % C r a > $ & , ~ ~ tbTL39k0 (The writer's writings are very hard to read, and I gave up reading it halfway.) :li+LC/rifb~ b/rlC ifgnli,

b. /I\$$ %&o>Z&O'3tSaCk53~ 13 V$ < , 2 T B@d\Zi, (Professor Kobayashi's grammar explanation is easy to understand, and it is a great help to me.)

c. ygCk%B ~TblZi 5 L <, Ci- 6-2 LTblko (The girl appears to be in love with someone, and looks animated.)

3 . Adj(i) ku cannot carry its own tense. Its tense is determined by the tense of the main predicate.

Adj(i)stem -kute can replace all the uses of Adj(i)stem -ku. The difference between the two are the following. First, -kute can be used in both spoken and written Japanese, but -ku is restricted to written Japanese. Secondly, -ku

can be used as an adverb as in [I], but -kute cannot be used that way.

[I] a. + B B Q ~ % ~ I < / * < T I S ~ > T ? S L . ~ , (Please write characters larger.)

1: li/r - hlL.5

b. EJ$%WEQ { < / * < T I C?=T3k0 (Japanese has become interesting.)

Thirdly, as shown in (2) in Notes, -kute can be used where -ku is not acceptable. (a Vmasu; te (DBJG: 464-6711

kurai 151

to the extent that; so - that - (almost) -; at least; the only -; rather than -

+Key Sentences

Sin f

I I I

(It is so warm this evening that we (almost) don't need a heater.)

I Relative Clause 1 Noun I predicate (neg) I

I I I I I

(There's no one who is as forgetful as Yamada (lit. who forgets things as much as Yamada does).)

(Dl

(I am a poor cook (lit. bad at cooking), but I can at least cook rice.)

(F)

Vinf . nonpast Vinf. past

-?-htst 2%

(I would rather die than do such a thing.)

- - = . - . - . : K - . - . - . - . - -

( i ) Sinf < 5 L l (the same as relative clause connection rules) H L

&f & < 5 L (to the extent that one can swim)

- (He is the only person who can do this job now. (lit. The person who is capable enough to do this job is he.))

+?A**'

(%& 6 ffi % ~ 9 I: < 2, L. 1 (to the extent that (even our teacher) couldn't do it)

H.t 6 5 L1.' < 6 1.l (to the extent that (I) am frightened)

- -

LLI !El 3 h < 6 1.' (to Yamada's degree)

kurai 153

,, r o Z l d t L I 5 P r r b l < b b l % A , ~ b i k .

(That house was so damaged that it couldn't be repaired. (lit. That house was damaged to the extent that it couldn't be repaired.))

@) &z!ilmY & . , T b l ~ & . , T b l b f i r r b l < b b l 7 ? 9 k 0

(Jiro was so drunk that he couldn't hold himself upright.) IiL LCai

) LA,G+, + ~ r w b lfi%'*.< b b i ~ .

(Even ten dollars would still be too expensive for a book like this.)

t l 2 (e) hoe< b b % L & 9 1 c @ C d Q b 1 0

(I have never suffered as much as I did that time.)

(f) & i ~ ~ ~ ~ f i ~ ~ c % ~ ~ f i ~ ( z 2 ) ( ~ ; ~ $ w z L- fa-^,

(There is nothing as painful as being betrayed by someone you have trusted.)

.(if 2 - 6

(g) b l < b%?blfiT b 7 -T 7 - < b b l 6 b 1 T b ~ 6 T L L 5 (Even though it is a cheap place, there should at least be a shower.)

br ~ L L L (h) ? A , h @ ~ b c 3 ~ b & - F a ) l d & i ' b k < b b l o b a ) T - F I ,

(You are the only person who would pay as much as 20,000 yen for such a thing.)

S t : b t It*&

( i ) djL7'b%a)7;-@$ < < b b l & b&$G~7's31ckd'd LIZ, (I would rather be a beggar than work under such a man.)

mm 1. Kurai can be replaced by gurai without a change in meaning.

2. Kurai expresses the degree of some state, as in KS(A), (B) and Exs.

(a) - (c). (+ kurai (DBJG: 212-13))

154 kurai

3. Kurai with a negative predicate expresses a superlative, as in KS(c) cind Exs.(d) - (f). KS(C), for example, can be restated as (1).

(1) LLlf f l -2 hti%.l< %25-;ik&, (Mr. Yamada is the most forgetful.)

4. Kurai expresses the idea of 'at least,' as in KS(D) and Ex.(g). X kurai in this use implies that the degree of a state is such that one cannot expect much more than X from that state.

5. S no wa X kurai no mono da expresses the idea that the speaker cannot think of anyone or anything else but X that meets the description in S. In other words, X meets the description in S to the highest degree among those the speaker can think of. (See KS(E) and Ex.(h).)

6. V1 kurai nara V2 hb ga mashi da expresses the idea that one would rather V2 than V1. (This structure literally means that if the speaker's situation is such that he might V1, it would be better for him to Vz.) (See KS(F) and Ex.(i).)

Kurai as used in KS(A) - (C) can be replaced by hod0 without changing meaning.

Kurai as used in KS(D) - (F) cannot be replaced by hodo.

kuse ni 155

contempt, anger, or dis- agreement about s.o.'s action, be-

+Key Sentences

although; in spite of the fact that; and yet; but e el. ni mo kakawarazu; noni]

(Although Mr. Yamada is Japanese, he doesn't know many kanji.)

(In spite of the fact that Yamauchi knows a lot about it, he doesn't tell me anything.)

Topic (subject) +*it, LII'YC;~:

(the same as relative clause connection rules)

( i )

(ii)

(iii)

Subordinate Clause

a<w=+r\a I t ri:

N@<*C:

8b < +? C: (Although - is a child)

{V I Adj(i)]inf t *C:

1&&6 / tb%I:l < el: (Although - can I could) * )7

I8$b. / $5&7 I: I < * C: (Although - is I was weak)

Adj(na)stem { 's / R 9 I: I t i:

{?$'s / T;%I?9 7:) < (Although - is I was bad at st .)

Main Clause

%a$ki-c c f i a b l .

1 56 kuse ni

d h i:b~*<*W

qmkyn09 < *c:&ijbbd. 0 $ % ~ T b G 0 (Although he is a college student, all he does is read comics.)

g+cA3Ey&09 < + ? i : % b w > 3 7 k : & ~ T b G ~ (Although Yoshiko is still a student, she lives in an expensive condominium.) i:d L P&EIGAT+I's < *i?& T C X 2 Lk752a0 (Takashi is a bad (tennis) player, and yet he wants to play with me.)

~i&b < ~ G : & & - F ~ a d;.

(You are afraid. Don't pretend to be strong.)

$&GA&$Q a b 1 < Q G : R ~ B $ L L ~ - c ~ ~ ~ .

(Takao doesn't have money, and yet he wants a foreign car.)

% ~ ~ A % I A $ L ~ ~ T Q $ & % Q LI'sd.9k <+?I: , $~752&$ka97&$ ?in3 6 b . t

b:,%.G:gB752k < 2-3 l:, (Before (the time I became a division chief), Yoshida never greeted me when he saw me, but he suddenly became friendly when I became a division chief.)

%'d z~!%%bf?~r: <+?i:x$~'sg%$ < eo (Don't talk big! You were only a trainee until yesterday!)

1. Kuse ni is used only when the main clause and the subordinate clause share the same subject. Thus, in the following sentence, kuse ni cannot be used.

kuse ni 157

2. Kuse ni is not used when the subject is the first person. In the following, kuse ni cannot be used.

(2) *%LCi EI*Aa, < QC: 8 * o ~ & f l & k ~ b ~ , (Acceptable forms: %LC& 8 *A {&UlC: / C:.t fi37Y9 % TI 8 $ a,B%fl-.) (Although I am Japanese, I cannot sing the Japanese national anthem.)

3. In conversation, main clauses often drop, as in (3) and (4).

(3) m7'2, N & % ! b 2 b ~ < ecc, (Come on! You don't know anything! (So, keep your mouth shut!))

(4) 3 6 , ao<t+c:, (Gee, aren't you a man! (You are so sissy!))

(Related Expressions]

I. Noni is similar to kuse ni. In fact, noni can replace kuse ni in KS(A), (B) and Exs.(a) - (f). Noni, however, does not express the speaker's emotion as strongly as kuse ni. Thus, noni is not suitable in contexts as Ex.(g), (3), and (4), where the speaker swears at the hearer. In addition, the restrictions in Notes 1 and 2 do not apply to noni.

(+noni1 (DBJG: 331-35))

11. Ni rno kakawarazu expresses an idea similar to noni and kuse ni. How- ever, ni rno kakawarazu is a highly formal and bookish expression and it expresses no emotion. Therefore, it cannot be used in highly emotive situations as in Ex.(g), (3), and (4). Note that the formation rules are different from those of kuse ni, as in [I].

I & % & /Yi%kI KbjS1jS1;hby (inspiteof the fact that s.0. can / could)

{&b~/&jS137':1 G:&jS1;3.;f?bT (inspiteofthe fact that s.t. is I was expensive)

1 58 kuse ni

(ii) {Adj(na)stemlN) {0/??9f:) G-h7l1&bbf

made mo nai 159

not necessary (to bother) to; do not need (to go as far as) to; do not have to [REL. hitsuy6 wa nai; hod0 no

koto mo nai; ni wa oyobanai]

+Key Sentences

(A)

%T b -r*. b Q b' (not necessary (to bother) to talk)

(a) f $ f l & ~ a l : & % ~ ; t . ~ 1 : D ~ & ~ 5 2 T b a b ~ , (It goes without saying that he was respected by everybody.)

- - - - - - 3

,LkL I f \ , L

- ~ a & j ~ a & t z - n ~ ~ ; z t & ~

(b) % L I ~ % $ C ~ ~ I I ~ ~ ~ ; ~ ~ ~ : ~ S " ; ~ S ; ~ F { + < a - r - b a b l T L ~ 5 . (It is not important business, so it is probably not necessary for you to (take the trouble to) get there.)

=w -

(B)

(Needless to say, George Washington was the first president of the United States.)

(This is a simple calculation, so it is not necessary (to bother) to use a calculator.)

Vinf . nonpast

G~ ~ T ~ Q ~ ~ ~

(c) jybfk?&$& z ~TT&~%&LT& < gT%h !I %*Ao (We can find out when we get there, so we don't need to call and about it.)

ask

(Needless to say (now), Prof. Yamanaka is a leading figure in this field.)

(el +;kck%%iita2t:?c.trs<8c;;31arkfzo (It is so obvious that no explanation is necessary.)

( f ) &.=,3'r;t a < S~&dbr;fi~-c~ fZo

(My wife came back from shopping without my having to wait for her.) - - - - - - - = = - - - - - - - zM= - The adverbial form made mo naku is also frequently used. (See KS(B), - - - - == -- -- - -- -- Exs.(e) and (f).)


I. HitsuyO wa nai is similar to made mo nai in meaning. However, the former lacks the sense of going as far as to do s.t. 01 bothering to do s.t.

[I] ~ ; k d k ~ % Q ~ t % f ? $ b 8 f - % # ~ ~ i %CZQL\, (This is a simple calculation, so it is not necessary to use a calculator.)

In addition, no hitsuy6 wa nai can be preceded by a noun, as in [2].

[21 r o ~ x I- 4 ~c&%(DBBM~L\, (No reservation is necessary at this restaurant.)

II. Hodo no koto mo nai and ni wa oyobanai are very similar to made mo nai except that ni wa oyobanai is usually not used in the adverbial form

made mo nai / mai 161

~i wa oyobanai can be preceded by a noun, as in [5] and [6].

(51 s x l : t i R ~ . ' 3 ~ t ~ , (You don't need to thank me.)

No wa iu made mo nai 'It goes without saying that -' and iu made mo naku 'needless to say' are idiomatic phrases; there are no substitute phrases for these expressions.

. . . .~ - .~ ~~

an auxiliary which expresses the will not; will probably not; be speaker's negative volition or con- probably not jecture

+ ~ e ~ Sentences

Vinf. nonpast

I (I will not ask any more favors of Hashimoto.) I

162 mai

I I \

(Probably no one will notice this.) .

(B)

I I

(There probably won't be many participants.)

I I

(This teaching method is probably not very effective.)

--- \

3 L l , zfi i&& {$&&-Js

Vinf. nonpast

&<

(I have a feeling that this is some kind of mistake. (lit. Is this not some kind of mistake?))

( i ) Vinf. nonpast 5 L 1

&a

f+ < 3 L ((I) will not go; probably won't go)

T I ~ & & ~ L \ z ~ c & % W I

%i? 6 b b \ ((I) will not teach; probably won't teach)

Noun

(ii) Adj(13stem < [Ad? b b b l

< l i & b b l (s.t. is probably not expensive)

@&T l i d? b b b l (s.t. is probably not quiet) CLCL, % & T I & & a 2 b l (s.o. is probably not a teacher)

am= 9 6 -

(a) y $ a > l f - ? 4 - K l i $ 5 47 < 2 bl ,

(I will not go to Kiyoshi's parties any more.) f *

@) g&j7z 5 a b l & z - 3 k o (I couldn't decide whether I should go to Japan or not.)

(c) %Eli&%%O%5 L k $ & < 3 b l o

(He probably won't listen to anyone.) b.lhhbh

(d) +;kii+&a ~ 3 & & 3 i d ? 6 a bl , (It is probably not necessary for us now.)

d%;i PWi- (e) za>kBIiLa>~@O~&i: l i?hi~?%~ < l i & & able

(This problem is probably not very difficult for these students.)

(f) -j' a -:/j'j5ft ~ # 8 & ~ - 3 ~ b ~ 6 0 ~ I i & 6 a b l & ,

(I have a feeling that George knows the truth.)

mm 1. Mai is basically a written form. It is usually used in formal writing.

(e dafi (DBJG: 1 0 W 2 ) ; mash6 (DBJG: 240-43))

2. For Gr. 2 verbs, Vmasu is occasionally used instead of Vinf.nonpast. For irregular verbs, sumai and komai are sometimes used instead of sunimai and kurumai, respectively.

(1) {Ed& $ 5 %&%JIRQL\. (He probably won't teach English any more.)

164 mai

(2) ?i%k+/vaz t G ~ T ~ L \ ~ (She probably won't do such a thing.)

I lw i: ? - (3) z / v a @ % G k - E t % % ~ \ ~

(Such an opportunity probably won't recur (lit. come again).)

3. Vinf.nonpast mai expresses the speaker's negative volition. Like vvol, mai does not have a past form. The past tense is expressed by other verbs, as in (4) - (5).

9 6 (4) %a)lf-Y4-C:Gk&jfi<bL\k.F,~I:, (cf.Ex.(a))

(I decided (lit. thought) that I would not go to Kiyoshi's parties any more.)

(5) & i % $ ~ z ~ k M & S G t ~ \ k ~ i ~ k : & & f : , (cf. KS(A)) (I am determined not to ask any more favors of Hashimoto.)

- - - - - = = (e - y6 to omou (DBJG: 569-71)) :ME - - - - - - - - -- -- -- 4. The volition of someone other than the speaker can be expressed by

mai, as in (6). l j b t :

(6) %7-Gki&Qlf-Y.r -Ktk& ifi< %L\~,F,QI:, (Keiko decided (lit. thought) that she would not go to Kiyoshi's parties any more.)

Note that to omou 'think that' is used to express the volition of someone other than the speaker. Thus, (7) expresses the speaker's conjecture rather than Keiko's volition.

(7) %7-CMmlf-7 4 -KGk & j 4T< t L l 0 (Keiko probably won't go to Kiyoshi's parties any more.)

5. Vinf .nonpast mai to suru expresses the idea of "try not to V."

(8) a i a p ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 772$x5 j t L ~ Z , ~ i m 5 n ( a ) e ~ \ t : L T ~ ~ ) Y c : B { W/UIZ, (He tried to take my bag, but I held it tightly under my arm, trying to keep it from being taken.)

(& minr (DB JG: 246-4711

ma; / masaka 1 65

When this structure is used in a subordinate clause, sum is often omitted, as in (9).

(9) $ ~ m 3 w 6 l ~ ~ \ k % % 9 ? : ~ (I hung in there, trying not to lose (the game).)

6. Vvol ka Vinf.nonpast ma; ka expresses the idea "whether ( I ) will V or not," as in Ex.(b).

7. When ma; expresses the speaker's conjecture, its meaning is similar to nai dare. Mai, however, is more formal.

8. Because mai is seldom used in conversational Japanese, ja (the contracted form of de wa) am ma; rarely occurs.

masaka d P ?Y a d ~ .

I an adverb that indicates the speak- ( incredible; never thought; er's strong belief that s.t. is not ex- never dreamed; surely not; im-

possible; don't tell me that -; not at all likely; absolutely not

+ ~ e y Sentences

(A)

I (1 never dreamed that Michiko would many that kind of a guy.) I

166 masaka

(C)

(Surely he won't show up on such a cold day !)

(Lately I haven't heard from my father, but God forbid that he might be ill.)

1 (A: I heard that an old man of 70 entered a high school. B: Incredible!) 1

3 3 2 3 a & a k i 2 { E b c d ~ Q f : / % k T 6 k & d ~ - 3 f : ) o ({I didn't believe 1 I never thought} that it would snow.)

masaka 167

L A'?

j SiS'aJJ icg7Fp$&liTiSfab10 (It is not at all likely that it will snow in April.)

3 S il>l C2 I% & 3 b lo (Don't tell me it's going to snow.)

(I never thought that I would be involved in a traffic accident.) -

L 155 L I t L 1.3% k'

(b) a S ~ ~ E I & ~ % K - E T , ~ X & & & k iis$,5-c % b)a$9f:o

- - - - - - - = = - - - =ME - ez es - - -

(I never dreamed that I could pass the bar examination on my first attempt.)

(el a s is 'd i /vab l~.>Xi5 'n~&-a /v-cdizi (Don't tell me a good person like that killed someone.)

i: 12L - *Lev (f) $S&$~FB$&~)%&G:~& k ~ i % ; i ~ % ~ t h f i ~ f : ~

(I never thought that he would become a Japanese language teacher.) b,

(g) $Sfi&OA7F?-,LGZ k B Z i C i4C iGb lTLb0 (It's not at all likely that she has said such a thing!)

01) % i Z s a ~ ~ i ~ b b , ~ ~ f i % ~ i ~ t z & a b l , (Since it is May it is very unlikely that it will snow.)

Ifli I:@+ W L 4*i (i) tjttn IE . e c 6 6 , -i e & W a ) e n 2 i ? 8 % t a s i t c r a ~ \ ( %b,o

(Because my mother is in the hospital right now, it is impossible to expect her to attend my wedding.)

(Smith has studied Japanese for only one year, but he is fluent, you know.)

B: 3 3 6 (Impossible!) - 1. The adverb masaka is used to express the speaker's strong belief that an

action or a state is not expected to become or to have become a reality. The action or the state is usually s.t. that is not desirable for the speaker, but not always. Take Ex.(b), for example: no doubt it was a very desirable thing for the speaker to have passed the bar examination on his first attempt. The adverb masaka simply emphasizes that he did not expect to pass it.

2. The final predicate is either a thinking verb, a conjecture expression dar6, or an expectation expression ham, (wake ni wa iku) mai, and all take a negative form, as shown in Formation.

3. As shown in KS(E) and Ex.(j), masaka can be used by itself as an exclamation meaning 'incredible!' or 'impossible!'

4. There is a set phrase masaka no toki, meaning 'the time of need.'

(1) s s tPnGi:&!kTj+%?? ~ T $ 5 b ~ k % % ~ b \ 1 (You'd better provide against the time of need.)

elated ~x~ression]

The adverb yomoya can express the same idea as masaka. The difference between the two is that yomoya cannot be used as an exclamation.

[I] A: -f;fa)% C b ) l A;3'&@G:A7 k A I Z 7 TO

masaka / mashida 1 69

Except for the two examples above, all the uses of masaka in KS and Exs. can be rephrased with yomoya.

mashida % L f: adj. (na)

I S.O. I s.t. (or some situation) is not satisfactory it is better than s.0. /

- - - - - - - - - - -

better; less objectionable; pre- ---- ferable; might as well - [REL. i i]

+Key Sentences

1 (If this is the salary, it would be better to quit.) I

1 (This new Japanese teacher is much better than the former teacher.) I

170 mashida

(C)

(Isn't there coffee that's a bit better?)

z & Q E p c : z , < L;b>GL;, && Lpfj -h 'a LIZ, (I might as well work as enter such a college.)

m & ~ b ~ Z & T i f < bblts b , & / v ~ % f l a L E O (It is better to die than to lead such a life.)

!$$$+&< < t , b l ~ t , & ~ L Y T & $ T ~ ~ ~ : * ; S ' ~ LI:, (It's better to watch TV at home rather than going to school.)

z ~ ~ a $ % > z - g & Q b:$&&<tsb>3-h'b>!,l0 (It's better not to eat anything rather than eating such an untasteful meal.)

& @ L X F 7 > d ; V Z @ L X F 7 > @ 3 7 F 5 L E 0 (This restaurant is better than that restaurant over there.)

t i l r i z ~@@b$ib>TT-h ' , R%DW.l V 2 L T T k (Summer here is hot, too, but it's better than summer in Tokyo.)

%DF~ 2 r b & > i j ~ , ga, d; "I L E ~ (My car is also very old, but it is better than yours.) l w i o ~ i I: $ h i &

$ $ $ 4 t i I Z H T b , 2 b l . l V a LIZ, (Although the salary is just 20,000 yen it's better than nothing.)

h f ; L m i &hEb~t:S9-r - r 6 ~ a , @ ~ : i h : b y 9 2 a L T T L . (You say your house is small, but it is much better than our house, you know.)

b ~ t sXP$~: t s6? 2 % 9 ~ ? r l / l a ~ ~ (1 am thinking of becoming a slightly better person.)

mashida / mata wa 1 71

a- Mashi is an AdXna) which is used to indicate that s.t. / s . ~ . or a situation is better than SS. / S.0. else Or another situation even though it / he / she is not

As for the use of mashida, it is exactly like any other Adj(na).


Mashida in all KS and Exs. can be replaced by ii, but the former always implies that S.O. or s.t. is not satisfactory but better, whereas the latter simply means that s.0. or s.t. is better.

mata wa % f z lb conj. <w>

or; either - or - choices or possibilities expressed [REL. - ka -; - ka - ka dochi- [ raka; soretomo]

172 mata wa

+Key Sentences

(A)

(Please pay either in cash or by check.)

I (Select either A or B.) 7

(B)

Noun

A

(I guess that either I misheard the phone number or this number (lit. phone) is no longer in use.) 1

Sinf

( i ) N (&), a I : l i N 1: Ifh, - El $& (d.), 3 I: h i % & (either Japanese or English)

( f i ) ,

Sinf

(ii) Sinf f i , b I: ti Sinf

ggg f? & < f i , b 7: Ck Z% 4 f 6 (either write a letter or make a phone call)

< h *h:

(a) %(75), b I : t i 8 0 S - ) k d ~ 4 @ 9 ~ ~ 3 b ~ o (Please use a black or blue ball-point pen.)

at:ti

Noun

B ort;r;fi

- 4%7~+723~>,

mata wa 173

s-LDLk, d. B r i i l Dl< + h i & r. d. l f l b &

&$L%-F0?%4 @(7!P), 3 7'zdkEi 7 S i = J H T 0 ~ & , /

(Irn~risonment up to three years or a penalty up to one million yen.) 8% rb, S r i L

g ~ i & i k * & t i 7 ! ~ 6 , & F $ J - x Q & ~ ~ ! P , ~ I ~ G L S E g ~ ~ g - j - ~ ' J > O

(1 have to work during the day, so I have no choice but to take a night course or look for a tutor.) ~ : ~ a i b a L b i b t L D L r ;~EIR~C:& L ~ ~ C W D F ~ W ~ I ~ ~ ~ c : & ~ ~ - c ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ , +~cmg+-hra

b f W i V L S r < ~S;kl:~, 3 7':dk@ff ~7$7$;i1:07'?6 5 (A letter that I assumed was mailed two weeks ago has not reached the addressee yet. It is probably that my secretary forgot to mail it or that the post office made a mistake.)

am When mata wa connects two noun phrases, ka after the first noun phrase is optional, as in KS(A), (B), Exs.(a) and @).

[Related ~xpressionsl

I. Soretomo is similar to mata wa in that it connects two possibilities, as in [I].

[I] S % t 3 B M 3 B k I z 7 ! P , {&?-kt / tht&l B 5 L a Z B i k 4 $ 5 k ~ ; k T b > h b a 0 7 ' ? 6 5 . (=KS(C))

However, soretomo can connect questions whereas mata wa cannot.

121 &&33?F7!Po {?ht% /*%t:ibl, h$?&T63 3%7!P, (Will you go by car? Or will you go by plane?)

( 6 soretomo (DBJG: 421-22))

11. N (ka) mata wa N can be paraphrased as N ka N, as in 131 and [4]. N ka N is more informal.

131 33% {(fi5), 3 / fi51 /J\.L%I%Tk;$Lb17;S b10 (=KS(A))

[4] P {(fi5), %f:lb/ a>,,) R a > 6 - 1 ~ f i ' J B @ ~ T 7 ; S b 1 ~ (=&.(a)) ( d kal (DBJG: 164-66))

174 mata wa / -me

Ia. Sinf ka, mata wa Sinf can be paraphrased as Sinf ka Sinf ka, dochi-

raka . . ., as in [51 and [61.

a suffix which represents an ordi- ( -th; -th one

+Key Sentences

( (My car is the second one from the right.) 1

Starting Point bt:L ( b b

I (It is in the third drawer from the top.) I

Number + Counter c t:r. - A -n

?;kik

8 T-$,

Starting Pt. Number + Counter k?

E3 i 5. 1 $6 kl 0

Noun

f l 3 & ~ K ~ ~ T ~ ~ ~ P ~ /

- r ~ m b e r + Counter €I

(the fourth (person)) - ~ * 6 i + 3 / . 4 r , f i

,) m;pasitma.c:M~, %%cZXeDXr0 (Mr. Yamamoto is the person third from the left in the second row.)

(b) -Fa ~~EE~Lc, (I failed the first time.)

I: 13 h, 2 : t L Z h L

(c) Z O H $ % Y ~ Y ~ L \ ~ & ~ ~ T Z P : ~ C : & & , (This Japanese program is in its fifth year (this year).)

(d) ~ ~ ~ ~ l ; i a f # ~ ~ j s ' z ~ ~ ~ i : ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ : ~ b a t o (From the fifth week on Mr. Hayashi will teach this class.)

y&$ ACi2gB (Miss Ueno will perform first.)

r. 6 (f) A: +Dlf4 7i- 11 2 1&& ~ - 3 % ~

(How many violins have you used so far?) 5 (

B: f;QBT$,

(The present one is my sixth.)

1. -me in this use is always preceded by a number and a counter.

2. The counter -tsu changes to -ban for numbers larger than nine, as in (1).

(1) . . . , L a , '27~~ +%€I, +-%a, . . . (. . . , eighth, ninth, tenth, eleventh, . . .)

-men / miseru 177

(el f iZ I i g&,&, &gj&jl&% { & ,,>b>o

(She does not need to worry about language (lit. the aspect of lan- page) when she goes to Japan.)

(11 +b.mi kd. Orid.

(f) ~o>Sl;tlW&@Q& < 8QS;kf: , (This car was highly regarded in terms of performance.)

a- 1. -men is typically followed by the case particles de, ni, and kara, and the

topic marker wa. Wa may appear alone or with other case particles (e.g., KS and Ex.(e)) with the exception of ga and o.

2. Men can also be used as an independent noun and has the same meaning as the suffix -men, as in (1).

IfL $ m i (1) %ED@ i K R C i b ~ 5 b ~ i j o f i T & ~ . ~ 8 Q Q % l f ~ ~ 1 6 ~

(His studies have been rated high in various aspects.)

miseru &-I? b am. v (GK 2)

can manage to; will definitely to achieve s.t. for others to see do; am determined to

+ ~ e ~ Sentence

(1 will definitely write a novel and get the Akutagawa Prize.)

178 rniseru

&,4,~hb& (I will definitely read it 1 I will show you how to read it.)

il.r.L? L ? C r i

@liZa>2?tOR EK27 TA-t?&. (I am determined to become the president of this company.) . h t L ~ ~ i i ~ a > ~ \ ' / ~ - ~ , a % ' a > Z ~ E i & ~ - ~ h - t ? a i h ~ (I can manage to marry that handsome guy.) LL as c W f C *A.

r 8~-Va>$Q-@Bn7T%,4,Tk-t?&Q0 (I will definitely read a 300-page book in one hour.)

L e i L 3 L l L

$ ~ Z + G ~ I ~ ~ ~ * C . B ~ ~ E G ~ - ( ~ A ~ ~ . (This year I will definitely finish writing my M.A. thesis.) fib H D r < C r i b . 3 V r i I t L

-gikE% - b )be+ - $>T~!ZT-C&-&~~ (Kazuo managed to run 100 meters in 11 seconds.)

I. Vte rniseru expresses primarily the speaker's strong determination to demonstrate his 1 her ability to accomplish s.t.

2. When miseru retains the literal meaning of 'show' a particular action, the tense of rniseru can be either nonpast or past as shown in (1) and (2) below, but if rniseru does not retain the original meaning, the tense of the verb cannot be past, as shown in (3) and (4) below.

(1) ~ L G ~ + o ~ ~ Q % ~ T & ~ ; ~ c z L - c ~ ~ T ~ , (I drank up the sake in one breath for others to see.)

(2) -%Gi.B%- b)bQl--$>Tj!Z~-Ckek~ (=Ex.(e))

(3) *#diEa>%?ka>$*EC:G3Tke% L k 0 (cf. Ex.(a))

3. Since Vte rniseru expresses the speaker's own determination to do something, the subject can be neither the second person nor the third person.

miseru l mo 179

(5) *~o>I=?fo>?tEC:ts~~k~dTj5~, (Are you determined to become the president of this company?)

(5') * ~ ~ S A l i ~ o > % ~ k ~ ? f ~ 1 : & ~ T k 4 % t ~ (Mr. Yamada is determined to become the president of the com-

pany.)

(6) ? ? 8 9 - b lb%+-@T%~ Tk-F%t& (Are you determined to run 100 meters in 11 seconds?)

(6') ??X < X S i L l i B 9 - b)Lf?+-$>T%~T&~%-6, (Smith is determined to run 100 meters in 11 seconds.)

The reason why (6) and (6') are better than (5) and (5') is that in the former miseru partially retains the original meaning of 'show' as a volitional verb. In fact, (7) is a good sentence.

(7) 8% - blL%+-@T%7Tk-@T < ;k3-$L7F0 (Won't you show us that you can run 100 meters in 11 seconds?)

mo 5 prt.

else is also (not) the case

+ ~ e ~ Sentences

(A)

also; too; (not) either; (not) even

(Although Mr. Yoshioka is seventy this year, he runs one kilometer every day. He occasionally swims, too.)

I I I

(This book is beneficial and, on top of that, it is also interesting.)

Adj(na)stem

i k ' d ' H b L h

~ o ~ ~ c ~ m B < aka L, $34:

(This movie is not interesting and not particularly educational, either.)

- - - - g ~ g (Dl

(Recently Yuriko does not (even) look at me even if we pass each other in the hall.)

- --

9 b %b,SLhi + ~ ~ $ ~ * i - c i ~ % r ~ i j ~ ~ f ;k%3 T &

( i ) Vmasu 6TQ / 6 Lab> k

S& & f Q (also read)

s:Lk & L fb (do not read, either ; do not even read)

H ( f L 4 L - L &er&1i*&-T& 4 ,

Vmasu

(Mr. Okuda is a lawyer and also a novelist.)

Noun

fi$

6 Labx,

T 6 &Qo

(ii) Adj(17stem < b h 6 / < b a1.1 P t < 6 h 6 (s.t. is also cheap)

< b h+sLl (s.t. is not cheap, either ; s.t. is not even cheap)

4. @& T 6 h 6 (s.t. is also convenient)

@$lJT 6 8 b ) (st. is not convenient, either; s.t. is not even convenient)

%ST b h 6 (so. is also a teacher)

g&T 6 C b1 (s.o. is not a teacher, either ; s.0. is not even a teacher) - (a) $ i f i 9 ~ s $ ~ ~ f $ z ~ f E b l ~ t a ~ ~ ~ 5.

(Apes also laugh if something is funny, right?) / r i / u t i + i h - d .

(I,) ~~tihiw43~1~2~&~f1:ilr', %arif;~i&$a$~~:~ T L-C, k? v & La$9I& (Ken'ichi didn't go home for three days right after their marriage, but Kazuyo didn't cry. She didn't get mad, either.)

(c) dj07/2- t- ~ E ~ T C ~ ~ W L $ < il aha, (That apartment is not convenient and not inexpensive, either.) L w i M i l t L I b . 2 k . r a

(d) EJ B%hiE$lJak, kW9-F % &ao (Excursion tickets are convenient ; on top of that, they are also economical.)

(e) &~stvatv-c%$$~& c~~oc: , Pi L-C-?rLaC: L-c&Vaa0 (Mr. Taguchi is not even a friend. How come you do so much for him?)

(f) % < &CbaOb:, Pi L ~ T t v ~ 6 0 B k i tvT.f$. (Why are you going to buy a thing like that which is not even cheap?)

mm 1. Verbals with mo embedded in them (i.e., Vmasu mo surulshinai,

Adj(13stem ku mo arulnai, {Adj(na)stem / N} de mo arulna0 are used in the following situations.

(1) A is X and A is Y, too, or A is not X and A is not Y, either. (Here, X and Y are different adjectives or nouns.) (e.g., Q(B) (C), Exs.(c) and (d))

(2) A does X and A does Y, too, or A does not do X and A does not do Y, either. (Here, X and Y are different verbs and Y is not accompanied by a noun with the particle ga, o, e, or ni.) (e.g.,

KS(A), Exs.(a) and (b))

When the second verb is accompanied by a noun marked by the particle ga, o, e, or ni, mo marks the noun instead of the verb, as in (3).

(3) a. $R 2 tYti++k+%I?fl, ++uA;k&, %3%&&10 (Ga is replaced by mo.) (Although Mr. Yoshioka is seventy this year, he can run ten kilometers. He can also do judo.)

b. $RSAck++-t;+8I?;5$, @El--+nR&, BWrpok? 3 X &-if & , (0 is replaced by mo.) (Although Mr. Yoshioka is seventy this year, he runs one kilometer every day. He occasionally does aerobics, too.)

C. s n s t ~ c t + ? + + g r . . $ , @ s - + u s a , Q ~ Y 4 IC=/f i l &%&o

(Although Mr. Yoshioka is seventy this year, he runs one kilometer every day. He occasionally comes to the gym, too.)

Compare the above examples with (4).

(4) 6R$~la+A$&+%I?fl , @ E l - + u ~ & , L!$k ( 7 4 x z W k A k I ~irjv%+a. (Although Mr. Yoshioka is seventy this year, he runs one kilometer every day. He occasionally dances {at discos / with his wife], too.)

Here, the verb is accompanied by a noun marked by de or to. In this case, mo must mark the verb rather than the noun. If mo marks the noun, the discourse becomes unacceptable, as in (5).

(5) 6~ 3 /v~;lr++-t;+&~~ifi', @s-+usa, gk I * F ~ xzl T S /*&AI:Sl I&. (Although Mr. Yoshioka is seventy this year, he runs one kilometer every day. He occasionally dances {at discos, too (as well as other places) 1 with his wife, too (as well as other women)] .)

( e m o l (DBJG: 247-50); mo2 (DBJG: 250-53))

2. Mo sometimes appears with no specific reference, as in (6), a typical opening in written correspondence.

I ( 5 f i k (6) &0@? & & f F k ~ & v d Z O Z " ~ T * $ , b > f F i f i ' % & Z " ~ ~ - f

~0

(How are you during cherry blossom season? (lit. Cherry blossom information is also heard these days. How are you?))

In this situation, the mo indicates that other things which herald the arrival of spring are implied while the cherry blossom news is being reported.

3. Mo is often used in double negative sentences, which can be paraphrased as nai koto mo nai, as in (7).

b. ti03i z ?~;t;&+r;tb< G ~ L W , % % ~ L & ~ G L > , (=. . . %fFL;&L\;. I:&&L\$, . . .) (It's not that I don't understand what he says; I just can't agree with it.)

(d - mo - mo (this volume; DBJG: 255-57))

a structure which expresses the be enough tolfor; if - at leas+. -3

idea that a certain amount of s.t. is if - as muchlmany as -, it will be enough to

+Key Sentence

I I I I

(Three hours are enough to see everything in this art museum. (lit. If you have as many as three hours, you can see everything in this art museum.))

Number + Counter

Number + Counter b Vcond x ILL < 5 A b %;kl% (if five people come, it will be enough to -)

Vcond

C: tLiA x ~ ~ b & - ? r $ + c ~ & v 6 a L ~ d r o (20,000 yen will probably be enough. (lit. If you take as much as 20,000 yen with you, it will probably be sufficient.))

fS. C r i s ; F - I L C ~ ~ 9'-x b & ~ ~ 8 b f h f k ~ k E ~ (As for beer, if we buy two dozen, it will be enough (lit. we will be all right).) L > T Lei d,&

- ~ ~ b t h ~ f ~ d t 6 ~ i k : j b ~ 3 t o (It will take no more than a week until you can walk (lit. until you become able to walk).)

1: B L d w Gus?*. ;h

I, zm b &cf LiW$i%M, (Listening two or three times is I will be sufficient for understanding most of it.)

7

a- - rno - tara can also be used to express this idea, although it is less common.

+Key Sentences

both - and -; neither - nor -; also; (not) either

(A)

Vmasu Vmasu

(Because I have a backache, I can neither stand nor sit still.)

.h*L i f b . (

~ t i # ~ . ~ r l & j $ $ ~ , d ; <

(Loving haiku, I read them a lot and I write them myself (too).)

Vmasu

&A b tz,~ 6 % ~ Vrnasu

7b eta,

(That apartment is neither good nor cheap.)

( (His writings are interesting and also easy to read.) 1

(El = =

Adj(na)stem Adj(na)stem

(Her English is neither particularly good nor bad.)

(F)

tbft,

(He is neither a relative nor a friend.)

( i ) a. Vmasu 6 Vmasu 6 t h / L a b 1

36 6 6 3 6 Jp 6 (both read and write)

36 6 k 3 6 L 2 b (neither read nor write)

b. Vmasu 6 I L / - i f & L / t l ~ l % ) Vmasu 6 9 6

% % 6 ~ L / ~ b L / - i t ; l Z l % l k 3 6 - ( t & (readandalsowrite)

c. Vmasu 6 I @ T / L 2 b l L / LDlfkLtfI Vmasu 6 L Q b l

3 6 6 I @ 4 / L 2 l / l L / L 2 l f l r l l f l 8 3 6 L a b s (donot read and do not write, either)

(ii) a. VN 6 VN 63-6 / L a b 1 b r i o ti C

#F! 6 %!% 6 % 6 (both cook and clean)

$+B 6 %R 6 L Q b l (neither cook nor clean)

b. N 6 I L / J p 6 L / t l ~ l f ) N 6 J p &

$4E 6 { L / -$- 6 L / -b ;k l%l 6 Jp 6 (cook and also clean)

c. N 6 t @ T / L 2 b ' L / L h l f k L l f l N 6 L Q b l

HE6 (11-4 / L Q L ~ L / L 2 d f d ~ l % l R E 6 L2L.l (does not cook and does not clean, either)

(iii) a. Adj(i)stem < 6 Adj(i)stem < 6 h b / 2 b l

i k L L < 6 % ~ < 6 6 6 (bothhappyandsad)

5 fl L < 6 ?LF L < & Q b l (neither happy nor sad)

b. Adj(13stem < 6 I 6 0 / 6 6 L / h h d f l Adj(i)stem < 6 h 6

i f l L < 6 ( $ 1 4 / h b L / h l ~ C % l % L < h h 6 (happy and also sad)

c. Adj(i)stem < 6 I 2 < / Obi L / Q lf l ~ l % l Adj(i)stem < 6 Ql/l

188 - m o - m o

j ; k L < B { h < / h ~ \ L / h l f f ~ C % l % L < G a b \

(not happy and not sad, either)

(iv) a. {Adj(na)stem 1 N} T 6 {Adj(na)stem 1 N) T B h 6 / 2 ^ih. ifw F r ~ r #

@$UT B #$$gi%T B h 6 (both convenient and economical)

@$IT B %&TJT B h b l (neither convenient nor economical)

b. {Adj(na)stemlN}T& {hb / h & L / h ; k C f ) {Adj(na)stem 1 N} T 6 i6 b

@ 8 T B {&Il / h b L / h ; k l f ) %%i%T%bib (convenient and also economical)

c. {Adj(na)stem 1 N} T B 1 h 

@$Or& {h < / h ~ l L / h l f ; k ~ f J %%EITB h b \ (not convenient and not economical, either)

m a ~ . r m a l ; ; w 1 t % ~ 6 i m ~ . (When it comes to German, I can both read it and speak it.)

I r i r ) , LI ti?% Z CSW9IS4E L T d 6 *4? 3 L T ?? 6 +W, t; r i P b l b l ,

(This textbook is not too difficult and not too easy, either; it's just right.)

; ~ ; ' ~ O % P A G M W ! ~ ~ a c f ; k c m ~ g , LGP, (Bob's wife does not cook and does not clean (the house), either.)

6 0 f i r t 0

zo% bcAE3~3 < 6 h l f kLb%%;31 L < B 2 b l o

(This story is not interesting and not funny, either.) % < I : L < L C L

m m a + & k ~ e h ~ , ? + & ~ b h b . (Mr. Okuda is a lawyer and also a novelist.)

if? Br< t, ? o ~ & o & & C ~ & $ ! Bf1b)k LEB~: 6 &'blfij~."$&g%;31b2~7 r; ,

- mo - mo / mono (da) 189

(1 checked the word in the dictionary and also asked my friend, but I didn't get the meaning after dl.)

Dt hPf

(g) & ~ ~ c i s i i ~ b > ~ a ~ / \ > v ~ ~ ~ i t j a j 5 ' , p i &&sG:~~L~L>, p a t man is smart and handsome, too, but I'm unable to like him for some reason.)

a= 1. As the rules in Formation (ii) show, when sum-verbs such as benm-

sum are used in this structure, mo follows the verb stem (i.e., VN) rather than Vmasu (i.e., VN shi), as in (1).

2. As in KS(G), Exs.(f) and (g), when a clause contains a noun other than the topic, mo marks the noun rather than the predicate.

(e - mo - mo (DBJG: 255-57))

mono (da) %a> (ti) n. <w>

(is) that which -; (is) some- create a sentence structure which thing which -; (are) those

which -

190 mono (da)

+Key Sentences

- (Most of the present computers are those which are called (lit. things which are called) the von Neuman model.)

Topic

- (C Company announced an experimental model of an obstacle detector for the blind.)

\ Relative Clause

1 Topic 1 Relative Clause 1 I

Sentencez (cont.)

Relative Clause (cont.)

r%mibka 1 i KLI:

(This device enables (lit. is something which has enabled) blind people to recognize (lit. feel) obstacles ahead of them through stimuli to their skin.)

;to ( T ~ s ) ~ -

mono (da) 1 91

(same as the rules for the relative clauses)

(The content of this book generally applies to any society (lit. is something general which applies to any human society).)

a) (D Company has decided to reduce the price of M-type word-proces- sors by five percent. Their aim is to regain (lit. This is to aim at regain- ing) their recently declining share of the word-processor market.)

(The first meeting of the Study Group for University Entrance Exami- nations was held at a hotel in Tokyo yesterday. This study group was started for the purpose of reviewing the present university entrance examination system which is criticized frequently these days.)

(el za,WEi~&h~&f i~rb%~:&%~fia a, k3 l ; f i 7~~a , (This problem is expected to solve itself when the time comes.)

192 mono (da)

+d.w i A Z drri t< LA IP

(f) r v 3 I-n=3~0&%b&+fdbb~Ba&%B%Cf'ilI/~< botTi$ sika, 'LI

(It is predicted that the world of electronics will continue advancing rapidly from now on, too.) -

Mono (da) is used to change the structure "X wa VP," which describes an action taken by or received by X, to the structure "X wa Np da;

which is used to present a characteristic of X. Compare the two sentences in (1).

(1) a. % G O J ~ V L - P O I ~ ~ A P C & ~ ~ 2. I4~2tt~Jkq~~ ik'il'd~ao (Most of the present computers are called the von Neuman model.)

Here, (la) describes what happens to the referent of the topic (i.e., most of the present computers) while (lb) provides a characteristic of the referent.

Mono (da) as in KS(B), Exs.(c) and (d) frequently appears in newspaper articles. It is used when a sentence provides such information as a purpose, a reason, a cause, or specific information about something introduced in the previous sentence. The copula (e.g., da) after mono is frequently dropped in this usage.

Mono followed by the quotative to, as in KS(C), Exs.(e) and (f), is used in general statements or opinion. This mono could be dropped without a

change in meaning. Note that the copula da does not follow mono in this use.

(+mono (DBJG: 257-61))

&ich is used in informal male How -!; What -!; -!; I wonder; I wish

+Key Sentences

Sinf

(He eats a lot!)

Sinf

I I

(I was so impressed by that (wonderful) movie. (lit. What a wonderful movie, I thought.))

I Sinf / I

/ (I wonder if I can still make it in time.) I

(I wish Kawai would come soon.)

(El

@7F ct57k

(I wish I had a car. (lit. It would be nice if I had a car.))

( i i ) Sinf il.825

&

fi 1/ 1 $1 i'd h (I wonder if it's expensive.)

(iii) Vneg .inf 75. Q &

< kLtbl/)illi'dh (I wish S.O. would give me st.)

(a) 1 v ~ a > % i - n i ~ (get% L ~ C G ~ ,

(I'm surprised that that stingy guy Yoshida gave money.)

(c) &7)&Ll / )Qi f io

(I want a house so badly.)

(d) 383 A , gi Lk%Gl/)&Gifio (I wonder if Mr. Yamauchi is not coming today.)

(4 & $ & & q @ j ~ i 7 k b ) f i 7 k &

(I wonder if there is (lit. isn't) an interesting movie.)

(D &fz, L L ~ Z t c t T r ~ l b a ~ l f i a a .

(I wonder if she will (lit. won't) get mad if I say such a thing.)

P W - x , s a i r : a b a f i o a ,

(I wish the Tigers would win today.)

1. Although it is frequently used by female speakers (particularly, young women), na was originally male speech. The female version of nB and ka na are wa nB and kashira, respectively. The formation rules of wa nB and kashira are as follows.

3 fiblb:& < bh 2 (How beautifully S.O. writes!) - - - -

A - . - . - - - . -

~ b l b h % (It's expensive! I How expensive!) - = N $ - - - . - . - - - - - - - -

b. {Adj(na)stem 1 N] h 2 (={Adj(na)stem 1 N) Ebb 2 ) -rb i )

@$Jh 2 (It's so convenient! /How convenient!)

3 f i b 1 hi? (The stars are beautiful!)

Bd0 7: T 7: b h 2 (It was so convenient!)

3 f i b 1 7kEE 7 7: b h 2 (The stars were so beautiful!)

& < f i L L; (I wonder if s.0. will go.)

G b l f i L b (I wonder if s.t. is expensive.)

Ed0 ( 0 / 7'2 9 7: I f i L b (I wonder if s.t. is I was convenient.)

*LC*,

%!& {0/ i ? ~ 7:) f i L 6 (I wonder if s.0. is / was a teacher,) (a kashira (DBJG: 181-82); wa (DBJG: 520-21))

2. Na expresses such positive feelings as happiness, thankfulness, and admiration and such negative feelings as unhappiness, envy, pity ridicule, and contempt. (3) presents some examples.

3 ;kbl f? 8 h , [Admiration] (It's beautiful! / How beautiful!)

Bi 0 ~ 9 7: 8 h , [Happiness] (It was great! / I t was fun! /What a good time I had!)

Lht , 161

%d;f$-+?%l?8 25, [Thankfulness] (What a lucky person I am! / How lucky I am!)

'& b> 8 h, [Unhappiness] (It's expensive! / How expensive!)

b l b l 8 h l 5 69% L b \ 8 h o [Envy] (I'm envious!)

&4&?8& / f i b b > + 5 m h 0 [Pity] (Poor man!)

.&& 7: 8 h, [Contempt / ridicule] (How silly! / Silly man! / You are silly.)

U . r b \ 8 h 0 [Blame] (How terrible! / It's terrible! / You're terrible!)

3. Na may appear with the quotative marker to, as in KS(B), with such verbs as omou 'think' ; kanjiru 'feel' ; kanshinsuru 'be impressed' ; akireru 'be astonished' ; kinodokuni omou 'feel sorry.' In these situations nB is used by both male and female speakers.

4. Ka na expresses the idea of "I wonder . . .," as in KS(C). (+kana)

5. Nai ka na means either "I wonder. . .," as in Exs.(d) - (f), or '4 wish. . .," as in KS(D) and Ex.&).

na / nado to 197

6. conditional sentences with ii nB, as in KS(E), express the idea "I wish . . ."

7, Sentences with inverted word order are common when nB is used, as seen in (4).

(4) a. % ~ & 3 f z ~ ; t j , ; t j~gt i , (We had a lot of fun in those days.)

b. L < %$&C&, %%X0 (We both worked so hard, didn't we?)

nado to a 2 2 comp. prt. = - - - - - -

(things) like -; - or something an approximate quote of words or like ideas

+Key Sentence

(There are people who say things like Japanese culture is unique, but I don't think so.)

aemB ( i ) {V/Adj(i)}inf ifr rl:

%'a r 2 ((say) s.t. like s.0. talks)

198 nado to

EJ % L; 2 b>O Y 2 ((say) s.t. like s.t. is uninteresting)

$$u (7: / 723 7.) h Y t ((say) s.t. like s.t. is /was convenient) dc(Cbx

?!4z (72 / 729 7:) O Y t ((say) s.t. like S.O. is / was a student)

W h (a) % Z F ~ ~ > ~ P L ; , E I $ + & < G Y ~ ~ > ~ Z ~ ~ ~ S T T ~

(I don't have money, so ideas like going to Japan are just dreams.) L > I - $ ~ A ? ? Lo? _ C F A

(b) & $ I E ~ $ ~ L ~ G Y ~ C ~ Z L > Z - ~ ~ A ~ P L ; , BC--, ~ E ~ S , ~ I L ~ Z L ; ?-jT

. f ; 3 . 0

(I'm not saying you should exercise everyday, but why don't you do it 2 or 3 times a week.)

h* *kt,'

(d) ~->?:%I~AF!$$~TT < &&726 5 ~ ~ k ~ < ~ ~ T ~ ~ b ~ C f ~ b ~ , , (Don't think indulgently things like people will help you when you are in trouble.)

'I*i d'( +%B= ~ $ % i (e) E $ + 2 Y L L L z f J L T k > & ? Y b S A I i , 5 % < E $ O & i % C 3 K

&&&fi t2 Yk~L\f izL-ck~&o (Mr. Kent, who is about to go to Japan to study, is worried about things like whether he will be able to adjust to Japanese life.)

(f) d i - A h j 5 ' B a ) ~ k ~ 3 4 7 * O ; f i ; f i 7 " 7 ? ~ ~ k ~ - > ~ b ~ & L ~ (Everybody is saying something like you are the hope of our club.)

(g) &&LTklZ-$, 7 2 Y k 8 j h & 6 k & & ( S b l , (When I am told that they respect me, I feel embarassed.) -

1. The particle nado to is used to single out an approximate quote of s.0.'~ speech or internal monologue.

2. Usually nado to occurs with an explicitly negative predicate as in Exs.

nado to / nagara(mo) 199

(b) and (d), or with a negative implication, as shown in KS and the rest of the Exs. For example, Ex.(f) sounds positive on the surface, but the speaker is saying the sentence with some sarcasm. The only case where a negative meaning is missing is when nado is with a noun.

(1) a. ~F's/ve&fi"is/vacjSPika L I Z , (People like Mr. Tanaka and Mr. Ogawa showed up.)

b. - + ~ ~ ~ / v s a e 8 h e a ~ f i , (I ate stuff like sushi and tempura.)

(d nado (DBJG: 267-68))

3. When N of N nado is a person it means humbleness if it is the first person pronoun, as shown in (2a); if not, it is a derogatory or downgrading comment, as shown in (2b) and (2c).

- b. & $ ~ * ~ l : z o ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ $ j . ; 3 . & C ; ~ T ~ S P ~ L \ ,

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - =N: -

(There is no reason to believe that Mr. Suzuki, of all people, could understand this problem.) e b L 1 Z

c. &IF&?', & e f b k \ d ; ,

(Stuff like raw eggs, I won't eat, you know.)

nagarqmo) QfF% ( 6 ) conj. <w>

although; even though; never- normally in written Japanese with theless

[REL. ga; keredo(m0); nonil

+ ~ e ~ Sentences

(A)

(Although his room is small, it is comfortable.)

Vmasu

I I I

(Yamaguchi kept silent, although he knew about the matter.)

2-n'~; ( 6 ) (although S.O. says -) h

%$3 T b ( 6 ) (although S.O. understands s.t. / s.o.)

( i i ) {Adj(i)inf / Adj(na)stem 1 N) h$L; ( b ) HH

A 3 b l h 2' 1; ( 6 ) (although s.t. is big) L I R+h$ 1; ( b ) (although s.t. / S.O. is quiet)

+&$ 2 2~ 1; ( 6 ) (although S.O. is a child)

mwms D t hi,,

(a) Wa>At;li2?bll'b$L; ( b ) , hA~hA%#I?, (He is young, but he is very capable.)

(b) %&o>- t r ' ~ t;li&!Lb>8$1; ( b ) % & k ~6-n'8$31:, (Although my professor's seminar was tough, I learned a lot from it.)

53j.d.9 (Becky's Japanese is halting, but I was able to figure out what she had

to say.) ( a * t < < i 3

(dl ;olia;i.lm-e ( 6 ) . o h m < , a%$e i i b e 0

(This area is inconvenient, but there is little traffic and the air is clean.) C h h h h L f: H h d r < d % ~

(4 y%+wb, m ~ o i f ~ g i : & e f ~ r ~ , (To my regret, I cannot go to tomorrow's concert.)

(I) ~ l td i id f l#?2d 'b (1 ) , .L <*%%?lo%~i. (Hitomi is just a child, but she says things very carefully (lit. after thinking hard).)

(g) :o@i$J&$b ( 6 ) .L <&lo

(This car runs well, although it is such a small car.) f=hLh 6. l:h

(h) ~ [ * o ~ m ~ o - ~ j 11 - ~ ; / I & L ~ G ~ L ; (61, 2&~j:h~?&l -Cb>&O (Japanese white-collar workers who have to leave their families behind

- for work transfers work for the company even though their lives are hard.)

&) s#'~;tf: < ~ A % ~ k 9 ? b ~ G $ b ( 6 ) , $ L & & , L ~ b l G b l , (My younger brother has bought many books, but he has not read any of them.) p nh r

(1) 4&eilqE& E[$-%T9-clJ>G$b(&), E I * % $ $ L & & ? G ~ > ~ (Although he has been to Japan many times he cannot speak Japanese at all.)

mlm 1. The disjunctive conjunction nagara(mo) is a subordinate conjunction

that is used to express the meaning of 'although' by combining two sentences.

2. The conjunction is normally used in written or formal, spoken Japanese.

3. When nagara is used as a disjunctive conjunction, the disjunctive meaning is emphasized if mo is used. There are cases where nagara and nagararno are used as a temporal 'while' and the disjunctive 'although,' respectively, as shown in (la) and (lb).

(1) a. 4&l&@;kQfif% r"2 I. )ba);l S%%flZ 5 k L k o (As he fell down, he tried to pull the pistol trigger.)

b. ~ & l 2 @ k L Q f ~ ~ % 6 r " X I.)ba)3lS&B3lZ 5 2 L k 0 (Although he fell down, he tried to pull the pistol trigger.)

(+ nagara (DBJG: 269-70))

4. Probably because zannen nagara 'to one's regret' in Ex.(e) is an idiomatic phrase, mo cannot be attached to it.

The crucial differences between nagara(mo), on one. hand and ga, keredo (mo), noni, on the other hand, are: first, the latter can be used in both spoken and written Japanese, whereas the former is normally used only in written or formal spoken Japanese, 'and secondly, the latter has no restriction on the choice of the subject, but the former normally takes the third person as the subject, apparently because it is usually employed to give the speaker's observation of, or opinion about, a third person. Thus, Ex.(l) cannot take the first nor the second person pronouns.

b. {@/&a7':/@1 i2B$-mEhqT;iTb>& {tJf/Lth2/@ I:}, El$.;gF$L $ % - e h ~ / > ~

(+ ga (DBJG: 120-23); keredo(mo) (DBJG: 187-88); noni (DBJG: 331-35))

However, there are cases in which the first person is used as in Exs.(e) and

(j).

-nai koto rno/wa nai 203

it isn't the case that - not -; it make a conditional affirmative is not that - not - statement [REL. koto wa]

+Key Sentences

1 (Don't you read Japanese newspapers?) I

(I do read them, but very rarely. (lit. It isn't the case that I don't read them, but very rarely.))

8 ( 2 z k ( 6 /, [A } C b l (s.t. is expensive I high, but -)

(a) A: z o$IA$$$ L < G ~ ~ L T T + ~ (Isn't it cool around here during the summer?)

204 -nai koto rnolwa nai

B:

(b) A:

B:

- - - - - - - - (d) A:

= - - S N I = - - - - 7

t l P 3 we, j g , ~ < a b l z t : e a ~ l / v ~ w , ~ ~ ~ l r < $ i < a ~ 1 2 - d - ~ (Yes, it is cool, but sometimes it gets terribly hot.)

k;~s~~&&$.~Ta~>~~-g-gO (Isn't your father in good health?)

I fVbr? t: " C ~ a b l Z k 1 2 7 ' s b l A T t f l , ltl.Efl$L'&b>k j T bl? , zii;m.

-+ 0

(Yes, he is healthy, but his blood pressure is a bit high.)

H*~~CP@L < &I 3 b*AjS1, (Isn't Japanese difficult?)

ltlari ~ ; i , ~ ~ < a ~ l ~ k e a ~ ~ r c r " - w , B * B O B L L I ~ ~ S k L t 3 - C b l 6 k % b > 2 t : k o (Yes, it is difficult, but it seems that the difficulty of Japanese is overemphasized.) ai r +?L, c dc( LI

L L I H ~ A C ~ ~ & Y % C ? ~ ~ ~ A T : . . ~ ~ , (Mr. Yamada isn't a political scientist, is he?)

bl?, &fgy%L+Tab~Zkeab~Arcr" t f l , r % b 7 - P k b l 5 k &fg&rcr"-fo (Yes, he is a political scientist, but he is more of a politician.)

(Japanese are said to like group behavior. Certainly, they do behave as a group, but there are quite a few Japanese who behave individually.)

1. The phrase -nai koto rno/wa nai is used when the speaker wants to mildly acknowledge 1 confirm with a proviso that s.0. has just said or written. The phrase is often followed by n(o) dew ga.

2. The phrase expresses a double negative structure that is virtually an affirmative statement.

3. The phrase is an expression of repetition that repeats the same verb, adjective or N + Copula which has just been used in the interlocutor's

-nai koto mo/wa nai 205

question. So, the phrase cannot be used as a discourse-initial sentence. In other words, one cannot start conversation with this phrase. So, for example, in a drinking party situation one cannot utter (1) out of the blue.

Someone must say something like (2) right before (1).

(2) BCi@k3t:b1?iLe&!13-@/v;3'o (I heard that you don't drink sake.)

4. The difference between -nai koto mo nai and -nai koto wa nai is that the former is weaker in assertion than the latter. In KS, yomanai koto wa nai asserts "I do read it" much more strongly than yomanai koto mo nai. - = e elated ~x~ression] - - - - i - s N p -

_3

The predicate phrase -nai koto mo nai and koto wa share the same characteristics of not giving an unconditional statement. But the former is used in response to a negative question, whereas the latter is used in response to an affirmative question. Compare [lA] and [2A] with KS(A) and Ex.(a), respectively.

111 A: EI +mmimima;r a -wO (Do you read Japanese newspapers?)

[2] A: Z o)ZCSZ% L~/\/uT.fd.~ (Is it cool around here during the summer?)

B: ?iTT;ta, I Z L L \ Z t l d Z L L \ T t / *SL< & t \ Z t S & L \ A T b l $, @hvr<g<t : ! la -$ , (It is cool, but sometimes it gets terribly hot.)

(+ koto wa (DBJG: 206-08))

206 nakanaka

nakanaka ah'ah' adv.

speaker's feelings that s.t. is impressive or his annoyance at slow-

+Key Sentences

quite; fairly; considerably; (not) easily; pretty; (not) readily [REL. hijd ni; kanari; kekkd; taj- hen; totemo]

1 ({Mr. Brown is I Mr. Brown, you are} remarkably good at Japanese.) 1 1: IIL Z

1~3>3LktEl$&F

- - - - - . - . - . - q,J; -

. - - (B) - - -

Adv.

:a>&bf%U. tbiPG61 $$E & L $ - C & & ~

1 (This flower arrangement is done quite nicely,) I

tb iPc$

(It will be a long time before the cherry blossoms are out this year. (lit. This year the cherry blossoms do not bloom easily.))

Adj. L r i T

LPTb

-

its,

nakanaka 207

r (That guy does his job quite well, doesn't he?)

(The wife of our departmental chief Yamada is quite a beauty.)

( i ) h il. h d. Adj(i l na)aff

h $2 (quite interesting)

h 75 2 $8$~ f? (quite convenient)

(ii) hitrb2$Vaff

2 & 2 dl? (s.o. performs s.t. quite well)

(iii) 8 $ h 6 Vneg

B j5. h db%j(r. CJ 2 b> (cannot understand s.t. easily)

(iv) 2 $0 $1 Adv. ha

2 $2 dlkFl:~if-F (s.o. speaks quite well)

(a) z 0 8 b i i t i 2 d ~ t c ~ ~ ~ i t b > ~ - ~ h ,

(This garden is quite beautiful, isn't it?)

208 nakanaka

t r< &lri?W Z D & D P ~ ~ E L ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ % E + L ~ 5 r.zo (This math problem looks quite difficult, doesn't it?)

(e) ~ O E ~ Z X b b k ~ - - 7 7 ) ~ 1 . ? 2 t i - $ ~ $ j $ <$<. (That pianist plays Mozart quite well.)

p E % h l r L*i (f) T = X C ~ B H L . ; T L-W&DC:, a$a$k+~:e b t b ~ l t v ~ t ~

(I am practicing tennis every day, but I cannot become good at it readily.)

(g) ~ ~ D & f ~ C : a ~ T ~ ~ & f l a $ a ~ ~ & a d ~ 3 7 ' : ~ ~ ~ ~ : ~ 3 ~ ~ ~ 3 r .

- - - - - - - - - (The meeting time long passed, but my friend didn't show up for a long

- - - - - E N g time, so I went home.) - - - - - - -

Lit

(h) & D ~ t i r t v a G : $ % ~ T b , %0$5 Z k f l a d b 2 $ 9 $ b h b l L 5 rz (No matter how hard I try to explain, he doesn't seem to understand me easily.)

(i) k $ i ~ ~ ~ ~ & $ b G ~ ~ D T , E Q T ~ ~ & LT-F~ (I'm having a difficult time, because my cold won't go away easily.)

(j) 7 ~ & $ < T , t s $ t s t & ~ b t ~ ; t r b ~ t v ~ ~ (I am scared of blowfish and cannot eat it easily.) ad+5Q/rttw

(k) ~ ~ Q % ! & k a d ~ a $ ~ + & & % & r . f (Mr. Nakamura is a teacher who (lit. can talk with us) can understand US.)

C c h L t l + (1) ~ D ) L - L , ~ - P Cifb$fb$(D)@ $&%T, $a;htbbl ,

(My roommate is such a hard worker that I cannot compete with him.)

nakanaka 209

1. Nakanaka modifies only adjectives with positive meanings. Thus, nakanaka in the following examples is unacceptable.

(3) za)Y=xc& It76 l * & t J ~ & f P I % ~ h , (Your tennis is quite bad, isn't it?)

2. When nakanaka occurs with the negative form of a verb it indicates the difficulty or slowness with which s.t. desirable reaches its realization, as shown in KS(C) and Exs.(f) - (j).

3. There are cases in which the affirmative form of a verb can be used as shown in KS(D) and Ex.&). Notice that in these cases one could say that the adverb yoku is understood. The deletion of yoku appears to be allowed when it is followed by a verb that already includes the meaning of 'well' like dekiru of KS(D) or hanaseru of Ex.&). So, if a verb doesn't include the meaning of 'well', yoku cannot be omitted.

(5) Z O & & & % P & I & < /*#I &~f-m&, (This picture is well painted.)

4. It is not the case that any N can follow nakanaka; only those nouns that include the idea of an adjective or adverb can be used with nakanaka. For example, bijin in KS(E) and benkyd-ka in Ex.(l) come from utsukushii hito 'a beautiful woman' and yoku benkydsuru hito 'a person who studies well.' Even the loan word purei-bdi can be used with nakanaka, because it means yoku onna-no-ko to asobu hito 'a person who habitually plays with girls.'

21 0 nakanaka

Nakanaka can be used with adjectives that have of positive meaning and with the negative verb when it implies slowness or difficulty. Observe the following examples which contain six adverbs of degree: nakanaka, totemo,

hvo ni, taihen, kanari, and kekkd.

When nakanaka is used with an affirmative predicate, it can be replaced by the five adverbs: toterno, hvd ni, kanari, taihen, and kekk6. But when nakanaka is used with a negative verb as in [lc], it cannot be replaced by either of the five adverbs. The crucial differences among the five adverbs are shown in [2].

b. &O~ld! . ; f i . l fb :~b~ , I C f 7 L i /fi>&bJ / ? ? 2 7 % / * A 21 & h a m (Despite his appearance, he drinks quite a lot.)

nakanaka / -naku 2 1 1

t i $& fi:g B l c i l L C*i L B ?

c. R ~ i i E l +Z+-LE$&"I { ( t : T 6 / / 2 / * C f 7 : , ; 5 /*JY 7 2 1 ) 1 % h f . , (In Tokyo it was 37 degrees in the daytime, and it was very hot.)

The sentences in [2] show that kekko and kanari indicate a relatively high degree, wheareas, toterno and taihen indicate an absolutely high degree. Kekkd and toterno are more colloquial than kanari and taihen, respectively.

-naku a < inflectional ending <w>

not - and; not - but written Japanese (to indicate a rea- [REL. -zu] son I cause for what follows if nai is attached to Adj(i 1 na) and contrast if it is attached to N + Copula)

+ ~ e ~ Sentences

(The Japanese final examination was not very hard, and I felt relieved.)

(My research area is not modem history, but ancient history.)

( i ) Adj(i)stem < 2 < 3 < Q < (s.t. 1 S.O. is not big and -)

(ii) {Adj(na)stem 1 N} TI&. 2 < L S @+Ti22 < (s.t. 1 S.O. is not quiet and -)

=Tti 2 < (s.o. is not a teacher but -)

e t @0$&,3 I I ~ < a < , $-IT- d?, Z & ~ ; i l . ? h + ~ ~ : , (It wasn't very cold this winter and we wore our overcoats only two or three times.) l o i n f h d ' ll$s~f:@~d&c:3E < a < , #$T&-c ~ 3 ~ 7 : ~ (The movie I saw yesterday was so boring that I went to sleep during it.)

7% x $ L G L ~ & . B $ ? ~ B ~ < Q)j5I$@~C;fa <, A5382 L k O (To listen to Japanese was not easy, and I had quite a difficult time.)

@Zk@&f:8d&.?fii3 &L < 2 < , €!I%+ &%% (I was surprised that I did not feel so sad when I parted with her.)

IL I 1 L C L

$Li~B$$g??&$ji;i-C < fif:a)d&.El$ATG&.h < , 7> 'I i5Af?9f:, (The person who taught me Japanese was not a Japanese but an Amer- ican.)

#hik am;t.s~Y$&~i~a < 9 .r~ae, (What I like is not Japanese cuisine, but Thai cuisine.)

1. Adj(i)stem ku naku and Adj(na) de wa naku are used to express a reason / cause for what follows, as shown in KS(A) and Exs.(a) - (d). But the reason 1 cause there is not stated as precisely as in kara 1 node-clauses, just like the English conjunction "and".

(+ kara3 (DBJG: 179-81); node (DBJG: 328-31))

-naku 21 3

2. The -naku form is used in written Japanese, whereas -nakute can be used in both spoken and written Japanese. However, note that the negative continuative form -naku cannot be used with a verb except when naru

follows the naku form, as shown in (1) and (2).

i%o%$Q { ~ Q t b < ~ / * ~ ~ ~ < l B&LT-$, (Our child doesn't read books and we don't know what to do.)

EXcif4~;&,2 g &a< 7 / * m a % t o

(My husband doesn't drink much, and it's a relief.) (L=> nakute (DBJG: 279-80))

i % o F C S Q % % t b < Q 9 3 Lk, (Our child doesn't read books any more.)

~ A l k @ Q R Q Q < Q b 3 L ~ L , (My husband doesn't drink any more.)

3. If nai is attached to N + Copula, it indicates contrast. But, if a noun is a Sino-Japanese compound ~ i t l l ~ a n adjectival nature, such as akusei

&E) 'malignant,' kdhyd ($f 8 ) 'popularity,' it indicates a reason1 cause for what follows.

(3) a. ~&&FE~WQ < , 129 t L?:, (The tumor wasn't malignant, and I felt relieved.)

b. % ~ l r . . * m m ~ a < , ~ 9 . n ' r) LIZ, (The book I wrote was not popular, and I felt disappointed.)

4. The following chart summarizes the negative and affirmative continuative forms.

- Affirmative Negative

(+ te (DBJG. 464-67); Vmasu)

- The -naku form is connected with an Adj(i l na) or a noun, but it cannot be - - - - - - - - - - - - - - = a = _ - - - connected with a verb except when naru follows the -naku form, as stated in - - -- -

Note 2. However, Vneg zu can be used in written Japanese. Vneg usually takes a potential negative form, except when Vneg means 'without doing

(+ naide (DBJG: 271-73))

H$%D#%@%&T, B9k0 (I was not able to read Japanese newspapers, so I had a difficult time.) C a i L r K'LblfLZJ t l L 5 < K' 1 fE f i & ~ % % T & & f i > b T , WwYi%Gzfi9 ko (I didn't know the address or the telephone number, so I was not able to contact him.) ,hkL L 2 b L @X$QRB~~K&$;~ b h f , $ { ~ f i b > k ,

(I couldn't answer simple questions, so I felt embarassed.)

nandemo 21 5

nandemo HT6 phl:

I don't know for sure, but er's uncertainty about s.t.

+Key Sentence

I I

(I don't know for sure, but they say that Mr. Yamamoto has separated from his wife and lives alone.)

11 61 O t r i fib

me G z o&awmmt t:~r>+ i e-3- L h.

(I don't know for sure, but they say things are expensive in this neighborhood.)

+L f i b , l

r n e ~ ~ o X i a f i e ~ ~ ~ i w : ~ i - e ~ ~ (I don't know for sure, but he appeared to have earned a lot of money through stocks.)

f i w f 

T-3- L o (I don't know for sure, but it seems that Mr. Toda's son received an MBA at the University of Chicago.)

I: ~wwh. - L b& 0 - 3 s bviicl

rne~ b%k7% 1) ~ ~ E ~ ~ B ~ ~ P ~ ~ c ~ ; L ~ T ~ ~ ~ ~ ' ~ ~ B ~ w L T ,,>a (I don't know for sure, but there's some talk that they are developing an airplane that flies between Japan and the west coast of the States in about five hours.)

1. The phrase nanderno indicates the speaker's uncertainty about something. It is used at the beginning of the sentence and the final predicate

2 1 6 nandemo / nanishiro

has to be either a hearsay expression (as in KS, Exs.(a) and (d)) or conjectural expression (as in Exs.(b) and (c)).

2. The sentence remains grammatical without nandemo, but it cannot express the idea of uncertainty.

3. Among the conjectural expressions, dard l deshd cannot be used with nandemo, because the speaker is sure about s.t. more than 50% but less than 100% when he uses nandemo, whereas he is at most 50% sure about s.t. when he uses dard l deshd.

bfi O I -ZX.

(1) *4Wb & D I A C ~ ~ @ ? & P L J: 3 h, (I don't know for sure, but the two will probably get married.)

+ m T b &DXAIi%fi€W& { % LL\/ & 3 / ? 5 1 T ? k (I don't know for sure, but the two {seem / appear / have been said} to be getting married.)

(+ dare (DBJG: 100-02))

nanishiro fFlL 3 adv. <s>

an adverb that indicates the speaker's emotive feeling about some extreme state of affairs

as a matter of fact; no matter what; believe it or not; you may be surprised, but -; in fact; unbelievably [REL. tonikaku]

nanishiro 2 1 7

+Key Sentences

(My father is obstinate. As a matter of fact, once he says he will do s.t., he never changes his mind.)

fl(Cb% ( CL CL*W

--Al?;Sl$ h,

(A: I heard that education at this college is good. B: Yeah, you may be surprised, but the instructor-student ratio is 6 to 1.)

I Sentence, I 1 sentence2 I

I (Because my boss hollan at me all day long, I'm unbelievably stressed.) /

(a) & O ~ ~ A ~ & ~ T T L ~ ~ L ~ ~ > Y % % & & & Q T ~ > & L T * ; S ~ ~ ;la, (He is rich, you know. Believe it or not, he has three Mercedes Benz.)

(b) @ a ) ~ G i $ ~ G : ~ $ ~ ; S 1 3 7 ' : T t 0 @ L a , tD&btsl,>io%$g

Gbi < b b l T L l z - h l b h , (It snowed a lot this winter. In fact, there were less snow-free days than snowy days, you know.)

21 8 nanishiro

(d) A: b T d & . ~ $ @ b > j f a k

(Japan is crowded, isn't it?) 4:t*'): Xh.

B: j A, { @ L S , %41&.79 ' I f~a)3-553O-QOb:, XEd2.: 53O-7'?73 b jfao

(Yeah, as a matter of fact, the size is one twenty fifth of America but the population is one half, you know.)

(el ~ L S , :jF~~l/vrz, & a & f i ~ ~ ~ ~ t v ~ ~ ~ (I'm unbelievably busy. I don't have any sleeping time, you know.)

1. Originally the adverb comes from nani o shim meaning 'do what you may.'

2. Nanishiro indicates the speaker's emotive reaction about some extreme state of affairs, so if an unusual situation does not exist the adverb cannot be used.

(1) Vii tiJXa~-?f.=;~.>, M L ~ ("&%&;k+ j K % L > / *tj 1 k@$%b>I OTO

(Please let me take a day off today, because (I have a severe headache I I have a slight headache).)

(2) , K ~ ~ L Q < - c ~ I / ~ L > ~ . . , M L ~ { p " ~ ~ ~ t ~ ~ $ , & ~ - c ~ ~ a / lr<

*R$ZZT%%->TL>ZI] d.6, (Don't worry, because {there are as many as 20 policemen watching 1 I am watching you] .)

Nanishiro in all the KS and Exs. above can be replaced by tonikaku. How- ever, tonikaku has a meaning of 'any waylat any rate' but unlike nanishiro it does not indicate the speaker's emotive feeling. In other words, nanishiro is a speaker-oriented expression, but tonikaku isn't. So, the latter can be used in

nanishiro / naranai 2 1 g

highly hearer-oriented request or question sentences but the former cannot.

[I] a. I L : C Z ~ P < /*.fiil~31 &416:4~7;2b', (Come and see me, anyway.)

b. I t E f i > < /*.fiilL31 ?%dQ&~fzI ; r i T T ~ , (I'd suggest that you send a letter, anyway.)

c. { L : w < / * w L ~ ) f i i c w b t , a . t t j . ,

(Are you going to quit smoking anyway?)

1 a phrase that is used to express cannot help -ing; irresistibly; 1 insurmountable psychological or unbearably

[REL. tamaranai]

+Key Sentences

(A)

Adj (na)te

,%& a I; ak'o

(I'm very much womed about my sick mother. (Lit. I cannot help worrying about my sick mother).)

1 (I'm dying to know Japanese history more deeply.)

220 naranai

(C)

: k ~ T & ~ T , , l & g $ ~ D L kjS%[Z

(I cannot help worrying about my mother who is living alone.) -

( i ) Adj(i/ na)te B l; Bb>

j kL L < T i's l; h bl (I cannot help feeling happy.)

f @ T h 6 i's (I cannot help feeling sorry.)

(ii) V t e B b h b l

~jS-&blTh l; i 'skl (I cannot help feeling pressed.)

ti-t t ; L L / r b IZL

kjS@if-A&lELTbl&OT, $$L< Ti's 17 1+b, (My husband has gone alone for work and I cannot help feeling lonely.) h t b = A T <

1 h l 2 ~ % % 1 f i $ t 1 3 T , 5 h L < T B b B b l h i I ? , (The couple have decided to get engaged and they look ove joyed.) P - b t C b , $ t i I 1 L r i r a t i b L h $2$% B O ~ J . RbA@B < 7 8 r; 8 k l 0

(The mystery novels by Seicho Matsumoto are irresistibly interesting.) tb'l V i

R O % a > x t V ; S j S w + 1 L < T B r ; B k ~ , (Our neighbor's stereo is unbearably noisy.) +* i2 rLQm

~ ~ \ ~ f k & j S ~ a > ~ $ ? ? ~ & a 3 ~ : 8 & O T , %j%2TB l;Qk>, (Since Prof. Yamada is going to quit this university, I cannot help feeling disappointed.) 2 i S r i ba x g a ~ b d i < T h r; h b 1 ,

(The summer in Tokyo is awfully hot.)

naranai 221

*bv%" b.+

(g) , @ a > ~ , % ? ? g b r ~ h f = k b , : & F ~ L < T a bts.h.gf:, (When I rushed up the stairs at the station, it became unbearably painful to breathe.)

A g ~ ? i t : c ; r ' a ~ a > ~ ~ ~ - n ~ ~ ( * @ f i ~ ~ ~ b ~ , E $ & 7 ~ a 6 a 5 h 7 7: , (I got really mad because the TV set which I just bought got broken right away.) L =t

( i ) egfl? 9 <&7-Cb4Gb10~, s f l & X 7 - C ~ b a b r 0 (I feel helplessly depressed because my business isn't going well.)

1. Naranai is used to express insurmountable psychological or physical feeling. The form is connected with Adj(i / na) of psychological or physical feeling as shown in KS(A), (B), and Exs.(a) - (g), or with V of psychologic$ feeling as in Exs.(h) and (i). If Adj(i / na) is neither a psychological nor physical feeling, naranai cannot be used.

(1) ??%Lo%&$< T Q 5 QL\, - +LO%b&%itbb, (My house is unbearably small.)

(2) *Ei$a>%&?bi%< T Q % Q L b - E I $ a ) ~ Q b & ~ b ~ Q , (Prices in Japan are unbearably expensive.)

However, there are some psychological and physiological adjectives that cannot be used with naranai.

#,L wf; (3) a. ??XLLQ C L Y ~ F > T L I : ~ ; , ,WF~<TG-~Q$~I:,,

(I jogged after a long while and my legs hurt unbearably.) # 6

b. *&a>%&b&%~bv.+b, 1~8T-a 6 a b ~ (That teacher is strict, so I hate him badly.)

c. * & O X C & ~ : T ~ ~ ~ ~ ' B L P $ ~ ; , i k ~ a 1 ; a ~ , (He is very considerate, so I like him a lot.)

When V is connected with naranai it is usually an idiomatic verb phrase of psychological feeling, and not of physiological feeling. Thus, for example, (4) is unacceptable, unless naranai is replaced by tamaranai.

222 naranai

2. The subject of the naranai construction is normally the speaker I writer or whoever the speaker I writer is empathetic with as in (5).

* + 3 :

(5) ~%n~1202&0&%P5 b-?a L<Thbhblo (Machiko cannot help feeling envious of Hitomi's beauty.)

If the subject is other than the speaker / writer and the speaker 1 writer is not empathetic with the referent of the subject, it is necessary to use expressions such as ydda, rashii, yosu da, etc, as in Ex.@).

Tamaranai and shikata ga nai can be used with any Adj or V of psychological or physical feeling to express its unbearableness, whereas naranai is much more restricted in that it has to indicate psychological feeling when used with V, as shown in Note 1 above.

The difference between tamaranai and shikata ga nai is that the former expresses the speaker's feeling of intolerability more strongly than the latter.

(+ tamaranai (DBJG: 44547))

- nari - nari 223

, nari - nari - -&11--&1)

a phrase to indicate two represen- - or - (for example); like - tative choices / examples or-

(REL. - ka - ka; - -tari - -tari;

- toka - toka]

+Key Sentences

(If you don't understand grammar, ask me or Professor Suzuki.)

(As for kanji you can't read, find out the reading either by looking it up in a dictionary or by asking a Japanese.)

( i ) N1 h 0 N2 Qll{;59/ 81 t: * *<h

H ~ Z B 3 ~ 8 Z B r l (;59/81 (eitherTanakaorYamada)

(ii) NI Prt. Q ll N2 Prt. B 3 (where Prt. = other particles than iF/ 8 ) +i i A

LLI- B 3%". B 3 (to the mountain or to the oceans)

H +Z b= B 3 LLI H Z G= B 3 (either to Tanaka or to Yamada)

(iii) N1 Q ll N2 B ll Prt. (where the Prt. is G:, +, 2, T , &b)

224 - nari - nari

(iv) Vinf .nonpast a rl (Vinf .nonpast a V )

%+ 2 9 , & < 2 V (reading or writing)

(a) ~ ~ t s ~ ~ ~ 1 ~ a ~ j 5 ' ~ % i : B ~ i : ~ g b f , (Either I or Yamada will go to the airport to pick you up.)

(I,) ?$ ;3~%%taz t : j 5 'h r l~~ f :1 ;%&a~7T. ; r3xav~s$ jb l~~ f 0

(If you have something that you want to report, please do it by telephone or by fax.)

I t*

(c) %$la rl%%a "I=&~-C, Q~ < Q ~ L ~ : V / ~ T L (I would like to see my parents or a close friend, and talk leisurely.)

- = - - = = - - 7:

EN c 0

- - - - - - - (Right now I'm so busy that I can't make a trip, but I intend to make

one during the spring break or summer vacation.)

(e) Y ~ x i F L k ; t r . ~ f : 1 ; , b.Lhrl.f~-1~~7'srl t : L f : b b 1 b \ T L ~ i (If you want to play tennis, why don't you play with Tom or Charles?)

A v - e h * (f) 7 1 f - I- B$!LTV& ha 6 , m d ~ m = & < a 9, $ % a > Z % ~ b

a V L k b P5 Tf7k

(If you are looking for an apartment, you should go to a realtor or look at the newspaper ads.)

(g) &&+a fs rl , %?a v , ~ ; t r . % % ~ L~G$~~'L~WY- lo (You'd better do some exercise, like taking a walk or swimming.)

1. - nari - nari is used to present two choices as examples. The speaker makes a subjective judgment that his 1 her choice is a reasonable and proper one. That is why it is frequently used in sentences expressing a

- nari - nari 225

command I request as in KS(A), (B), and Exs.(b), or a suggestion1 advice as in Exs.(e) - (g), or an intention I desire as in Exs.(a), (c) and

(4 .

2. Usually nari is repeated twice, but it may appear only once in Vinf . nonpast nari Vinf . nonpast nari.

(1) %&c:~T< &I) LT, & g k g & b t ; / v k L~':I;P~T?& (Why don't you go to the barber's and make your hairstyle neat?)

3. The main predicate of the structure in question is more often than not in the nonpast tense, because it expresses the speaker's current will, determination, desire or habits as shown in Exs.(a), (c) and (d). But the main predicate can be in the past, if the predicate expresses a habitual determination as shown in (3) below.

(3) %~lk?%?o)~k%;~~%~b Gblk!I&, %&a ?I B$hG )3 Izk7 < d: i I: Lk, (I've made it a rule to ask my teacher or a Japanese when I don't know how to read kanji.)

I. The structure - nari - nari can be replaced by the conjunction - ka - ka, because both can express choice. So, KS(A) and Ex.(a), for example, can be rewritten as [I] and [2] , respectively.

The crucial difference between - nari - nari and - ka - (ka) is that the latter is an exhaustive listing of choices (i.e., 'either - or'), but the former is a listing of representatives out of more possible choices.

(+ - ka - ka; kal (DBJG: 164-66))

11. The expression - -tari - -tari can replace - nari - nari. For example,

226 - nari - nari

KS(B) and Ex.(f) can be rewritten as [3] and [4]. (e - tari - tari suru (DBJG: 458-61))

Both - nari - nari and - -tari - -tari list representative examples, but the former sounds more assertive than the latter. (i.e., the speaker feels that his choice is the proper one). So in a situation where the ~peaker '~ assertion is due, - -tari - -tan is not used.

t Lt3.L

[5] 53*r;ed.9r:c;, HP@T (i<~*b)/*S<f-bJI, && C: {W<&b! /*ML\ebJl L.51, (If you cannot figure it out, do research at the library or ask your professor.)

In [6a] and [6b] nari is ungrammatical, because Vinf.nonpast nari

Vinf .nonpast nari cannot be used with the past tense predicate.

[6] a. ~ d l i f ~ 2 ~ { L k V /*bQ&b)) C D 9 (i?!l'$~~\kbI / * M < & b J I Lf:, (Yesterday I did things like playing tennis and listening to CDs.)

b. 749 { & ~ f P l /*f?.TC&blI, &a (B3fLbl/*%3& 6) I , t -c B % ~ $ 1 9 k , (Doing things like drinking sake and singing songs, we enjoyed very much (lit. was very enjoyable).)

Tari in [7] is ungrammatical, simply because it cannot be connected with a noun.

In [8] tari is ungrammatical, because tari expresses X and Y (and others), whereas nari expresses X or Y (or s.t.).

- nari - nari / nari ni 227

nI. - toka - toka is also used to list representative examples. - nari - nari can be replaced by - toka - toka: the former conveys the speaker's subjective judgment that the choice is the proper one but the latter doesn't. - nan - nan in [9d] is unacceptable because it cannot take a verb right after it.

(I don't like things like politics or religion.)

t in a way 1 style that is proper to in one's own way; in one's own s.0. I s.t. I swle

228 nari ni

+ ~ e ~ Sentences

(He appears to think hard in his own way.)

Noun

aa)X

(Animals are capable of their own communication.)

t,*<CV

YLkitYnts !I b: (students - in their own way)

it

(ii) Nl It N2 ts !I D N3 (where N1 =Nz) QLQw

%&a !I a)%,%. (teachers' own idea)

Noun

ibjm

(a) Tkl/\y$(t,~\sb\kYa !I 1 : ~ ~ $ i f j & ~

(Small colleges have their own merits.) I:hQk+h

(b) %tm !I I:, A&RB&TV~T, (I have my own outlook on life.) I: ThL+ G r i L r

(c) $G@Ci$$j;@7'bOb:, % ~ @ c ! I C : , Efi, %$fifl&&, (A bike and a car have their own merits and demerits.)

(d) $&&hhit@@~~tb !I I:, '&6:&B31f 7 : z $ ~ l ~ 1 ~ (Healthy people had better take care of themselves in their own way.)

avi:

- 1 & & T v & ~ L w ~

nari ni 229

(el $~di%&~z~a 17 C=F&-% L & ~ & & & B ??o

(I like a society in which old people can enjoy life in their own way.) 1.13 L r i IfL41.l It25

(f) $ L l i ~ L h 1 3 6 : - 4 1 ~ @ < ~ B 1 7 T t 0 (I intend to work very hard in my own way.)

(g) z O k % 6 = 9 b q E w a 17 O%?.e++9-cbaa .x 5 TT., (My father seems to have his own idea about this issue.)

( i) Z$&t; i i & + + ~ a 17 o~$A$& a OR, (Rich people have their own suffering.)

1. The particle nari ni is used to express a way or a style that is proper to S.O. or s.t. The phrase N wa N nari ni is used when the speaker wants to assert s.t. about N. For example, in KS(A), the speaker wants to assert that he thinks hard in his own way.

2. Along with the adverbial phrase N nari ni, there is N nari no N as in KS(B) and Exs.(g) - (i).

3. In both N1 wa N2 nari ni and N1 wa N2 nari no N3, Nz can be replaced by the pronoun sore if N is an inanimate object, as in (1) below.

(1) a. d.3 bak%Ck?kLa 17 b: 1 375'&&, (cf. Ex.(a)) (Small colleges have their own merits.)

b. 'i?.XB%Ci?kLC 17 O!W75'&6. (cf. Ex.@)) (Jazz music has its own charm.)

230 nashi de wa

nashi de wa L TCt comp. prt.

without [REL. - ga (i)-nakereba; nashi ni wa]

+Key Sentence

(Without real talents one cannot get along in the society.)

cEi=== %==

t L t * > %&a L T l i (without a teacher) 7

h21.a L T I ~ & $ wbfa~1, (Without you I cannot keep on living.)

dli2 $ r i b ' < s e a ~ ~ i i b a b 1 % ~ c ~ ~ G s ~ ; ~ L Q L ~ , (Without money we cannot receive good education.)

@a~~ciY&ei-=a1;;.s< a Q - c ~ a i . (Without leisure time life will become dull.)

&$a ~ ~ c i Z E e & & a ~ l o (Without a job one cannot live a life.) I t ltL hi 6.6'< li?'rL

&L@ L T I i ~ + Y d i W E L t b b ~ , (Without basic research science would not develop.) < a *

L T I i f j L 9 k$%$E, (Without a car it is a bit inconvenient.)

nashi de wa 231

1. The compound particle nashi de wa is used to express a conditional "if s.t. / s.0. is missing."

2. The particle nashi de wa usually appears with a negative predicate. The predicate can be implicitly negative as in Ex.(c).

(1) a. * & h f z & L T i b 4 2 T L > 1 f b b (cf.Ex.(a)) -&h7'z&LT&+C-c'4>Gfbo (Without you I can live a life.)

b. *%a& LTlb?&O+BB;kbO (cf. KS) --%B&LT&?&O+G&B;k&. (One can get along in society even without real talents.)

[Related ~xpressions]

I. Nashi de wa can be replaced by nashi ni wa in KS and Exs.(a), (b), (d), and (e), but not in the other Exs. It seems that N nashi de wa is pre-

- ferred in a context where N is used as a means of achieving something; ed whereas N nashi ni wa is preferred in a context where the meaning of a means of achieving something is weak. That is why in Exs.(c) and (f) the original nashi de wa can hardly be replaced by nashi ni wa; the free time is regarded as a means of enriching one's life in Ex.(c) and a car is regarded definitely as a means of transportation in Ex.(f). In [I] below, the same N "w8puro" is regarded as a means in [la] and not as such in

[lbl.

[I] a. 7-;PU ( & L T U / ? & L C = U ) L > V ~ $ % F & ~ ~ ~ L > ,

(Without a word processor one cannot write a good paper.) B&V= 8 S i i d./rdc

b. 7-;Pu {&Lt;:ib / ? t b :LT i t l X$W%C&4Rb;k t s~> . (One cannot think of writing activities without a word processor.)

11. The adverbial phrase - nashi de wa can be rephrased by - ga nakereba or by - ga i-nakereba. Thus, for example, KS and Ex.(a) can be rewritten into [2] and [3], respectively, without changing their basic meaning.

232 nashi de wa / -neba naranai

The only difference between the two versions is that - nashi de wa version sounds slightly more formal probably due to the archaic form nashi.

However, - ga (i)-nakereba cannot be rephrased by - nashi de wa when the sentence is a question, request, command, suggestion, or volitional sentence. Examples follow.

[41 { t t z + m ~ f h l ~ / * t m & ~ ~ u ~ I @ L ~ S W / R L T < IZS b> / t%LI :b r5T$7P/ t%L3 L L ? l o (If you don't have a job, look for one / please look for one / why don't you look for one / let's look for one.)

E X L 4 L * i 5

[5 ] I%&#L\&Cf hlB/*%!k& LTlbl $%T% % L a S b l ,

(If there isn't a teacher, study by yourself.)

[6] { ~ & h f Q k t h C % / * ~ & & L T t t l , r? LI:bblbrT.f$, (If I don't have money, what shall I do?)

-neba naranai taiga 5 ph,: <w>

must; have to; should [REL. -nakereba naranai]

-neba naranai 233

+Key Sentences

(A)

(In order to know Japan one has to go to Japan at least once.) I

(Japan has to open its market wider.)

Vinf.neg hdf8 6 8 b h

% 3 ;fa if8 b 8 b 1 (s.o. has to talk.)

kxhif a 6 8 b 1 (s.o. has to eat.)

-@bC%th l; Qbh (irr.) (s.0. has to do it.)

I j L 3 * 3 9-3

(a) $ & ~ E e ~ ~ a ~ c f ; f a w r ; ; i b ~ . ~ , (I have to continue the same research from now on.) CLL*-.Ll L

(b) h @ ~ k ~ 8 < 3 ; t a b f 8 r ; h b ~ , (We should get rid of racial prejudice.) dv ?r 8 b l L i % :< - l Z L L + W : <

(c) 2%0t4?Sa%~&$?f 1:ssi~-@htf8 1; 8 ~ 3 I.., (I had to report the agenda of the conference to the main office after returning to my country.)

+?A I t - (d) h ~ w % a 8 i i + ; f a m r; ~ c L > ~

(We have to voice preservation of nature.)

234 -neba nafanai / ni

(el ~lm;tz;t.~&1;G%w - FwarflLs 17 I*L, (From now on Japan has to lead the world.)

1. Vinf .neg neba naranai is used in written Japanese or in formal public speech to express obligation, duty, or necessity.

2. The neba naranai form for the irregular verb sun, is se-neba naranai.

The only crucial difference between Vinf. neg -neba naranai and Vinf. neg -nakereba naranai is that the former is used normally in written Japanese, but the latter, in spoken and written Japanese. Connection-wise, the way -neba naranai and -nakereba naranai are connected with adjectives are different.

ni CZ prt.

presses the speaker's feeling of

+Key Sentences

1 (If you had come here yesterday, you could have met Natsuko.) i

-

Scond L O i ( @s%htf

1 (It must be lonely for an old man to live done.) I

( i ) ( V I Adj(i)}inf {T L a 3 / 7'26 5 1 1:

Sinf

% P c = & R ~

I%-i f /?$~l :} { T L a 5 / 7 ' 2 6 i 1 l i (would talklwould have talked)

7 T 5 7 ' 6 5 1 (would {belhave been} quiet)

b l b l { ~ / % L k 7 ' ? 7 7 : 1 { T L r i /7 '?651 C: (would(be1have been} a good teacher)

.&tr,%hL I: if^ - (a) ~ ~ - + c ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ c z ~ ~ ~ : ~ B ~ & s ~ ~ ~ Y + c : Q ~ T L ~ j bz0

(If you could stay in Japan another year or so your Japanese would become more proficient.)

a

~-

c : ~

&$js."t: < ~ / v i f j n ~ i z ~ . e % ~ ~ f i i ; i a ~ ~ ~ j I : ~ (If we had a lot of money, we would be able to buy this sort of house.)

a 3 : If?:!., T

~ c : L ~ L ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ . " & Q ~ : I ; % ~ + s ~ ~ ~ B Q Y ~ ~ ~ : ~ ? ~ 5 KO (If I had had a good job I could have married Michiko.) O . : i ;1 d % t L _,- ~ q ~ g ~ 6 c f i r w ' m g i - j r ~ j a K ~ L A j I:. ( I f you go by plane, you could easily get there.)

L L 3 l i

B j S m:aa&x, &&ts~a ~6 j i:, (If he uses his money a little more carefully, he could save his money.)

&O% < 0 7 1 f - b ~:&/vf.. ~ $ $ u T L L I:, (If you lived in an apartment near the station, it would be convenient.) : ?6 * 2 l C b W <

+@BIAbk~~:~T;51~QOG:i&~&-h";51;516TL L 5 KO (It must cost a lot of money to send two children to college.)

% $ ~ # o G & a e < L-c, S ? 3 Q f : z k T L L 5 KO (You must have had a difficult time when you lost your airplane ticket.)

1. If the structure is "Scond, - {V / Adj}inf.nonpast (deshd 1 dard} ni," the entire sentence expresses the subjunctive past (i.e., supposition that is counter to the current situation) as in Exs.(a), (b), (d), (e) and (f). "Scond, - {V /Adj}inf.past {deshd l dam} ni" expresses the subjunctive past perfect (i.e., supposition that is counter to the past situation) as in KS(A) and Ex.(c). In both the subjunctive past and the past perfect, the entire sentence expresses the speaker's regret. But if the subject of the Scond is the second or third person, it expresses the speaker's sympathy for the second or third person. If Scond is not there, as in KS(B), Exs.(g) and (h), the entire sentence expresses sympathy.

2. The sentence-final particle ni always follows deshd / dard.

"Scond, - {V / Adj }inf (deshd / dard}" can be rephrased as "Scond, - {V / Adj} infnoni," as shown in [I] and [2]. (6 noni (DBJG: 33 1-35))

ni / ni atattelatari 237

[I] E6 El %hdfE%C:%;iIzUlCL (cf. KS(A))

[2] %&75'I: < 3 AibhCfZ tv82ZT$E;i&0CZ0 (cf. Ex.(b))

The desholdaro ni version indicates uncertainty, whereas the noni version does not. Comparison of [3a] and [3b] below will clarify the point.

[3] a. #C:b~b~B$lsrib~I:I;KPa"+3LIr.~%~%I:ff33C~o (=Ex.(c))

b. I%G:~~~~~%JY%J~I: I;%@%Z tvIr.%Uffi%I:UlC:.., (If I had had a good job, it is very likely that I could have married her.)

[3a] expresses uncertainty, meaning 'I guess I could have married Michiko,' whereas [3b] doesn't express uncertainty.

a compound particle that indicates on the occasion of; at; in; occasion of doing s.t. or of having before; prior to done s.t. in formal Japanese [REL. mae ni; ni saishite; sai

(ni); toki]

+Key Sentences

(On the occasion of new employees' entering the company, the president threw a party at a hotel.)

(On the occasion of graduating from college, Kazuya consulted with his academic adviser on his future direction.)

$&$G: I / 7: 3 T / / 7: 0 1 (on the occasion of the marriage)

(ii) Vinf.nonpast 1: ( 3 I: 3 T 1% 1: 0 1

(On the occasion of my study abroad, my father told me about his own experience.) c It/, I k . 8 ~ liL * m i :orl.W t Lr6 .L 9 2 3 -2

(b) E ~ $ @ ~ % B W R T ~ C ~ % I : ~ T , B % H P % T & N ~ ~ Q L ~ : ~ (Before I did research on the Japanese economy, I collected materials at the National Diet Library.)

L*-J+?$ +<Qi? * v s (c) &&~i.tf: 7 I.& R W ~ : 9, M B ~ % R B LIZ,

(The Premier had a conference with cabinet members before attending the summit.) L ~ i t ? A. L: f i b , a$ L

(d) zm~;t;&?h~Q%( G:/?: 0 , + o B + ~ ' ~ o E ~ B ~ $ L < # d 7 ~ ~ ~

(Before writing a historical novel, the novelist did an in-depth survey of the history of the period he dealt with.)

1 . ni atattelatari is used to indicate time when one faces s.t. formal. The formality of the compound particle can be shown by (1).

L e i L& L z i Q i i gk* gT& B~g ;gCz (1) a. % L i 2 R $ 3 K 3 k ~ 7 9 E 0 @%

T b \ & , ,

(It is my custom to drink a small amount of foreign liquor prior to going to bed.)

b. * $ L C ~ & & ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ T T ~ ~ X + - % ~ ~ I I . ~ $ C ~ & ~ (I drink a glass of whisky before going to bed.)

Both (la) and (lb) express a similar situation, but (la) is expressed in a more formal way than (lb). Thus, ni atatte is acceptable in the formal sentence (la) but not in the informal sentence (lb).

2. The compound particle is primarily used in written Japanese. When a verb precedes it, the verb is often a Sino-Japanese suru-verb as in KS(B) and Ex.(b), because the Sino-Japanese verb is also suitable for written Japanese.

3. The tense of the verb before ni atatte/atari is always nonpast regardless of the tense of the final predicate. The nonpast tense expresses an = N ? incomplete aspect of an action indicated by the verb. Thus, for example, in KS(B), when Kazuya went to see his academic adviser, he had not yet graduated from college. That is why the phrase can be translated into English as 'before' or 'prior to.'

4. The difference between ni atari and ni atatte is a matter of style; the former is more formal than the latter.

5 . There is a prenominal form - ni atatte no N used as in (2) below.

(2) %A?kW0A?*E ( 3 7 ~ 7 7 / * 3 k t l l D l $ - f 4 -bi?tE& aR LI . , (The president attended the patty held on the occasion of new employees' joining the company.) (cf. KS(A))

I. Toki is a basic noun which indicates the time when s.0. / s.t will do / does / did s.t. or the time when s.0. / s .t. will be / is 1 was in some state. It is clear from Note 3 that toki cannot be replaced by ni atan/ atatte when the preceding verb is past. (+ toki (DBJG: 490-94))

240 ni atattelatari

(Mr. Tanaka joined a company soon after graduating from college.)

Toki can be used to express any time, be it formal or informal, whereas ni atattelatari is used only in formal style. This contextual difference is shown in [3].

b. @a { s r f / * t Z l k ~ T / * K ~ t ; ~ I ] '/-r'7-~&F&, (Before going to bed I take shower.)

11. The conjunction mae ni and the compound particle in question are semantically very close. Both of them allow only Vinf.nonpast because an action indicated by the verb is incomplete. Yet there is one crucial difference between them. Ni atattelatari means 'before s.t. signijicant takes place,' but mae ni means 'before s.t. takes place.' The difference can be shown by the following examples. (d mae ni (DBJG: 23 1-33))

1 * [4] %+I&@& {at: l *CZ I f ; ->T I f L F B ~ L

(Nobuko watches TV before she goes to sleep.)

111. There is another time expression - (no) sai (ni) 1 - ni saishite which is used to indicate a special occasion on which S.O. does s.t. The crucial difference between this time expression and - ni attatelatari is that the latter indicates an occasion in formal sentence, but the former indicates

ni atattelatari / ni hanshite/hansuru 241

a special occasion. Thus, in the following formal yet non-special sentence the time expression in question cannot be used.

Practically all the uses of - (no) sai (ni) 1 - ni saishite can be rephrased by - ni atattelatari, as long as the sentence is formal.

$At% 5%

b. El*O%l-E4kO@% {EEL7 / DEE / E%f:7T / E %rLb)) H*OH%D%%%$U~ L k 0 (At the time of research on Japanese modernization I used the ~ a t i o n a l Diet Library of Japan.)

ni hanshite/hansuru CZE L 7 / ET 3 cornp. prt. <w>

against; contrary to; in contrast to; in violation of; while; whereas [REL. ni hikikae; ni taishite; to gyaku nil

+Key Sentences

(Contrary to the majority's expectations, an unknown runner won the Tokyo International Marathon this year.) 1

I (In our company, in contrast to the increase in sales of TV sets, t q

(It is said that to enter good universities in Japan is difficult but to graduate from them is easy.)

I I

(In contrast to this, in America even good universities are relatively easy to enter, but students must study quite hard to graduate from them.)

7%. Gc E L T (contrary to expectations)

@)

(ii) Sinf 0 C: LZ L T (Connection rules: the same as 0 R)

i

k < $8 5.4 t a 0 C: LZ L T (in contrast to the fact that S.O. studies hard)

(iii) Demonstrative pronoun 1: LZ L T

(Taeko was forced to marry. (lit. A marriage which was against Taeko's will was forced upon her.))

mmm

Noun

i

Z ;k d: E L T (in contrast to this)

(iv) N C:Eji.t6 N

c:kji.ta

It7 d.

7?J b:LZji-i f 6% (a result which is contrary to s.o.'s expectation)

U S L O l i L L 1 t b 1

(a) ? ~ c ~ ~ A ~ > B @ C : E L T % @ Q & I C * ~ ; J ~7 3 e:I's37'&

(Contrary to his parents' wishes, Hiroshi became a chef after finishing high school.)

(b) Tiii & % o & , ~ , ~ : L z L T ~ & Q & G ~ & ~ T ~a f:, (He was forced to accept a bribe. (lit. He received a bribe against his will.))

C q i l t i W L l i t 5 If db, ba? ii. C i i TV L (c) ZO&~:LZLT?$% ~ Q m * * f . % e ~ i - * E o g % lYltc:aao

(Your business will be suspended for one month if you work your employees in violation of these rules.)

L n C L f i < $ otr l f lfw

(d) % $ ~ ~ 0 i ~ l k ~ & ~ f l % ~ I ' s ~ C : E ~ r ~ % ~ / v f l h - @ a ) % L P ~

Noun

% e k ~ ~ ~ l ; ; k f : .

!I fZ0 (In Okumura's family, whereas the husband is quiet, the wife is very talkative.)

$E;51;k-cb>&o (The principle consideration of elementary education in Japan is to provide students with knowledge. In America, in contrast (to this), emphasis is put on increasing students' creativity and individual talents.)

(The election this time ended up with results which were against the general prediction.)

1. Te in ni hanshite may be dropped, as in (1). - . - . - . - ' N . - . - . - - - - (1) ~ 4 D 3 E m ~ 7 4 Y >CikkDPEEEL(T)%%D%%$Q - - - k% L f: , (=KS (A))

2. When ni hanshite connects two propositions, the propositions are in opposition, as in KS(B), (C), Exs.(d) and (e).

3. Ni hansuru modifies the word which follows, as in KS(D) and Ex.(f).

e elated ~x~ressions]

I. When ni hanshite connects two propositions in opposition, it can be paraphrased as ni hikikae or to gyaku ni, as in [ l] and [2].

ni hanshite/hansuru / ni hokanaranai 245

a. Ni taishite can also replace ni hanshite when ni hanshite connects two propositions in opposition, as in [3] and [4].

[3] %ftd'?kCiF LVDg;k~Cf l$$VTb1&0 {KELT / E ~ L 7) % - 7 4 % % & D ~ ; k ~ ~ ? I ; 3 s T $ ~ T b ~ & o (=KS(B))

The difference between the two is that when ni hanshite is used, the connected propositions are in opposition but when ni taishite is used, the connected propositions are contrastive but not necessarily in opposition. Thus, in 151, where the two propositions are contrastive but not in opposition, only ni taishite is acceptable.

% & S k i C*iL [5] A ? ~ ~ ~ % B E % Q ~ B L T L ~ ~ D {EMLT /*C=BLTl B 3i

t i ~ 7 - r - E & ' $ ~ , X ; ~ T L ~ ~ ~ (Company A focuses on products for education (lit. puts importance on the education industry) while Company B focuses on products for leisure (lit. takes great interest in the leisure industry).)

be nothing but -; be simply - that an action / state mentioned in [REL. ni suginai] the topic phrase or clause is noth-

+Key Sentences

(His words are nothing but flowery words.)

- Topic Clause I I I Sentence (reason) I I

(The reason that I am studying Japanese is simply because I want to work in Japan in the future.)

(Foreign language learning is nothing but learning about the ways people .in other countries think.)

Topic 1E*c < : 9F< L*3 f i m w 8 1 2

8< 0 C& $3 gfl& L b \ fP I; I: 13 $2 1; 2 b>, (The reason that we work is simply because we want money.)

Sinf . d.LI +f; PQ

C ~ W D A : z 1:~32.2 1; a b l ,

ni hokanaranai 247 - BLd'< TL L

(a) *- 7 7 IL 1. a > p w i x ~ a > % t : ~ a f i a 6 a k a ,

(Mozart's music is nothing but an angel's voice.) I~?:L u r b . t i , ~f

(b) iPi4?!6bih&a>l%G:12&abjb~ao (Marriage is nothing but a graveyard of life.)

I: : * h C L

(c) ~ E ~ > W C ~ Q Z E ~ = . C Z ; ~ ~ ~ l j a b a o

(His speech and behavior are nothing but self-advertisement.) BB ' rb

(d) %dr%R??%!L < LCJV &a>di~R??%~Tb~~;3~bC:lZ&abitrb~, (The reason why parents discipline their children strictly is simply because they love their children.) d.o) t r lr<

(e) @&$$$~:&->T&QDc~#??$Y~ ~ f z b a * ~ ; c : ~ + t c b G L ~ , (The reason why she comes close to me is simply because she wants to use me.)

C i ? fi- (f) H$%$ZkLGZ Pk ~ ~ f . a > d & . ~ $ a > ~ a > ~ $ ~ a > ~ & a > . k j & C ~

bLB-haa b ab10

(The reason why my Japanese made such progress is simply because of my college Japanese instructor.)

(g) Z a > ~ ~ a > ~ & a > ~ j g . " b ~ b ~ a ) ~ i ~ ~ $ l ; l k ~ b ~ & b K G Z ; ? I ~ D bawo (The reason why the student quality of this college is so good is simply because the selection is tough.) d.<-w $ L A', C L A v I t *7

(h) @jS#a>lHil bih%a>@&??% < Z t 1: G2&a b a b l ,

(The use of nuclear weapons invites nothing but (lit. is nothing but to invite) the annihilation of humanity.)

1. The phrase ni hokanaranai is used to express that X is nothing but Y,

248 ni hokanaranai

where Y is either N as in KS(A) and Exs.(a), (b), (c), (f) or kara-clause as in KS(B) and Exs.(d), (e), (g) or koto-nominalized clause as in KS(C) and Ex.(h).

2. The phrase in question is used in written or very formal spoken Japa- nese. The final negative -nai can be replaced by the archaic negative marker -nu in formal written Japanese, as in (1) below:

The phrase ni suginai which means 'nothing but' sounds very close to ni hokanamnai but they are quite different. The former means k t . / s.0. is nothing more than what is stated, in terms of amount, degree, status, significance, etc,' whereas the latter means k t . / s.0. is nothing other than X.' The former often has downgrading nuance, but the latter lacks this nuance.

[I] a. ?;kb2%k &b&~\ / ha& 5 &L\], (That is nothing but a rumor.) L L t! -wl% dab, c b %

b. ~ H ~ ~ F J L ~ ~ & E ! E {Bd&t\/*C%h>&%&~\l~ (Yoshida is nothing but an average white-collar worker.)

Another crucial difference between the two is that ni suginai can be used with a quantity expression but ni hokanamnai cannot, as shown in [2] and [3] below:

ZD* < i h .

[2] RO71k1t . f l-%bi5i3 N6 {B~&L\ / *C%ha&%&L\), (The hourly pay for my part-time job is merely 500 yen. (lit. The hourly pay for my part-time job doesn't exceed 500 yen.))

tVAh. I: d.L

[3] %~a)EE[l~$~dcih, 54~K Iid&~\ / *C%ha&%&~\l~ (I usually don't get more than four to five hours' sleep. (lit. My sleeping hours are only 4 to 5 hours.))

Connection-wise, ni hokanaranai is attached only to a noun / noun phrase or a kam-clause, but ni suginai is attached to a noun, a quantity expression and Vinf.

ni kagirazu 249

ni kagirazu K BE 5 b" camp. prt.

not limited to - (but also); not only - (but also) [REL. - dake d e (wa) naku - (mo)]

*Key Sentence

N C:lrbCl;T c ek-r El $i%C: $E l; f (not limited to Japanese)

fi&l,l$&G;f

*A*'< sf^) B A ~ ~ ? ~ ~ ~ Y ? c : P ~ ! c ; T ? $ T B & s ~ . ~ , :

(Talking about music, I listen to any music, not just classical music.) C L * ~ hbv? za>~r-~~Y&r~~ft:lrdll;y~~a,~~~:eXk~;&,a.

(This bar is popular not only among men but also among women.)

~~t~~bc~El;f&~Tf. (My preference for fruit is unlimited (lit. not limited to something); I like any kind.)

L zt * b ~ b,

?6$db=.lrg!b~g'@jSbk%~% $ CI TfTj Z 2 flY$jj?, (Whatever you do (lit. Not limited to anything), it is important to do it with sincerity.) -

Kagiram is a negative continuative form of kagiru 'to limit.'

(Arranged marriage is not limited to Japan; it is practiced in other countries, too.)

Noun

C:iil;y d2$o>~T$*$ihhT~1&o

250 ni kagirazu / ni kagitte

- dake de (wa) naku - (mo) is used in similar contexts. In fact, KS, Exs.(a) and (b) can be paraphrased using this structure, as in [I] - [3].

~ e w m w am:ct-mcz)a< ia.n'osTsfi'i;hit-rwa.(~f. KS) (Arranged marriage is practiced not only in Japan but also in other countries, too.)

8 % d 2 3 5 ' / ~ 3 T ~ C f P ( l t ) ~ < ~ i l T & M ? i 3 T O (cf.Ex.(a)) (When it comes to music, I do not listen just to classical music, I listen to anything.)

2 ~ l f - d2%tWtf T(ib) < k,EDWK.f AB-nl'a&,a. (cf. Ex.(b)) (This bar is popular not only among men but also among women.)

However, - dake de (wa) naku - (mo) cannot be used when an indefinite noun is used in front of ni kagirazu, as in Exs.(c) and (d).

ni kagitte C3R7 7 comp. prt.

(X) of all (X's); only only X is different from others

+ K ~ Y Sentence

1 Noun I I I I I

(Our child, of all children, would not do such a temble thing.)

ni kagitte 25 1 - N C:FE-3?

#!I 0 6 C: PET T (only on that day)

dj 0x b: PE 9 T (only that person)

BP 01 .tlLrbl I t L L e i L= L t i

PwL&i2f:b>-cb%f % SKb>b9 L? 60K, +El KFE9Tb>b9 L-?bG*9fz0 (Prof. Nakano is usually in his office, but today, of all days, he wasn't there.)

%%&9 T&GL> El ~ ~ ~ 6 1 9 T%fl&& LT$ h (Only on the day when I don't bring my umbrella, it rains, you know.) W t t * B C @ ~ : I E ~ - ~ , m;lca'sjJaa7maw0 (Of all times, when I am in a hurry, the bus doesn't come for ages.)

~azM#!I6@~:PE9-c, BEaz kfl%& (Only when something unpleasant happens, do other unpleasant things occur.)

L r i . t l 2 d . + Z0+8@a>f b>f:9,0b:pE9T, 9 3 b?'sb)&0i2ab1, (Only works written by this novelist are never boring.) -

1. The phrase ni kagitte is used to express an exclusive focus on topic item X. The predicate is either explicitly negative as in KS and Exs. (a), (c), and (e) or implicitly negative as in Exs.(b) and (d). An explicitly afflr- mative predicate cannot occur with ni kagitte. Examples follow:

T L * tc I fL L

(1) -?a> El EW97 {??b~b~X%R7 I: / ???% Lda9 7': / ??%%f?~ f:)o (Only on that day {the weather was good / it was cool / I was in good spirits} .)

2. The phrase is the particle ni with the te-form of the verb kagiru 'limit.'

ni kanshite/kansuru CZH L T / H b B comp. prt. <w>

concerning; with regard to; about; on [REL. ni tsuite; no koto]

*Key Sentences

(4

Noun

I I

(With regard to the sales tax, the opinions of the leading party and the I opposition parties conflicted.) I

(Concerning human language acquisition, there are still many unknown things.)

(Last week a conference on superconductivity was held in Tokyo.)

( i ) N K W L T L m t i Ir?-crt

2?# 0 %%bz R L T (concerning the Prime Minister's visit to the U.S.)

(ii) N K M T a N

E# a)%X b= M-if 6 8% (public opinion concerning the Prime Min- ister's visit to the U.S.)

mmaD I L H d . L If-V i

(a) ??a)%%T??~&a>%&h=M L T ~ < o ) & % f l ~ 3 k ~ k , m e r e was a lot of criticism concerning Mr. Yoshioka's presentation at the conference.)

(A report concerning environmental pollution was submitted to the - - - - - - - - - committee.) 'NE - - - - - -- - -

1. Te in ni kanshite may be dropped, as in (1).

However, the te in ni kanshite wa, as in KS(B), cannot be dropped.

2. Ni kanshi(mash0 te wa is used for topic presentation, as in KS(B) and Ex.@).

3. Ni kansuru modifies the noun which follows, as in KS(C), Exs.(c) and

( 4 .

4. The polite form ni kanshimashite, as in Ex.@), can appear in formal speech.

I. Ni tsuite can replace ni kanshite, as in [I] and [2]; this usage is less formal in tone than ni kanshite.

254 ni kanshitelkansuru / ni kawatte

Note that no is necessary after ni tsuite when ni tsuite replaces ni

kansuru, the prenominal version of ni kanshite, as in [3].

11. No koto with a particle and ni kanshite express the same idea. However, no toko is informal, therefore, it is not appropriate in a formal context. In addition, no koto does not have a prenominal version, as in [4].

ni kawatte CZfW 7 7 comp. prt.

in place of; replacing; on behalf replacement or substitution of a of

[REL. kawari nil

+ ~ e ~ Sentence

(In place of Prof. Yarnada, who is ill, Prof. Suzuki taught us.)

Noun vt i 3 o l e r L r w nmm3#r 1Ab3 T, &.%&P&TY-~ 9 f.,,

ni kawatte 255

cn,5 % f k j 5 " 4 ~ b : l ~ ; h 9 ~ ~ 4 % 4 ~ 37F&~3f:, (After the war plastics became available replacing glass.)

L=- F ~ : R ; ~ ~ - c c D ~ K , % % W ~ - C & L < h9r.., (In place of records, CDs have become available, and the sound quality has improved a great deal.) bkL *?? , iwxtL~;h9 -c, @%d ~;k;%r / ~ B B L G : & ~ r.., (In place of my father, I went to the airport to pick up our guest.) c'L*-,C$

R O @ % K R ; ~ ~ I a L-C, ' % Z % $ ~ B % < S @ T ~ > I : ~ ? ~ $9,

(I am very sorry that the president was unable to attend, but I have come in his place.) -

1. X ni kawatte is used to express replacement / substitution of X by s.t. / S.O. else.

2. X ni kawatte which can be used in both spoken and written Japanese. But ni kawari is used only in written Japanese.

elated Expression]

The crucial difference between N ni kawatte and N no kawari ni is that the former cannot be used when on-the-spot substitution of objects is expressed, as shown in [la], and the latter cannot be used when 'replacement' is expressed as shown in [2].

256 ni kawatte / ni kuraberu tolkurabete

[I] a. r 3 1 < - 3 7 X ~ b & i ) ~ 4 ~ 0 % & { a R b c ) L / * ( = f e b 7 ~ ] 7 7 x 9 ~ 30h23;fi'ttlZJ. (In economy class they use plastic wares instead of glass wares.)

The substitution of S.O. by S.O. else can be expressed by both N ni kawatte and N no kawari ni.

ni kuraberu to/kurabete CZkk4.a l: / kk4T comp. prt.

compared with I to; when compared with I to; in comparison

+ ~ e y Sentence

Noun

(Compared to (the situations) in Europe and the U.S., the housing situation in Japan is extremely poor.)

ni kurabetu to/kurabete / ni mo kakawarazu 257 - 7% 1 4: IfL r s*&a%c:~<a k Z c i ~ . ~ f - s z ~ . s ~ i t a & ; i a b: i ~ t t ~ ~ z ,

(I can speak Japanese fairly well now (lit. I have become able to say things in Japanese fairly well) compared to my level before I came to Japan.)

+&i&+i:J~<-c&l 6 $ g b l i r.z0 (In comparison to last year, we seem to have more rainy days this

year.) C * i h L i i + +$$a$b LG:Jk<& k 4 O g b ~ l i ? & : - f ~ (Compared with our life ten years ago, our present life is heavenly (lit. is heaven).)

i L L ILlfWfh

~ ~ % ~ b l ( t l > V = - 9)+?1Ldi, & \ + j l L k . ! k 4 ~ j & . n f ~ $ M < a - Q - c b ~ B o (When compared with the older (computer) model, the operation speed

-

of this new model is three times as fast.) = - - - - - - - - - ' - N - - - - - -- - -

1. Ni kurabetu to and ni kurabete are interchangeable.

2. The particle to can be used instead of ni before kurabem tolkurabete, as in Ex.(d).

ni mo kakawarazu % b" comp. prt. l con.. <w>

although; though; in spite of; despite; notwithstanding; nevertheless

2 58 ni mo kakawarazu

+ ~ e ~ Sentences

I Noun ( I

-

(In spite of his strenuous efforts, Ken'ichi failed the college entrance examination.)

1 (He is fat, although he exercises a lot.) 1

1 (Although the exam was hard, I did well.)

- - - - - - - - - - - N (C) --

I (Although winter mountains are dangerous, Ichiro left for the mountain.)

-- - - - -

Adj(i)inf t S d.

B L f i a ~ f ; ( 0 ) C: B i5.&bb4, .L < &$k0

ni mo kakawarazu 259

(iii) Adj ( i ) inf (a) G: & &A>b b T

Zb&&(C-0 / T&a)c=&&&bbT, +02di3f.?&hTblab'~ (Despite the inexpensive price, that house is not sold yet.) U h L k * ~ i i s ~ g % ~ ~ b ~ r : ( o ) i : & ~ ~ i h b ~ , E i $ ~ a & ~ f : ~ (In spite of the fact that Hiroshi loved Mika, he didn't many her.) L o i +1+

@El di@@LT%&&Lf.:(a)) C:&&&ihL;T, %%Gittl%tb+~I:, (Although I studied all night last night, I didn't do well on the exam.)

I : L t 1: ItL - t:bnL . 5 ~ ~ ) L G i B $ G ~ 3 ~ & ~ ~ T l . ~ f : ( a ) ) C = & & & i h b ~ , B$&Lkj& T+r.o (Although Carol lived in Japan for three years, her Japanese is very poor.) B*Ogv b L < C ItLCL

\t&Bdi%< i ' s 7 T b 1 & (a)) CZ&$&bb4, El*hiif ;kg K&ttlnab', (In spite of the fact that the Japanese economy has become strong, the Japanese people cannot feel the effects.)

2 60 ni mo kakawarazu

(g) 7&7,7,+ i- i= 6 i!Pi!Pb bT , &&mw0 (My apartment is spacious, but the rent is cheap.)

1. X ni mo kakawarazu expresses an idea of 'in spite of X,' where X is an action 1 state.

2. The verb (i.e. Vinf) and Adj(i)inf can be connected directly with ni mo kakawarazu, but Adj(na) has to be nominalized before it is connected with the conjunction, as shown by KS(D) and Ex.@). However, if the Adj(na) is followed by de am, use of the nominalizer no is optional.

- - - - - - - - = N - 7 - - - elated Expression] - - - - -- -- - - -- The conjunctions noni and keredo(mo) can replace ni mo kakawarazu with

proper adjustments of connections.

The basic difference between noni 1 keredo(mo) and ni mo kakawarazu is that the latter is used in written or formal spoken Japanese. The choice of ni mo kakawarazu over keredo(mo) 1 noni implies the stronger disjunctiveness, that is, the former means 'totally contrary to everybody's expectation,' whereas the latter means 'contrary to everybody's expectation.'

based upon [REL. o moto ni (shite)]

+Key Sentences

(A)

I (I will givs you the facts. (lit. I will talk on the basis of facts.)) I

Noun

C D s < ? a L f i L O r i

(This is a study based on historical documents from 500 years ago.)

(ii) N 1: {3W < / &+b>?:l N

A&: I&+ < / &3'bl?:l %% (a report based on a survey)

* = l j b ,

(a) ~a>ggCA72 1) 75%??'?5"-$<T JIS G Z & 3 ' b l T ~ $ t ~ h T b l & 0

(Although this product is made in America, the design is based entirely on the Japanese Industrial Standards (lit. is designed based entirely on . . .).)

6 t G:&+blT &?$$LL$-$~

262 ni motozuite/motozuku / ni naru to

D l O v I f h . < + (b) Z O V I ~ ~ L ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ B ~ Z O S E ~ ; ~ ~ : ~ ~ L ~ I C & I C 1 ; ~ : ~

(This building was (built) based on a famous architect's design.) ii5:< s t t 2 h . * a

(c) LO@%bI&+ f?;k;k7?7 29- 1 - ~ 2 ? 6 : ~ ~ b ~ T & & ; k 7 ' ~ & O T &

z 0

(This report was (written) based on a (questionnaire) survey conducted last year.) 0 t5 L : i i L eL%l hAe.4. S r 3 v < pith.

(d) R l f B O X X I I R O 1 - t + M D & B * P ~ c ~ ~ < ' % T . &bT%&;tb: g x r & O T $ 9 k 0

(Mr. Nomura's lecture was based on his 20-year teaching experience (lit. was a talk based on . . .) and was full of suggestions.)

8 hh. (e) L ; k ~ 1 ~ ~ 0 K & c : g + b 1 j : ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

(This is a discussion based on a hypothesis.) - Ni motozuku and ni motozuita modify the noun which follows, as in KS(B), - . - . -

: =

I N g Exs.(d) and (e). - - - - -

elated ~x~ression]

Ni motozuite can be paraphrased as o moto ni (shite). The prenominal form of o moto ni (shite) is o moto ni shita.

when it becomes; when it when an uncontrollable state or a comes to; when; if

+Key Sentences

(In summer (lit. When it becomes summer), there are many days that exceed 30 degrees Celsius.)

Noun (non-time)

(When it comes to the matter of food, my father was very particular.)

( i ) N(time) &:a62 If3 L: AE%K 2 6 2 (when it becomes 8 o'clock; at 8 o'clock)

(ii) N (non-time) 1: O 6 2 h* m t: O 6 2 (when it becomes rain)

L $r2rrd. -6 s < 5 m a w x a a t , z a i m t 2 ~ 3 ;k~c:&3 b-ifO (In this area, in the middle of April, the cherry trees bloom beautifully.)

t?ll< 6 It?

-=.-.I 29-77 ~'ti$;h;kar911 fiamwoii, % ~ a a t , g%Ft T it 3 ;kb1T.-if0 (In the north-east area of the U.S. called New England, tinted autumn leaves are very beautiful.) btL X Z C * l V $ ht* Lt5 wmt-+w:aat, a-nrmm< aa. (At about 11 p.m., my brain stops working.)

264 ni naru to

h r i L L II<

(d) %b3, 3Zb:a& 2 , T @ W C ~ # % $ C = & ; ~ T ~ ~ T < ;kk0 (When I was a child, in summer, my parents took me to the ocean.) f b W < *v

(el ;kqw1i3~i, % J + G = Q & ~ , L < B ? + ~ L ~ : ~ (When I was a college student, I traveled a lot during vacations.) +h

(f) qEi i7y b;f;'-~ba;f$b:~&tr#$j?, (When the topic of the conversation is football, he is totally absorbed in it.) Le4ri t r t l l L l t + h t

(g) 4kEiiBDZtG:ts&k, A P Z ~ J ~ ~ : L ~ C = W < ~ ~ & ~ (The president becomes lenient as if he were a different person, when it comes to the matter of his daughter.) xp *

(h) r c z a a 2 , ZDZ&L tji i j&c:a~,~ (When it becomes snow, this airport is often closed.) -

1. Regardless of whether the noun before ni naru to is a time noun or not, the N ni naru to as a whole is used to express the time when an uncontrollable state occurs as in KS(A), (B) and Exs.(a) - (c), (f) - (h) or a habitual action occurs as in Exs.(d) and (e).

(+ to4 (DBJG: 480-82))

2. The phrase in question is a subjectless construction because the sentence simply does not have a subject. When the noun I noun phrase that precedes ni nam to is a non-time expression, ni naru to is used either as a subjectless construction as in KS(B) and Exs.(f) - (h), or as a non-subjectless construction as shown in (1) and (2) below in which joyU 'actress' and ham 'spring' are not time nouns. Note that the subject of naru is watashi for (1) and kisetsu for (2).

(1) B & Z C : ~ ~ 2 , m m i % i ~ ' & d a $ ~;k-a*tv , (If I become an actress, my parents might not like itJ * t7 I t &

(2) +287FFC=a& 2 ~ & & k k : ; RseCGiTtvT < &. (When the season becomes spring human heart becomes spontaneously bouncy.)

cates the place of an action1 event, a state or time

+Key Sentences

ni oitelokem 265

comp. prt. <w>

at; on; in; during (REL. de; nil

I I Noun (place I time) I I I

(Next year's general meeting will be held at the Hilton Hotel in Chicago.)

(Computers will probably spread to almost every household in the near future.)

('3

(place I time)

bLBk;Cf b QL C +b1

+ < L ? I!.. dl

(Many scholars from all over the world took part in last month's international conference in Tokyo on environmental protection.)

266 ni oite/okeru

( i ) N K % b a T

7 % 'J 73 C: .$ b . 7 (in America)

(ii) N K B C f N 6r< %bl*b.d.=

7 % 1) 73 I:% lf 6 %!&!&ti3 (student life in America)

1992 %0;5 11 7 P Y 3 i i ~ i ~ - t r n t ~ : ~ ~ ~ ~ E k k s k ~ j . , (The 1992 Olympiad was held in Barcelona.)

& & K B L . . T G ~ Z O L ~ a ~ k ~ k i t j 3 I I ~ $ E G : ~ ~ ; ~ - , I : , (Such things were hardly considered to be problems before (lit. in the

past).) S < X L XLIZ3

Za>+$ftGi?&C:a;ba-CG;t&;f II BmVBGiaba,

(This composition doesn't have many problems in terms of grammar.) D O 9 I:Lw,.3

%%t:g~;c ta%~y~o j t ;q ik~ t~- -~ i t ja~ (The ratio of male students to female students at this school is 2 to 1.)

tr l i d * b, CLd'< I L bs L1 % $ t ~ + t . i ~ ~ z ~ ~ : ~ i f a k a ~ t ~ - c h r ; t ~ - ~ w a . (Dr. Kimura is known as an authority in (the field of) genetics.)

- iaL+/r dh z i*ti 2&!3%+~~7t:%lf &@o& #~G&C:3-if 6 L b l Q D T i t j ~ ko (His achievements during the past five years were truly remarkable.) L@+dr= h 3 I : K 3

4- B + S E l b:BV & @ 0 7 7 ) 1 T 4 ~ & ~ ~ - c b ~ i t r b ~ , (His alibi on the twelfth of October has not been established.)

1. Ni oitelokeru can be used with "non-physical" locations, such as fields of study, as in Exs.(c) and (e).

2. Ni okeru modifies the noun which follows, as in KS(C) and Exs.

(dl - (g).

3. Ni okeru cannot be used to specify existence, as in (1).

ni oitelokeru 267

(1) * 7 0 1 1 Y { U l / C c & j 6 / * E 8 C f 7 i ' . rX=-7 - )bFCik '7C $ X$$$&j (Disney World in Florida is very popular.)

4. Ni oitelokeru is a highly formal expression. Therefore, it is rarely used for personal activities or trivial events, as in (2) and (3).

bLL 3 0 5 % w fl + A

(2) $Lbi%8 Y 3 25'3 2a)@B% { T / ? ? ? E & L \ T I EkBB&I:, (I saw a movie at a theater downtown yesterday.)

5. When ni oite indicates a time, it cannot be used for a specific time, as in

(4).

(4) ?a)$%%bi1991~ {CZ / *CZ&L\TI K$hk, - - (The conference was held in 1991.)

- - - - - - - - - - - - - 'NI - - - - - - - -

This restriction, however, does not apply to ni okeru, the prenominal =

form of ni oite, as in (5).

(5) za)%~ii991+t=~~f~7'i7W%a) GNP B ~ L T W ~ , (This table indicates the GNPs of Asian countries in 1991.)

I. De also indicates the place of an action, an event, or a state. Thus, KS(A) and (C), for example, can be paraphrased as [I] and [2], respectively, using de.

Note in [2] that with ni okeru, the prenominal form of ni oite, no must follow de.

268 ni oitelokeru / ni shitagattelshitagai

De cannot be used when ni oitelokeru is used to indicate a "nonphysi- cal" location, as in [3] and 141.

Unlike ni oitelokeru, de can be used for personal activities and trivial events. (See Note 4.)

(e de (DBJG: 105))

II. Ni also indicates time. Thus, ni oite in KS(B), for example, can be paraphrased as [5] using ni.

Because ni is replaced by no when N ni modifies a noun, ni okeru in Ex.(g) is paraphrased as [6] using no.

Unlike ni oite, ni can be used for specific times. (See Note 5.)

ni shitagattehhitagai Kg-> 7 / %L\ comp. part. / c o d .

as, accordingly; in proportion occurs in accordance with some to; in accordance with; follow-

[REL. ni tsureteltsure]

+Key Sentences

(A)

Subordinate Clause

(As Japan's economic power has become stronger, Japanese language leaniers have increased, accordingly.)

Main Clause

I: 136. 1 W b w 9 r < 91

a ~ D X ~ W P F B <

1 (In accordance with the contract, your tenure shall be three years.) I

( i ) Vinf.nonpast G: { @ 9 T / @ b l I

+a)!&~&+b: {@7 T / @ b > } (As s.0. reads the book)

Vinf . nonpast

&.a

(ii) N 1: { @ 9 T / @ b ) l

1: 7 T / @b) 1 (in accordance with the instructions) - Lail:*i

(a) 4 X A $ % 4 k & t : @ 7 T 9 %?if&f$4kbo

(As our income increases, our expenditure, too, increases.) f i b , l r <

(b) @2&b C:@b>, $$A?PWK&~ (As you grow older, your physical strength declines.)

(c) 3%d&~:@~, Z /$DXF.LX&$(~~ , (As civilization progresses, human stresses increase.)

C:P-&~T/@VI, I: I~L-: u< t*i L+ s ~ m y g ~ ~ $ 2 ~ 3 k0

$$ U z i S 6.w6.< (d) bflf:~b:@qT, X a > % ~ i i H @ L T 3 fz0

(As the days went by, my father recovered from his illness.)

(e) ( b:E3 T, $ & ) S F & r&F.h."3 fz0 (As the sun went down, the temperature went down rapidly.)

L?3 Sh, b a 9 I f 9 Z

(f) %&EP, 4:: &~--dhjgqg& ~ 7 : ~ (In accordance with the promise I returned the loaned money after a month.) L+f r l D b > f i v d.fi

(g) ?tEa>&+bcE9 T , %&iif:f.% i c 7 = 7 bc&&f?, (In accordance with the president's order, he flew to Manila immediately.)

1. Vinfanonpast ni shitagattelshitagai is used to express that s.t. beyond human control takes place simultaneously with s.t. else that goes on. The verbs in both main and subordinate clauses do not express a momentary action, but a continuous process. The following sentences are all ungrammatical, because they use momentary verbs and the two events do not occur simultaneously but consecutively.

6.q l i b ,

(1) * % e h v a ~ r g = ~ , -- % B A V ~ : ~ ; , ~ L W E W A ~ T ?if:, (As I opened the window, a cool breeze came in.)

In the case of N ni shitagattelshitagai, Note 1 is not applicable. In other words, in this construction what occurs can occur momentarily or non- spontaneously. So in KS(B), Exs.(f) and (g), what is expressed there is nothing spontaneous and gradual.

2. Shitagatte and shitagai are originally Vte and Vrnasu forms of the verb shitagau, respectively, which means 'obey,' 'comply,' or 'follow.'

3. ni shitagattekhitagai cannot be preceded by an Adj(i / na) or Cop.

ni shitagattelshitagai / ni suginai 271

(= da 1 desu). And V before ni shitagattelshitagai must be Vinf .nonpast.

4. The difference between shitagatte and shitagai is stylistical. The latter is usually used in written Japanese whereas the former can be used in both spoken and written style.


Vinf .nonpast ni tsureteltsure is an expression very similar to Vinf. nonpast ni shitagattelshitagai. KS and Exs. can all be rephrased by the former without changing the essential meaning except KS(B), Exs.(f) and (g), because the pattern is N ni shitagattelshitagai. The difference seems to be that Vinf.nonpast ni shitagattelshitagai is more of a written style; whereas Vinf.nonpast ni tsurete/tsure is more of a spoken style.

S.t. or S.O. is nothing more than nothing more than; not more what is stated in terms of amount, than; mere; merely; only; just; degree, status, significance, etc. as little / few as; that's all

[REL. dake da; tada no]

+ ~ e ~ Sentences

(This is nothing more than my personal opinion.)

(B)

(The sales increase this term is as little as three percent.)

I I

(That man is not doing more than what he was told to do.)

& 6 h ' ~ ~ ( ~ z ~ ? ) ~ ; h X L ~ ~ ~ k ~

(ii) Number + Counter C:$l 3 a b'

r C L

XA C:B 3' fs ba (as few as five people)

(iii) Vinf (??Cf)C:Bgfsba

Vinf

L T L \ B (Ebf)C:$lgfsba0

ni suginai 273

(What I've just told you is nothing more than my hope, so please don't take it too seriously.)

L * i i : * i t?Li: 6 L

(d) %Lo4X Aii7'1b1W b % h ~ . - c & % 3 3 ~~bk:%$Xab>,, (My income is only $20,000 even if I include my side job (income).)

ZL%i l:L+bt ? (el $LQ%LT < t t ~ X ~ i h % g ~ t t ~ & ~ i - A + Z E K ~ S G ~ ~ ,

(There are no more than about 50 people who support me (lit. The people who support me are no more than about fifty), even if I include my relatives.)

(g) W ( ~ ~ E ) A ~ ~ & & V ~ v L W ~ (w) (He is doing nothing more than echoing other people's opinions.)

(His speech was nothing more than the reading of a prepared manu- -

script.) - - - - - - - - - - - - - Iq g - -

9 6 0 L L l t k l l S L - -

( i ) % ~ k t t ~ ~ ~ i i a ~ m o k ! , !@a%$$%& L?: (EL?) - - -

(Mr. Yamano and I did nothing more than exchange simple greetings when we first met each other.)

1. Ni suginai is not commonly used with adjectives although the patterns in (1) are possible.

To express the idea that someone or something is X and that's all (where X is an adjective), dake da is usually used, as in (2).

(2) zo%iix3b~f:~ff:, (This house is big and that's all.)

(* dake (DBJG: 93-97))

2. In Formation (ii), the quantifier can be either a number with or without

274 ni suginai

a counter, or a word with no number, such as sukoshi 'little, few' and wazuka 'few.'

I. Vinf ni suginai can be paraphrased as Vinf dake da, as in [I].

[I] & 0 % G i ( f : f 2 ) 8 ~ ; k f : Z k Q L T b ~ & t f C f t f o (=KS(C)) (The man is just doing what he was told to do, that's all.)

(+ dake (DBJG: 93-97))

11. N ni suginai can be paraphrased using tada no N da, as in [2].

Note that tada no, however, can also mean 'ordinary' depending on the following noun. Therefore, when tada no N is interpreted in this way, N ni suginai and tada no N da are not exactly equivalent, as in [3].

:+:+ * L * b ,

[3] a. %EGi&@0%4C3!4d&~\~ (He is no more than a high school teacher.)

b. ~Ebif~t-a&@D%&tf ((a) He is an ordinary high school teacher. (b) He is only a high school teacher.)

(+ tada no)

III. Quantifier ni suginai can be paraphrased as tada no (or tatta(no)) N da,

as in [4].

[41 +fYl0%17kC70l$tF'C;t: rktfa/tz7??(a)) 3\'-+7bt;*, (=KS(B))

(The sales increase this term is only three percent.)

ni taishitehaishi tZM l 7 / %it l comp. prt.

toward; to; in contrast to; compares, or shows interest in whereas; in regard to; in; per regarding s.t. / s.0. one opposes, compares or shows interest in

+Key Sentences

1 (Up inti1 now Japan has taken a closed policy toward foreign countries.)

(Japanese colleges are hard to enter; whereas American colleges are hard to graduate from.)

(B)

Sinf Lu,$< t w 3 dr<

A L

I I I I

(In America attitudes toward divorce have greatly changed.)

Noun

a

Noun

t,jtr].L-C, 7 9 '1 ka*yb*g I r i %-F&Ofl %Lb>, ,

( i ) N I:f$LT +L+W %& G:;r;f L T .(towards one's teacher)

(ii) {V I Adj(i)}inf a> Kt$ LT

(8-F / 3 L I: I a> C:H L T (s.o. talks I talked, whereas -) b+

( Z L ~ / %$-> 7:) 0 KfQ LT (LO. is l was young, whereas -)

= (iv) N G: {;r;fT& /HLTa>l N . - . - . - - - . - . . N - - . - - - - - - &% 1: (PQT / H L T 0 1 @ 2 3 (one's view of mamage)

(a) $$AS tvri%t:;r;f L-C $YSE, (Mr. Suzuki is polite towards everybody.)

(b) B m w z ~ ~=;r;f LT$$Q B 2 K%-F< 3 E, (Japan should open its market more widely towards foreign countries.) f l t L +V.C

(c) m i i w ~ : ~ L T ~ ~ L ~ & L $ & ~ ~ (I have a strong interest in politics.) T * 023 & * L i L

(d) + & ~ t i - m c : ; r ; f ~ ~ % ~ ~ t , (The commission charge will be 500 yen per 10,000 yen.)

(el ~ ~ G ~ ? & G : ; ~ ; ~ L I c $ $ ( E%LTL>&, (The citizens are strongly opposed to the tax hike.)

:l:?+V (f) % L ~ i & @ & ~ h b , ~$0ff&G:;r;fL-C!$&$&3 k0

(Since my high school days, I have had an interest in Japanese culture.)

(g) g$i~ &g@&i7$%f rfi3kDb:WLT, 4+bikZ&g-3f:, 2 t L I ; ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

(Last year there were very few car accidents, whereas this year the number was very high.)

IL ItLCL

(h) ~ l $ h b i & t b b ; k f i 9 , k < TktvTQtbblJ k g i , Z i t b c H L ~ , 7%1)55hbik < ri&,V$kjI k g ? . (When Japanese get compliments, they often say "Oh, not at all." In contrast to this, Americans often say "Thank you.")

D. I .<r l t ;d . ( i ) % ~ E o & & I ~ E I & T I ~ ~ E $ ~ ~ o K ~ + L T , % % T I ~ E ~ N ~ L ' .

(Women's position is still low in Japan, whereas in Europe and Amer- ica it is relatively high.)

<I:CI: XLL* I. 3*3 =< f i b . h < (j) F 3 - n r1fO~.b#~i:{~b:hfi3Tbl&a)b:irf LT, i+ B k E k

6?:3ri++L AL % g t i ~ ~ { ~ ~ 3 t G i k ~ ~ ~ l a j E , astern European countries are progressing towards democratization, whereas Continental China and North Korea appear to be slower in

S 3 ; i j 3 d . f

(1) ~ E ~ ~ H H C : ~ Q L T % $ I ] ~ ~ % ~ Q Lf:, (The departmental chief made a remark in Okada's favor.)

l?b,Sb,'#< L+ (m) ?O%RY%O%~: {%-if6 / W L T ) K%bi~db3?:,

(There wasn't a counterargument against the enonomist's thesis.)

1. N ni taishite is used to express s.o.'s attitude / action toward s.0. / s.t. as in KS(A), Exs.(a), (b) and (l), contrast/comparison as in KS(B) and Exs.(g) - (j), confrontation as in Ex.(e), interest as in Exs.(c) and (f), and the sense of 'per' as in Ex.(d).

2. N1 ni { taisurv / taishite no) Nz means 'NZ in regard to N1,' as exemplified by KS(C) and Ex.(k) or 'against' as exemplified by Ex.(m).

3. Taishite can be replaced by taishi in written Japanese or formal speech.

278 ni taishiteltaishi / ni totte

4. N ni taishite and N {na I dearu I datta I deatta} no ni taishite are different in meaning; the latter means 'whereas,' but the former does not, as shown below:

ni totte CZ 2 7 7 comp. prt.

to; for [REL. ni wa]

*Key Sentence

1 (For us this is a problem which cannot be ignored.) I

bf; L %LC:k7-C (totforme)

(a) ZOY$T& b t ~ a z k i z i%~i : k 9 - ~ & 2 1 ~ % ' & t s z 2 T * ~ (Being able to teach at this university is a big honor for me.)

ni totte 279

' f ~ v t v t :i t t l -.we U O A k GL k 3 T Z O I %DR$!$C&~&BCI~EE (For people in this town, the shutdown of this plant is a matter of life and death.)

& i ' $ t ~ ~ ~ b : k 3 T ~ k L ~ ; k L I . s L . ~ ~ G : f h & T . ~ d r jo

(Today will be an unforgettable day for us.) * I:*lCwB< E ltL 3 F r 3

$ & O 7 9 11 1 5 a > % ~ & ~ t i ~ $ & % b = k - s , T ~ $ f b f i @ b : I . s & ~ (America's policy on imports this time will be a big blow to Japanese companies.) :L+W 6%4w

+aOgljt:c&&fl$$1:k 3 T & d rl&ifhb. ,

(There is little benefit for us (lit. for our company) in this merger.) b~GlfL*L-zL If L L

Z Z tiBi: k 3 T-%eQI.s%fi7f0 (This is the safest place for you.)

$$$~tvdi%LG: t 3 - C % L . ~ $ f & L z ~ l : & .

(Mr. Imamura is a remote relative of mine.) - Ni totte cannot mark a noun which represents the experiencer or agent (i.e., the semantic subject). In this case, ni wa is used, as in (1).

(1) a. Z@&$C&%L ILCb / * E & - > 7 1 t t lghbl , (I can't do this job.)

k b. &O+bi%L {LIZ / * K & 7 7 1 (I can't see that character (word or letter).)

(Related ~x~ression]

Ni wa can replace ni totte, as in [I].

[l] a. ZfiGiR-fi.6 {CZkt / K t 771 %8Lffi%I.sb~bV&'& (=KS(A))

b. Z O A Y T R R ~ ; ~ L & L ~ ~ ~ { t z ~ t / E L : T T I & f i r % % I.s Z k T-F0 (=Ex.(a))

Ni totte has a prenominal form ni totte no, as seen in [2], but ni wa does not.

280 ni totte / ni tsuite

6.h .RL+fL&-Z

[2] {Ek~TUl/*ElbUll BWii2, ~ & 7 5 ' 8 % ~ 6 7 5 ' & ~ 1 j t s b ~ ~ 2 7Zo (The problem for Taro is that he doesn't understand English.)

In addition, because of the particle wa, ni wa gives a sense of contrast in some contexts while ni totte does not. In [la], for example, the sentence with ni wa can imply that not for others but for us, or at least for us, this is a problem which cannot be ignored. The sentence with ni totte does not have this implication.

ni tsuite C Z 3 L \ T comp. prt.

+Key Sentences

('4)

about; on; concerning; regarding; with regard to; of [REL. ni kanshite; no koto]

1 (I am doing research on the Japanese political system.) I

I I I I

(Mr. Smith asked me various questions about his going to Japan for study.)

ni tsuite 281

( i ) N 1 : 3 b > T

f b W <

A% l: 9 b > T (concerning college)

( i i ) Sinf Z I: l Z 9 b l - C

&F& < Z I: C:3b>T (concerning my going there)

(iii) {N, 1 Sinf Z k ] b:Tb>Tcr) N2 L i t ? ? i r i W < a% b: 9 b > T cr) &,$$ (an opinion about elementary education)

bLfblTL

8 $-8qt Z I: 1: 9 b1-C cr) Fn7#B,6 (problems concerning studying abroad in Japan)

- P Y < &@BG:~L>T% LTYS ba0

(Please talk about your family.) L 5

$~c:~~>-cR<TI,>z, AT$*, (What are you investigating?)

ggcr)g&:3b>T&b>* $, l,>,,>-p$-*,

(May I ask you about your daily life?)

El$b=h&%C:, E l $ l C 3 b > T r A ? ' s 4 3 - ~ % & 3 ~ b > 1 ; 3 L ~ b 1 3

Lf:% (What kind of images did you have of Japan before you came to Japan?) *L*W ~ ~ 2 & % & i ~ : 9 ~ ~ 7 4 % ~ 9 ~ j ~ . e b > l ~ 7 : ~ (Our teacher told us to write a composition on our own country.)

LL lt9:L ~ 2 7 - 9 11 ~ ~ 1 : g ~ g t a z ~ ~ : 9 b > ~ % # t j $ i i i ~ ~ ; ~ (I talked with my parents regarding my getting married to an Ameri- can.)

L m i S r i d.LV +I; +b,k ' t L s$Acr)$ % l : ~ b ~ ~ c r ) ~ ; i f i l 2 F • ˜ f $ h c r ) I: Cid.?'s b!&j. (Japanese views on religion are quite different from those of Westem- ers.)

282 ni tsuite

(The newspaper company asked about my views on the problem of hiring foreigners.)

(There have been heated discussions as to whether it is right or wrong for Japan to send its army abroad for peace-keeping purposes.)

N1 ni tsuite no N2 means 'N2 concerning N1,' as shown in Ex.(g).

The difference between N ni tsuite and N no koto is that the former means 'about 1 concerning N,' but the latter, 'things about N.' Compare the following three sentences.

[I] A: h % S ~ % h g T b > 3 T i P ~ (Do you know Mr. Tanaka?)

(Yes, I've known him for many years.)

[2] A: EElqS LK3L\7%i l~Tb~3~iPo (Do you know about Mr. Tanaka?)

&%A k

B: 22, fT%LT, 2UgTb>3T0 (Yes, I know of him through books.)

[3] A: E a ~ s L a ~ ~ 2 ~ 9 T b ~ 3 - i f ~ 0 (Do you know (things) about Mr. Tanaka?)

B: miP&9~:LTTiP0 (Did something happen to him?)

ni tsuite / ni tsuki 283

[lA] is a straightforward sentence of 'to know s.t.' In other words, [lA] expresses direct knowledge. [2A] has 'N ni tsuite' and expresses more indirect knowledge ; [3A] concerns knowledge about circumstances surrounding N (i.e., Tanaka). So, the following combinations are all very awkward: *[lA]-[2B], *[l A]-[3B], *[2A]-[lB], *[2A]-[3B], *[3A]-[l A], *[3A]-

VBl. (e kotol (DBJG: 191-93))

ni tsuki C Z 3 3 comp. prt.

a; per; for; on; to expresses a rate or ratio [REL. atari]

*Key Sentence

(This job will pay you six dollars an hour. (lit. You can get six dollars an hour doing this job.))

L o&&;f

Number + Counter C= 9 3

--@AG:9?c (perhour)

Number + Counter Vtj I: 6.h

-HE'

b > ~ 2 - V ? < : t * i i h i' 4 1 5

(a) -#G:9 3EE+ HO& #& ll2-if0 (A hundred and fifty yen is necessary per copy for postage. (lit. Postage of one hundred and fifty yen is necessary per copy.))

?c

Number + Counter

2 FIL & b k a 0

284 ni tsuki

k A C * l Tt' l r l (b) F+BG:~$D+BOF&+~QL.~~:~~T,

(We place a forty-yen service charge on five thousand yen.) zmt, , p ss I: l a b > b 1 1 4 b 1

(c) 8-15 Y ~ " G - 9 3 , L d 7?&k3 C 1 6 0 % B e t : L 3 T o (The ratio should be two tablespoons of soy sauce to a cup of rice.) P 1 S D t r )

(d) gf+l&-hG:9 $?E~TG: L - C Y ~ L . ~ , (Please limit it to three tickets per person.) f 6 d r Dt v = T L l T L T L

(e) BdZba-~ t : ~ 3 -,6i&,6 L 3 TO (1'11 take one point off for each mistake.)

1. Although in most cases the number which precedes ni tsuki is one, any number can precede ni tsuki, as seen in Ex.(b).

2. When the number before ni tsuki is one and a noun does not immediately precede that number, ni tsuki may be dropped, as in (1). - - E = - n N r-- = - - (1) a. ZOI?E&&-%A ( l Z 7 3 ) k F I L & l; 26, (=KS)

If the number before ni tsuki is not one or if a noun immediately precedes that number, ni tsuki must appear, as in (2).

(2) a. 5S-E! ( E 7 3 / *01 P4+NO%B+tBb~f:ff 3 3T0 (=Ex.@))

(We place a forty-yen service charge on five thousand yen.)

b. ZOBP~~~?%BE'J ( C C 7 d / *01 + r l L & 6 La, (This job will pay you ten dollars for three hours.)

3. Ni tsuite can be used instead of ni tsuki, although ni tsuite is less common.

ni tsuki / ni tsurete/tsure 285


Atari also means 'per.' The difference between atari and ni tsuki is that while atari can be used with a counter only (i.e., without a number), as in [I], ni

tsuki requires both a number and a counter. When atari appears with a counter only, however, it appears only with certain counters.

h

[ l] a. E@Bd W f; 1) 5 l=)b (five dollars per hour)

b. + u 3 1) 3~ (two thousand yen a kilo)

Atari is also used in the structure - atari no N, as in [2].

[2] a. E@Bd% f; 11 a)&% (wage per hour (i.e., hourly wage))

b. 4 3 7~ 1) a)%$& (wholesale price per kilo) hL+Ltlh L r i D D r i

c. %&AS f: 1) a)%HX PR R f (annual per capita rice consumption (lit. annual rice consumption per citizen))

ni tsurete/tsure CZ7h 7 / 7 h conj. /cornp. prt.

as; in proportion to; with change occurs in accordance with [REL. ni shitagattelshita-

gai; - ba - hodo; to torno nil

+ ~ e ~ Sentences

(As my Japanese became more proficient, the number of my Japanese friends increased.)

1 (Culture also changes with the change of the times.) I

&+ K9hT (As one reads s.t.)

(ii) N KQhT b SL

%%a)@lk C= 9 hT (with the change of temperature)

t 3 . P I < &&a c:Q;~T, wmtb < tba, (As people grow older, they lose their physical strength.)

(c) El$a)~&F~<Q61:.=)kLT9 El$OlS,~Sdzl<&~~T31~o (As I've spent more time in Japan, I have come to understand the good and bad parts of Japan better.)

I W S ~ ~ P 1 < (d) El$a)@%~$~&~b1:9hT, E l ~ ~ O ~ ~ ~ ~ T 3 f : o

(As Japan's economic strength has grown, Japanese language students have increased.)

(el $&A$< tba c:~&T, %3$i5~?ih~~i:tbT~3 fz0 (As we've moved further into autumn, the colored leaves have become more beautiful.) : Fb + V 8 r i

(f) Fl%d&Ek Etb C:9kLT, %$\b@hTba < . (As children grow up, they become independent of their parents.)

(g) ~ a > m t c : ~ ; k ~ , K$hz;hao (The scenery also changes with season changes.)

(With industrial development, pollution also increases.)

1. Vinf .nonpast ni tsurete (or its more formal version Vinf-nonpast ni tsure) is used to express two simultaneously growing changes.

2. Since the conj. / comp. prt. expresses change, the verbs used in the tsurete/tsure clause and the main clause have to be a verb of change / process such as jdtatsusuru 'become proficient' and fueru 'increase' (in KS(A)), toshi o tom 'become old' and naru 'become' (in Ex.@)), seichdsuru 'grow' and hanarete iku 'become independent' (in Ex.(f)). Unless both of the verbs indicate change / process, the sentence is not acceptable, as shown below.

- - - - - - - - - - - (1) *EI$EQ%L&E~~T, &.k~&Zka>%~Ed 'S3 .d .~7 ' :~ - - - = N - - - - - - - - -

- (As I have taught Japanese, I have come to realize the difficulty -- of the Japanese language.)

L 2

(2) *?a>,J\ 3iCizGK~hT, &F&Q jz0

(As I keep reading the novel, it has become more interesting.)

In (1) and (2) both verbs in the tsurete clause and in the main clause are verbs that do not indicate change, resulting in unacceptable sentences. Even if the main verbs are replaced by verbs of change / process, still the sentences are unacceptable, as shown in (3) and (4).

To make the sentences grammatical the verbs in the tsurete clause have to be replaced by the verbs of change / process like the following:

elated ~xpression]

All the cases of Vinf. nonpast ni tsureteltsure can be rephrased with - ba -. hodo which indicates that in proportion to the increase of extent 1 degree of action or state, s.t. happens, as in [I] and [2]. However, - ba - hod0 can be paraphrased by ni tsureteltsure only when the former expresses some change or process.

EI*ZWkBT;kIgT& C3 c , EI*AOZB$4;iI& (cf. KS(A)) (The more proficient I become in Japanese, the more Japanese friends I made.)

%%Rfii%%&C3~?, # f J P G < (cf. Ex.@)) (The older you get, the weaker you will become.)

El*m-&;i;kid'a;i&C%Z, &;i&Z kO%LL$%;filQfi. (The more I have taught Japanese, the better I have come to understand the difficulty of teaching it.) +*El$-%Q&f &CZ7hT, & A & ZkO%LL$%;fil~k,

(=(1)) -- El*ZQ&LTbl< EThT, & A & Z kO$&LL$%da~T31:.

(=(5))

%O/J\RIi%biX%+C3EP$$&-> 7:. (The more I read the novel the more interesting it became.) -- *?O/JSM%QrE7hT, R$&Q k , (=(2)) -- %O/J\Rii3W%+CZ3hT, Ri5'BT 3 k0 (=(6))

There is another fundamental difference between the two structures under comparison. In front of ni tsureteltsure comes only a verb or noun, but in front of - ba - hod0 comes not only a verb but also an Adj(i / na).

(+ - ba - hodo)

niwa 289

ni wa E conj. / cornp. prt.

to; in order to; for; for the pur- to indicate a purpose for doing s.t. pose of -

[REL. ni; tame ni; no nil

+Key Sentences

(In order to lead a rich life, health should be your primary concern.)

&&gB

1 (High-heeled shoes are unsuitable for hiking.)

Vinf . nonpast

26

Noun

( i ) Vinf .nonpast b: Ck

- - - - . - - - . - . - -

6 < 1: Ck (for going there)

c: Ck

&$I: 12 (for one's work)

1: It& : b % l f / u

(a) ~ F Q ~ u & C L C ~ H ~ P ; ~ Q ~ s o I ~ ~ P - ~ E ~ (The best course for getting to know Japan is to study the Japanese lan-

guage.)

&R$%-& I 6 - 5 fw~t ,

E M - - - - - - - -- - n 4 k-lkk? n-f+>9 E l k $ & 3 E o

C , L t k ' * f i (,,I * & % e & i : ~ ~ ~ : 1 2 ~ & % f : < s & & 9 Z 2 f l x & 7 ? o

(TO enrich your life it is important is to have many hobbies.) h d . C ? 8 3 1 1 < 031'1

(c) X O & & ~ ~ & < c:c2?i?~~$l% Thfl!lZSftO

(In order to see through a person's personality, one needs to have deep insight.)

m i P k < < I: -)I (d) W360~~naGca~c:i i+0~i~.r-r< 0 f l - t ~ ~ 5 .

(The best way for developing one's proficiency in a foreign language would be to go to the country of that language.)

Vo maintain world peace, exchange among the general public rather than exchange among elites is essential.)

(f) A%L$- I. $%< 1 : 1 ; f 7 - ; P n ~ k ; J ~ ~ ~ ~ 1 ~

(A word processor is a must for writing a term paper.) - - - . - . - . -

(g) & 0 ~ 2 ~ & T h i:l;f&f&fl&&bO - - - -- - (It takes time to persuade him.)

w r k t t i 0 9 x 3 (h) Z 0 3 4 1 0 ~ ~ 1 : t b & b : l i ~ ~ 0 k ~ ~ ~ f l ! l Z ~ ~ f ~ ~ 1 ~ ,

(In order to become a member of this club a member's letter of recom- mendation was necessary.)

( i ) z o ; ~ a i ; ~ ' / v ~ ; f % % i : i2%Arz0

(This bag is suitable for a long travel.) IfL P w i

(j) Z O W ~ ~ : C ~ ~ & G 0 ~ ~ ~ ~ d $ f l + f i ~ ~ (This research needs a considerable amount of time and money.)

1. Vinf.nonpast ni wa is used to indicate a purpose for doing s.t. The predicate often expresses the necessity for or importance of using a specific means.

niwa 291

2. Vinf.nonpast may be nominalized by no, as in (1) and (2) below.

There is no difference in meaning between ni wa and no ni wa.

3. Ni wa can take not only a Vinf.nonpast but a noun as shown in KS(B), Exs.(i) and (j). A noun here is a noun of action which can take the verb sum. There are two types of such nouns: one is the stem of the so-called sum-verb, such as kenkyu of kenkyii-sum (of Ex.(j)) or the direct object of sum, such as nagatabi (of Ex.@). If a noun is not a noun of action, the sentence does not express a purpose, as shown in (3).

L * l l1

(3) a. % i : i d ? ~ ~ P V B B , T V > ~ - + ~ (On weekends I watch TV at home.)

(+ nil (DBJG: 289-91))

c. %$i:ib$@dff L>T& 7 7'zo (On the blackboard were written kanji.)

(+ ni4 (DBJG: 295-96)) . t L *

d. &%%i:i2#hwQ$17k0 (Nobody was at the office.)

(+ ni6 (DBJG: 299-302))

c. F $ ~ : ~ Z ~ L T ~ T 3 a LIZ , (To Tokyo I went alone.)

(+ ni7 (DBJG: 302))


There are at least four similar purpose expressions in Japanese. b?L d%:< Z . i L l r 3

[I] a. %LC;f.@HSOI@%i:@H-1'i7 7zo (I went to Korea for the study of Korean.)

292 ni wa / ni yotte/yon'

b. %~i2@@%%@5&Lt=%@"?T-' r:o

(I went to Korea to study Korean.)

c. wmazam.wa t ~ t w z ~ a - 4 7 ~ r~ (I went to Korea in order to study Korean.)

d. +LCmElzBBS&tba Iocc /*[:I %@.2?T3 r:, (I went to Korea for the purpose of studying Korean.)

[la] means practically the same as [lb]. However, the latter construction has a restriction on the main verb ; that is, only the verb of motion can be used. The difference between [la] and [lc] is that the latter has the stronger meaning of purpose. [la] sounds more casual than [lc]. [la] is different from [Id] in that the latter puts more weight on the way the speaker learned Korean. In other words, [Id] implies seriousness of the purpose.

( e n i 5 (DBJG: 297-99)); noni2 (DBJG: 335-37))

ni yottejyori CZ k 9 7 / k b) comp. prt.

according to; due to; owing to; because of; depending on; from

cause, agent of passive sentence, - to; by means of; on the basis of; with; by (REL. ni; de; no tame nil

+ ~ e ~ Sentences

(A)

I (We examine unknown kanji with a Chinese character dictionary.) /

1 (Teaching methods are, of course, different, depending on the teacher.)

1 (We lost our father, owing to the war.)

1 (This research institute was established by the Ministry of Education.) I

(I will decide my entrance to college, depending on whether I can get a scholarship or not.)

Embedded Yes-No Question L L + V < S L

!%%&fr'%%X6tP rij5. Kh9-C r w < l:a?rl*<

k+h+Q&di,3$,

I (Our health condition changes according to what we eat.) 1

Embedded Wh-Question

EE&T5h>

1 (We can expand our horizons by reading books.)

N e k 7 T rv a iFkRh: k 9 T (by the government)

{VIAdj(i)]inf $ P i $C: { k 9 T / h 17 I

K h 9 T

(iii)

(iv)

I AZi I 2 5 f i b ,

k&%%Ci&bb.,

I?kb /&Iz l $.ri$h: { k 7 T / h 1 7 1 (dependingonwhether S.O. comes / came or not)

{%~L~/EFIQ$QI ; I daPi$l: { k 9 T / h 1 7 I (dependingon whether s.t. is / was interesting or not)

{Adj(na)stemlN) { f l / I . ~ k I ; 3 a r i $ C : { h g T / 1171

{$&fl /%$~l29f i1 dlr3d.h: { h 7 T / h 1 7 1 (dependingon whether s.t. is / was quiet or not)

Embedded Wh-Question G: { h 9 T / k 17 I

hd7Lz;S. C: I h 7 T / h 17 I (depending on what s.0. ate)

%% b $a C: { h 7 T / k 17 I (depending on who comes)

- A%*?%*.) I b,

(a) Z0,"6di+g + & c L ~ Q T ~ $ ~ ) ~ ~ - x Q F L F T $ ~ Z ~ P ~ ~ ~

% a 0 (These days we can watch world news on TV via satellite live broad- casting.)

6 3 CLk6

(b) ~ ~ ~ ~ i i ; b . r ; 3 . a ) B % t : 1 TE"~ L T P ~ , (The old people are living on little savings.)

(c) +a)'$$ti$$L&a b=d: Q ~ g E t t l % b d i f 72, (We should be able to solve that problem by means of negotiation.)

(d) XG:h3T, ~ a ) k ) ~ h P B i . (Depending on the person, the aging process differs.)

(e) % I ~ + o ~ o K & G = L Q T , ~i%$+$ii$ 3*o (Depending on the day's mood, I listen to different music.) Tblh!., 61v *

A f C : h ~ T B i O (f) a+iiA (Retirement ages vary from company to company.)

.ttV.hL f *< CV L*h. C SV 3 D

(g) ?a)s+dii%%i:h9Ts B @ R & T L 3 97& (The young man lost his adolescence because of drugs.) 2.h aLVr i Z w $ a, O i

(h) ~E~~%%G:~QTRW$~~EG:~Q~'Z~ (He became unable to come back because of the difficult disease.)

L7r ( i ) ~ ~ & i ~ f i YG:L

(This picture was painted by Picasso.)

(j) ~$~J~~X@~~~~'/YX~:LQT%HS~LT:~ (The American Continent was discovered by Columbus.) C 1% 5b1hL I t b+ ( t g k

(k) ~~+$+~fa-n.ri-n.c:d:Q-c, % + a ) z t m ~ ~ < & ; b - > - r $ z*, (Depending on whether or not I cin go to Japan, my coming year's schedule will become totally different.) 3+ l 3 L L

(1) ~ k k @ t t l % a ; 3 . ~ i ; ~ . ~ = L Q T , ~ a ) ~ a % , % % P R ~ ~ A T * ~ (My fortune will be determined by whether I can many you or not.)

I: IiL-Z dr< L e i L r L L l l (m) Y O H $ . ; ~ D % & K ~ 5 $ K 19 T, Y E 80BtkPB5 iiTEo

(The learner's progress should differ, depending on which Japanese language instructor he learns from.)

%a I t < L % L L ~ + . - ,

(n) % ~ & G ~ T ~ $ K L ~ T , M L B T ~ , E ~ % ? & S ~ O (The same musical piece sounds different, depending on who performs it.)

(0) 7'91) fiTii&~2&~<&bh36Zkk:L9T, !i%??&.b~Zk Pf f i%bo)TCi t sb>l26 5 $, (Would it not be possible to reduce crimes in the U.S. by maintaining strict control of drugs?) C ? L r p h L A

(p) ~ d @ o & & b : L b & 2 o g i i a + q 2 ~ b ~ b ~ (The number of the people killed in automobile accidents is increasing every year.)

(q) & ~ t : L b F & ; k C i k < & b Z k r ? , (Belated treatment due to misdiagnosis is a matter of frequent occur- rence.) -

1. The particle ni yotte indicates the means for doing s.t. (e.g. KS(A), (G), Exs.(a) - (c) and (o)), dependency on a situation / s.t. / S.O. (e.g. KS(B), (E), (F), Exs.(d) - (f) and (k) - (n)), cause for s.t. (e.g. KS(C), Exs.(g) and (h)), and an agent of a passive sentence (e.g. KS(D), Exs.(i) and

(3). 2. When ni yotte means dependency on a situation, the preceding element

can be an embedded Yes-No question (e.g. KS(E), Exs .0 and (1)) or a WH-question (as in KS(F), Exs.(m) and (n)).

3. When ni yotte means a means for doing s.t., it can be preceded by a clause norninalized by koto as in KS(G) and Ex.(o).

4. - ni yotte can be unconditionally replaced by - ni yori when it means dependency on a situation / s.t. / LO., as in KS(B), (E), 0, Exs.(d) - (f) and Q - (n). The difference between the two is that - ni yori is used in written Japanese.

(1) a. El$%O%&OWZii%&L { & 7 T /??A11 I Bb>3T 1, (The teaching methods of Japanese teachers differ depending on the teacher.)

S S . 5 . * I % ? 3 ; . 5 L a b. ~l ; i~ twa%kec iamcr ra77 / ~ U I @a&.

(The Japanese language pedagogy differs depending on the instructor.)

In (la) ni yori is unacceptable, because it is used in spoken Japanese, whereas the same comp. prt. can be used in (lb) which belongs to written Japanese. The replacement is also possible when - ni yotte means an instrument with which to do s.t.

However, when the instrument is a concrete, tangible object ni yori cannot be used as in (3).

When the particle means a cause or a passive agent, - ni yori is not used. Thus, the following sentences are all marginal.

(4) a. ??R9CZ& 1) X%C < L k o (cf. KS(C))

5. In the prenominal use of N1 ni yoru Nlr the comp. prt. expresses cause as in Ex.(p) and (q), or a means as in (5a) or a passive agent as in (5b).

(Even in the humanities field research using computers is popular.)

C r i k i L e 7 C L ' I L

b. - 3 - 3-3TCi~%'% H B L & ~ ~ A & + S & ~ L T ~ ~ 0

(In New York City murders by habitual drug users occur frequently.)

In all of these ni yotte cannot be used.

I. The particle de of means can always replace ni yotte of means, as shown below: (+ de2 (DBJG: 106-07))

However, ni yottelyori cannot always replace de of means. Examples follow:

i i $ 1 5 ii?' ?L d.L

b. &%047 11 - 7 2 i i 2 #k02&1~ (7" / CZ&=-CI %$LT~% (The urban white-collar workers are commuting by public transportation.) bt; L

[3] a. $Lt;f7-;P~ {T/*CZ&97} + ~ B Q I / ~ T V ~ ~ , (I am writing a letter with a word processor.)

(Document preparation is handled by a word processor.)

[4] a. -if&4.b-tf . lUfl, Kg277 7 3 ; ~ { T / * i Z & 7 7 ) g9-C Y ~ b ~ 4 . b - t f . l U %

(Could you kindly send the manuscripts by fax?)

(These days, it is common practice to communicate by fax.)

In [2]-[4], ni yoffe is totally unacceptable in the (a) sentences and acceptable in the (b) sentences. The crucial difference between (a) and (b) sentences is that the former belongs to spoken Japanese, whereas the latter belongs to more impersonal and formal Japanese. The impersonal and formal aspects of the latter are accented by the use of Sino- Japanese words. In short, the basic difference between de and ni yotte is a stylistical difference; the former can be used in both spoken and written Japanese, but the latter is usually used only in written Japanese - - or very formal speech. - - - - - - e 1 - e

II. The difference between the agent marker ni and ni yotte is grammatical and stylistical. The sentences in [5] show that when the subject of the passive sentence is inanimate (such as 'research institute,' 'painting,' 'American Continent') the agent has to be marked not by ni, but by ni yotte.

[6a] and [7a] show examples where ni is chosen over ni yotte.

[6] a. 7 I )X i&?3 'J { C Z / * C Z & 7 7 ) lj4.b3kLlz0 (Alice was deceived by John.)

3 k-- 7%

b. 7*kb;f.&d!?% {CZ / K & 7 T ] 2 # ~ k L l z o (The demonstrators were dispelled by riot police.)

O L ? A

@ i i % € 2 r n $43 I K / *Lk971 & 3 t L k o (I got my letter read by my parents.)

L X?LL&bI d(*, b 6 0

&f;;* iiWRpTiO@bf RBfibBO% IC: / CZk7T1 Z3 tL72, (We got our secret document of the research institute read by unknown outsiders.)

%LiiEl$ZO%& it: /*C:k771 ~ $ 2 h L k o (My Japanese teacher corrected my pronunciation (lit. I am annoyed by the fact that my professor corrected my pronunciation).) $1 +b, $ r i t t b .

& W Z i i & ! ~ b ~ E l $ ~ & ! 3 it: / Kk971 %BEE23 t L k 0 (The students had their pronunciation corrected by their strict Japanese instructors.)

Sentences [6] - [S] show that ni yotte/yori can be used in (b) type sentences which have impersonal and formal written style, but not in (a) type sentences which have personal style.

(+ rarerul (DBJG: (364-69))

In. The particle ni yotte/yori of cause has the related expressions de and no tame ni. KS(C), Exs.(g) and (h) can be rewritten using de and no tame ni as shown below.

(+ de3 (DBJG: 107-09); tame (ni) (DBJG: 447-5 1))

[9] a. R 9 { ~ / a ) ~ @ L ' l X Q t < LIZ, (cf.KS(C))

b. ? O W 4 i i R % IP/a)t=@El 3 W $ R 2 & 7 T L 3 9 k0 (cf. Ex.(g))

c. %&ti%% IT / B@Tf;8Bb:tb 9 k , (cf. Ex. (h))

As shown in [lo], there are cases in which ni yoffe is unacceptable for some unknown reason.

[lo] a. &% ITlcDktbE l*C:k77l tTb$&~l : , (Because of my work I got very tired.)

b. gg {TI a)f;&C: /*Czk~Tl $Ht?~r%tvl?, (Because of illness, I took a day off from the company.)

t b - L : *

c. $$$& {T/ a)r-mz /*C:&TTI j ~ ~ a ~ t ~ (Because of the power failure we had a difficult time.)

The crucial differences among de, no tame ni, and ni yotte are: first, ni yotte and no tame ni are more formal than de. That is why abstract Sino-Japanese words go more harmoniously with the former as shown in [lla] below:

I b % $ W i 9 T L

[ l l ] a. El$OkE4%b {a)k&E/E&=T/??Tl El$?E%B B7F%;ilzo (Because of Japan's economic progress, Japanese language learners have increased.)

b. El$O&@O%b {a)f:&~z/Cz&.>T/Tl El$%YB %7M;ilzo

= = - - - - - - In [llb] de becomes acceptable, because the inserted no makes the s = N I = -

entire sentence less formal. Secondly, de can be used to mean 'cause' rather loosely, but ni yotte can be used only when the focus is sharply placed on a 'cause,' as shown in [12].

[12] a. &D~Lii%3 (T/??a)k&tZ /*E&=TI % % t V t v ; ~ x ~ 7: (Because of money problems I quarrelled with my friend.)

b. 9 a b a k 1 Z k {T/*a)fL&EI*Cz&TT) ?itv~k\b i a 0

(You are suffering because of a trivial matter, aren't you?)

302 no kankei de

no kankei de CDMf%T phz

because of place or does not take place [REL. no tame (ni)]

because of s.t.

+Key Sentence

I I 1

(Mr. Hall has gone to Tokyo on a business-related matter.)

Noun

.F3 C r i c 3 ~ ~ A G & & ~ ) E E ~ B T ~ $ c ; ~ : + % B%abl+i 12, (I heard that Suzuki cannot graduate this year because of insufficient credits / units.)

&?$DWQT, %%T-if;3", ~ S ; L < a;%~B%3*tv, (Because of the time limit, I am sorry I cannot go into detail.)

L L m ? K L k> t i? & ~ ~ % S D W ~ % T , El t- AM kt2~!$~c'B%3*& (Because of the size of the room we cannot invite more than 40 people.) b b z h L h V

H E R A ~ ~ ~ W D W ~ ~ T , %i IZ i I., (It seems that Momoko was not hired because of her age.)

d w w L*-&r? LXII -b2%?fa)WfiTdr <%Mi: B @$6 6 LL\, (I was told that Leslie makes frequent company-related business trips

1

no kankei de 303

abroad (lit. makes frequent trips abroad because of his company).) - L * t L ZLhL t

(f) &@J 3 i2@3p%Aa)e3a)WRTn 7 F7 G:34%itr55 I?, (I heard that because of her husband's work Miyuki is going to live in London for 3 years.)

(g) B&DwRT, tO;PmYx? bb~$.&t:tb71~~ (Because of the budgetary situation, the project has been cancelled.)

N no kankei de is used to refer to causal relationship in a very indirect way. In fact, the noun kankei means 'relationship' and the particle de indicates a causal relationship. (+ de3 (DBJG: 107-09))


The following sentences are saying virtually the same thing, but they are slightly different from each other.

Among the five choices, N no kankei de is the most indirect reference to causal relationship, because it does not need to be specific about the cause (i.e., (lack of) budget funds in [la] and [lb]). N no tame (ni) is next most indirect about specification of the cause. Exs.[lb] and [lc] show that the preceding N can be a neutral yosan 'budget' or a negative yosan-busoku 'lack of budget.' N de, kara and node all requires a specific cause. In this sense they are markers of direct reference to causal relationship. Among de, kara and node, the latter two are markers of more direct reference to causal relationship.

(+ tame (ni) (DBJG: 447-51); node (DBJG: 328-31); kara3 (DBJG: 179-81))

304 no koto

no koto OIL- 2 phl:

about; in terms of; related to [REL. ni kanshitelkansuru; ni

+Key Sentences

1 (I'm going to talk about Japanese culture in my lecture tomorrow.) I

1 (You'd better forget about her now.)

p -- -- --

v

1 (I'd like to talk to you about studying in Japan.)

Noun

(Actually, it's (=The reason I'm calling is /The reason I came to see you is) about tomorrow's meeting.)

%,

0

Noun

WS&&

(2 Q ~ ~ ~ L ~ F . ~ ~ L \ ~ ~ L .

0 L k C L T j - f l o

no koto 305

N D Z t :

Z 2 (about an I the exam) - S o i h h b

F F E I K # S / ~ ~ . ' ~ O Z 2 Q b ~ 3 b r . 4 h b ~ ' i C b ~ I : ~ . (Miss Arai asked various questions about you yesterday.)

~?vfl<W+q H 6

L S - bbi~l$.Dkf&@DZ2Q&Zi 2,F,~' iCb>6. (For my term paper I'm thinking of writing about college life in Japan.)

+&'9Z 2 bi~~d.'W&t; a.t, (I'll take the responsibility for our children (lit. for things related to our children).) :/r+w CI L*? i2w-b. * t, CHCW ~ 7 0 ~ 2 ~ t i j ~ ~ ~ m - a II a LIZ. (I owe you a lot in terms of my internship this time.)

TL t, hb. L n i

& D i , k;%z&Ll:Dli, %3!0,\"-74 - D Z 2 a / v T t 7 F 0 ((The reason) I'm calling (is to talk) about the party next week.) -

1. No koto literally means 'things of I about.' Thus, X no koto o kaku, for example, literally means 'to write things about X.' This phrase often appears with a particle to form a compound particle meaning 'about,' as in KS(A) - (C) and Exs.(a) - (d).

2. X no koto (nan) desu ga is used to introduce the reason for phoning someone or visiting someone, as in KS(D) and Ex.(e), or to introduce a topic to the hearer, as in (1).

(1) A: =, L$- b@LttbATbSo (Professor, I'd like to talk to you (lit. It's) about my term

paper.)

B: %T.t& (Yes? (lit. What is it?))

306 no koto / no koto da kara

b.*I:6 0,

A: & ~ & o B - B B c ~ L T B ~ ~ ~ L ~ T L L ~ ~ ~ ~ (Could you give me another day? (lit. Could you extend the due date by one day?))

which I whom s.t. is habitually the ( because - is habitually I usually I often that way; because

+Key Sentences

(Because Nakajima is always that way (i.e., comes late), he will probably come late again today. (lit. Because it is a matter of Nakajima (who habitually comes late), . . .))

-

Relative C1. Noun 1

- - - fi m

(Because tofu goes bad quickly, you'd better put it in the refrigerator. (lit. Because it is a matter of tofu, which always goes bad quickly, . . .))

Na>Zt f? -n .L ; h'd. f

FJ H S A 0 E 2 f?jSa 6 (because Okada is habitually that way)

~$$; i f : f&kLT&&1?5 iO

Noun Rd.C*

EPg 0 ,

no koto da kara / norni 307 - C * l l L I 3 0 ~ kj?fpb, & < & C : d & f p$?,%fibf ~ y ~ b . ,

(Because it is summer (when foods go bad quickly), please be very careful about what you eat.)

1: IiL C L & $ & ~ ; ~ E I * A o z ~ I z ~ ~ , $ 9 - ~ d b a - + d : ~ (Because they are rich Japanese, I'm sure they will buy them even if they are expensive.)

2 7 $ ~ 0 & 3 a % Y s A 0 z k j Z & b , % b . % & f : b ~ 4 9 2 @ 3 2 b.AC.edj 0 'b*A7Po (Because Kinoshita loves karaoke, I have a feeling that he will not let go of the microphone once he starts singing.)

# & 3 0 % 6 0 ~ kf . .6b, ~ 0 i ~ 2 f i j : b & 3 ~ C : d & f $ b ~ b ~ j ? 6 i (Because not leave - Yamada is a sake lover, if he sees this sake, he will probably

= until he drinks it (lit. without drinking it).) - - - - - EN

- - - -- - 1. Using X no koto da kara, the speaker presents a reason for something,

based on what habitually occurs with X.

2. When N no koto da kara is used, the main clause must represent a future action, event, or state.

nomi 0 ) k prt. <w>

only; just; alone imposed upon an action, event, or [REL. dake]

a state

*Key Sentences

1 (Please tell me just the main point.) 1

1 (I have told this only to Prof. Yoshida.) I

1 (I don't know whether I can win or not, but I will just do my best.) I

( i )

( i i )

(iii)

N 0 k (Prt.)

@a) k (#) &l. (Only students came.)

Y e 0 k ( ?? ) (invite students only)

N {Prt. a)& / D k Prt.]

$%k { C: D k / a) k I: I ;&-if (talk only to students I talk to students

only)

Vinf D k 72

{ti< /?797':1 Ddkl? (onlygolwent)

norni 309

(Only I know the answer to this.)

(Write your surname only.)

(c) + ~ i i j z j 2 3 ; h k ~ j z z k ~ f a a h j z , (I will just do what I was told to do.)

(d) k72&%&SOh(12)~ (The only thing we have to do is to put it into practice.)

(e) ~ & C & ; h ~ j z O h ~ a 7 ' f ~ 3 - h ~ ~ i ~ & ~ C ~ b 1 ~ b 1 i f b b ~ ~

(We've just finished the exterior and haven't started anything else yet.)

1. The case particles ga and o are optional after nomi. Other case particles - - - - -

such as ni, e, to, de, and kara appear either before or after norni. - - m 1 - - - - - - -

2. When the particle de appears with nomi, the meaning changes according to the position of the two particles, as in (1).

i: if!.. - *.34*> t

(1) a. + L I ~ ~; ip r f~~a>h~saf f i&a~ (I can explain it only in Japanese. (i.e., I cannot explain it in other languages.))

b. $LCi El;iprZa>ATRsBffi%S0 (I can explain it in Japanese alone. (i.e., I don't need any other languages but Japanese to explain it.))

e elated ~x~ression]

Dake can replace nomi without a change in meaning. The main difference between the two is that dake can follow adjectives and quantifiers but norni cannot, as in [I].

[I] a. g b a {Ecf / *a>&] j? (s.t. is cheap, that's all)

b. gd.2 ( E t t / *a>h) 72 (s.t. is quiet, that's all)

31 0 nomi / no moto de

Ll t

c. -9 IECf / * D k I g i (buyonlyone)

Note also that dake is used in formal and informal speech and written Japa- nese while nomi is used in formal speech and written Japanese.

(+ dake (DBJG: 93-97))

no moto de VITT cornp. prt. <w>

under; in; with trol or influence of S.O. or s.t. [REL. -ka de]

- - - ~

+Key Sentence

1 (I finished my master's thesis under Prof. Suzuki's guidance.) I

d ' < l $ r l L S

Y%f D f 8 % D T ; T (under the direction of the dean)

+b>+b>L$ Bte (a) I AI t v ~ . a % i h ~ m + w m k ~ f ~ ~

(The opening ceremony was held in (lit. under) the brilliant sun.)

(b) Eijifitij~ 7-r ; /DTTW&Q%IL

(He studied conducting under (Herbert von) Karajan.) < A W L bkL*$ 0 2.'" t w l J 9

(c) # F & + ( D ) & % & ~ ~ D T T ~ L s D % % $ ~ ! X L ~ ~

(Our divorce was agreed upon in (lit. under) the presence of attorneys.)

(e) ZDI' 27 ~ a ) ~ ~ t & % ? ? f i t b T B&&$ab1,

(With this inflation there's no point in saving money.) - 1. When this phrase refers to physical space, its use is limited to "atmos-

pheric space," for example, the sky and the weather.

2. Some nouns require the particle ni rather than de after no moto, as in (1) and (2).

(1) %..I& B 5 W & W k b l 3 %%UI-Ft:zo&& LTblZ,,, (I'm doing this job with the promise that the profit will be divided in half (and one half will be given to me).) 2 CI+L++w 3 ; d, C=I?LL=

(2) B ~ U M D R R ~ T Y F C = Z D ~ ~ S B T ~ ~ T ~ > Z , . =

(We are using this lab with Prof. Taguchi's permission.) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - = - e elated ~x~ression] - =

-ka de, when combined with some nouns, means the same as no mot0 de, as in [I].

6.

[I] a. - a)#BTT (under the direction of -)

b. - DEtR-FT (under the supervision of -)

312 nouede wa

no ue de wa OkTl t comp. prt.

as far as - is concerned; as far as - goes; from the viewpoint / standpoint of; according to; in terms of [REL. -jb wa]

+Key Sentence

(There seems to be no problem with this plan as far as the documents are concerned.)

I tb,*<

za)zt;+aci

0 S L PB%a)kTCi (in theory; on paper; as far as the theory goes)

I:*?< t L i L (a) ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ T ~ ~ ~ B z ~ H c ~ ; I / ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ G ~ Q ~ T I / ~ ~ ~

(According to the calculations, we are supposed to make a profit of (about) two million yen.)

Noun

&

(b) Z a ) ? n Y r ? bCr t ( f$a)kTCi j~<{~~?j f?f l , ?$k~<%87' .2, (Although in theory (lit. As far as the story is concerned,) it looks like this project will work out, I feel somewhat uneasy.)

(c) %+a)kTCdiT&a)3flgEtI 1 b Ti? j I& (Statistically, (lit. As far as the figures are concerned,) Kawano looks stronger than Kurata.) *+3 m L Zt 6lL.ELLw % L* L Cb+?

(d) A@CittSa)kTCi%&E%%I?jjf, $L&%Cif? 1; Ljfiftbba, (Ohno is a perfectionist at work (lit. as far as his business is concerned) but messy in his private life.)

O Y T C ~ H ~ Q P + j 12,

d.fi :i bl I f i J I 9

(el ~ ~ a ~ , i i ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ i $ j L 1 5 SG~> . , (There's no way to punish his conduct legally (lit. from the legal point of view).)

No ue de wa is not the same as no ue de. (+ ue de)


-jo wa is used with some nouns in the same way as no ue de wa, as in [I]. t r i

[I] a. St$$+Cb (as far as computation goes; in terms of the calculation)

b. E%klt (in theory; on paper; as far as the theory goes)

c. &@klb (legally; from the legal point of view) (+ -j6)

It will be 1 was - when I that -

* ~ e ~ Sentence

I I I

(It was in May 1985 that I last met Mr. Yamada.)

Sinf 0 la (the same formation as no da) N 0 Z k f? t i * b r h h . 3 L 7': 0 Ci&4 0 Z k 72 (It was last year when S.O. talked . . .)

11 lih - S 6 L 5

(a) B $ ~ ~ O @ ~ S ~ ~ . " & ~ ~ ~ % @ ~ : O C ; ~ : Z < & % O Z ~ R , (It was only recently that I began to understand how interesting Japa- nese is.) I % & , < + # h & E w : i Ifh.

(b) $-#$%7ebU$~ b ~ ~ ; k f ; 0 l ; f : l 9 6 0 ~ ~ t ~ & ~ 0 Z k T d i a 0 (It was in the late sixties when genuine robots came out.)

(c) ~ 9 ~ ~ ~ ~ & & & 0 ~ i ~ ~ 0 & ; h 1 1 0 ~ k G ~ 7 e b ~ f 2 4 , ~ ~ (It will be around the end of next month when we get galley proofs.)

Ihvt, t L : ' r + k (f) &&-k$d~j5."($&< $b>-Cb>& k I ~ * L ~ 6 % f i f : 0 G ; f : 9 b > ~ $ > g i 3 ~ m 0 ~

t jbo~ci , ,r;~i+, j$fj 'k~f.kb> jz&fz0 (Although it was only (about) a month ago when I saw Ken'ichi and Toshiko walking together intimately, I heard they've already split up.)

This structure is a special form of - no wa - da and is used when a particular time is under focus. (e - no wa - da (DBJG: 33742))

-nu aux. <w>

negation [REL. -nai; -zu]

*Key Sentences

I (In the global age we cannot think of our own country alone.) I yu- ,c~~a&i"%~b&~z ~EGSQ?$?;~Z,;~GSC=.CA

1 (When you don't know something, it takes courage to admit it.)

Vneg h (N I Aux)

Vneg

L

% CI ah (KO. doesn't know s.o.1 st.)

h,

%U 6 ah (a person whom s.o.doesn't know or s.0. who doesn't know s.t.)

% 6 h 6 Lb> (it appears that S.O. doesn't know S.O. I s.t.)

-@a (irr.) (does not do s.t.)

& CI a (irr.) (s.o. does not exist)

dl% *I:

(a) @~-ilqQhb>-ch, % U C I ~ ~ L & & R ~ , (No matter what I ask, he answers only that he does not know.)

l : l * L t L i w - (I,) W I H ~ A ~ H & F & ~ ~ L 5 7~~ 7z0

(That Japanese did not seem to understand English.) PWPL 49 F

(c) @3C&%&1:!4%&3h7F9 z b l % t & d : < &L7?$ O7Z0 (I seldom drink these days, but I used to drink a lot when I was young.)

1: I fA : (d) ~$z*;;*&%i& z 0213&% hao

(In this area there are not people who can speak Japanese.)

1. -nu is an archaic negative marker that corresponds to -nai, but is used only with verbs. The archaic -nu is used in very stiff written Japanese. That is why there are quite a few proverbial phrases in which -nu is used exclusive of -nai.

(1) $22 {&/*&L\l %o& (Prevention is better than cure. (lit. A cane in advance so as not to fall.))

(2) %b {&/*&L\l gK (Ignorance is bliss. (lit. Not to know is to be a Buddha.))

(3) Z b {&/*&L\l 73%

(Better leave it unsaid. (lit. Not to speak is a flower.))

2. There is no past tense form for -nu. See [la] below.

I. -nu is an archaic version of -nai. Except in idiomatic phrases mentioned in Note 1 -nu can be replaced by -nai, but the reverse is not always the case.

[I] a. ~0%i&38< I & L \ / * & I ~

(This book isn't interesting.)

b. @r&&.-x { & L I T / f t; / *&T / **I:) g@(\{+-.3 7: (I went to school without eating breakfast.)

(e - nai de (DBJG: 271-73))

-nu 317

The difference between -nu and -zu is straightforward. The latter can be used as a continuative form or before ni to mean 'without -.' The former can be used at the end of a sentence or before a noun, auxiliary or a conjunction.

8~*&%&4 { f / *@I h:&g% L l L (I worked without eating my lunch.) 5 d . t r +e W X S ~ R ~ S ~ T , 2%~: ~ W P {T / *a}, ~T&-cL>J;, (I felt a cold coming on today, so I stayed in bed at home, without going to work.)

$4 B Q i caEb (a / *TI, (I don't think so.)

gab {@/*TI Z ~ B % ~ - C L > ~ ~ S ~ T W C ~ ~ L ~ , (You shouldn't say you know what you don't know.)

[REL. o - ni naru; rareru] speaker's respect for someone when describing that person's

+Key Sentences

(4

Vrnasu

(Are you in a hurry?)

( Y o u n i i n g e r use the card you have now.

(B)

( i ) 2 Vmasu I?

%&% I? (s.o. is waiting)

(ii) C VN I?

- - - - - - - - - - - - 0 - - -

I f L I w i .-"ti8 %I? (s.0. is doing research)

(iii) % Vmasu a) N

&$ %r$ rl 0% (those who are going back today)

(iv) =.' VN a) N

C;fiff%a)w& (a problem which s.0. is doing research on)

$ 12. % 5 $ k 3 * ~ ~ %

Vmasu

#& 0

Noun

73-F

i $ $ s ~ & a OFT, (Everybody is here (lit. has gathered) now.)

f&J,+ gg71fk;&vF-ifko (Mr. Kono, the Section Chief wants to see you (lit. is calling you).)

2 V-Ii h i 9&sirFf da, (Have you already finished copying?)

r~~Xa&sir-ws, (What kind of person would you like?)

B % @ C ; ~ : ~ ~ F . B R O c e h b Z+L, (The guests haven't left yet.)

~ ; & V F L ~ F : ~ , Z D ~ ~ & F L I ~ Y , < 6iZsirYs1/1~ (If you are tired, please take a rest in this room for a while.)

+ B B I / > D ~ - Y U I ~ L ~ ~ ~ ; & I / > C : ~ 0 a L ~ F Z ~ ' ,

(When did you buy the word processor you are using now?) - - - - - - . - . - . - - - - - . - . ' 0 ' - . F&+& Z-@%TT& - - - - -

(What are you researching now, Professor?) T/rO'),.Vd. t i & & ( I I C I L

X ~ ~ D - ~ . " L ' ~ B ~ ~ D E W ci r z - w s , (Which countries is the Emperor going to visit?) -

1. 0 - da does not express the aspect (i.e., progressive, perfect etc.) of a verb explicitly. Aspect can be determined from context, as seen in (1).

(1) a. k;%@-n."h 5 9 C%% b TTo (=!%a) (The guests are leaving soon.)

b. 4 ~ ~ % & s i r ~ b l 5 ' , ( = % A T I / ~ & ) (What are you reading now?)

c. 2 V - - C i h 5 ~ % s i r T T ~ ~ , (=%A??) (Have you already finished copying?)

320 o - da / o hajirne (to shite)

2. 0 - da cannot be used with two-syllable Gr. 2 verbs (e.g., rniru 'look at,y iru 'stay,' kiru 'wear,' neru 'sleep') and irregular verbs (i.e., suru 'do3 and kuru 'come').

3. As Formation (ii) shows, for suru-verbs which require the polite prefix go-, go VN da is used rather than o Vrnasu da. The sum-verbs which require the polite prefix o-, such as s6jisuru 'clean,' denwasuru 'make a call,' ry6risuru 'cook,' and sentakusuru 'wash' are not commonly used in this pattern.

D t ll

(3) a. ? ? % ~ ; ~ ' S - A T ~ E B S % ~ I ~ ~ (Acceptable form: & 4 flS-AT&BE%@ELT {&%ha / 6\59 L?6l0) (The teacher is cleaning the room by himself.)

(+ o- (DBJG: 34347))

0 - da is not as polite as o - ni naru but is politer than passive honorific - forms. (+Politeness and Formality (DBJG: 36-44); o - ni naru (DBJG: 358-60); rarerul (DBJG: 364-69))

o hajime (to shite) j.2 l t C @I ( 2 L 7) phr. <w>

a phrase that is used to give a pri- starting with; not only - but mary example dm-

[REL. - dake de (wa)naku - (mo)]

o hajime (to shite) 321

+Key Sentence

1 (In my family, starting with my father, all of us like sports.) I

*??L

L T i ,

*Arb,

%!& Q Ci C & ( t L T) (starting with the teacher)

c ItL L < (a) +-r- i - t i , -+ifL'frcke*k LT, E I * ~ l ; % ~ $ 4 i e a ~

(Starting with sushi, Cathy eats any Japanese cuisine.) d*Llr t 6 l i i 3 * &C+

(b) 4 % c & k t ~ c i ~ & , (This year, starting with Osaka, the rainy season was short in all parts of the Kansai district.)

L+ 4 r i L??vLv%Pi Sf2 LI< P i

(c) z&%ti, +t ~ ' f r 12 C& t LT, + ~ - i g m q C& ~ T E ~ & B & <-cb3zi0

(At this company, starting with the president, all the employees eat lunch in the same cafeteria.)

C * i x L f 2 - t 3 1 3 &

(d) ~ o @ k t k , % & ' f r ~ i c&, % < OE EW%~P!F RQ% LIG (Not only the police but also the nearby residents showed a strong interest in this incident.)

Noun 44

2

1. N o hajime to shite literally means 'by making N the beginning (of s.t.),' an idea very similar to the English phrase 'starting with.'

2. N o hajime is an abbreviative version of N o hajime to shite.

i t L

3. In conversational Japanese N o hajime (to shite) is not used; instead, dake de (wa) naku - (mo) is used.

(+ dake de (wa) naku - (mo) (DBJG: 97-100))

$. ?'<+?Lb%

~ j E ? R ; z $ - ~ # & 3 f f ~

322 o hajime (to shite) / o - kudasai

All the examples can be rephrased by dake de (wa) nakute - (mo). In fact, as noted in Note 3, in conversational Japanese dake de (wa) naku - (mo) is used instead of N o hajime (to shite).

o - kudasai 43-7; P 6' phl:

please do s.t. polite request [REL. kudasai]

+Key Sentences

1 (Please wait a moment.) I

1 (Please order by phone.) 1

2% L T S b' (Please talk.)

o - kudasai 323

h A 5 <

Z*@%T S b1 (Please contact (us).)

(a) z 04 2 2%f$baTS b lo

(Please use this pen.) ,

(b) ~ @ d ~ b j a 9 9 ~ - ~ A . O T ~ S T S b l o

(Please hurry because we don't have much time.)

(c) r j Fkj&$$G: c*%g7; bl,

(Please feel free to consult with us.) L * i l o i l f A

(d) %$V&hEJ B%Q c * $ 1 ] ~ 7 ; S b 1 ~ (Please use excursion tickets, which are convenient and economical.)

1. 0 - kudasai cannot be used with two-syllable Gr. 2 verbs (e.g., miru 'look at,' iru 'stay,' kiru 'wear,' neru 'sleep') and irregular verbs (i.e., suru 'do' and kuru 'come').

(1) a. *%j$ ,~ s b10 / *%&Ts baD

(Please look at it. /Please go to bed.)

b. *% L T S bl, / * % & T I ba,

(Please do it. / Please come.)

2. The suru-verbs which require the polite prefix o-, such as denwasuru 'make a call,' ryorisuru 'cook,' sojisuru 'clean,' and sentakusuru 'wash' are not commonly used in this pattern. In fact, the examples in (2) are awkward.

(2) a. ? ? c * b % T % % k ~ S ~ ~ ~ (Acceptable form: ZB;laTBP2 I L T / a - 3 3 7 1 T S L ~ (Please clean up by yourself.)

b. ??&A& 3 $ i T % % % T S b l D (Acceptable form: &A& % %T m?4 I L T / a - S 3 T l T S b 4 (Please wash in lukewarm water.)

324 o - kudasai

The sentence in (3), however, is acceptable. This sentence is derived from the sentence in (4) ; in (3) the direct object marker o has been deleted.

(3) ~ ~ & Z % T S L \ ~ (Please give me a call tonight.)

3. 0 - kudasai cannot be used in negative requests.

(5) * z o > ~ ; . i k k ; @ k ~ h b ~ ? I - T S ~ ~ ~ (Please do not use this pen.)

0 - kudasai is politer than - kudasai. While there are some verbs which cannot be used in the o - kudasai pattern as mentioned in Notes 1 and 2, any verb can be used in the - kudasai pattern.

(Please look at it.)

b. LTTSb'/*%LTSbl, (Please do it.)

c. t$%T I%RLICTS~~/%R~SQTTS~~/??%%RTS b ~ l o

(Please clean up by yourself.)

Note also that - kudasai can be used to make negative requests, but o - kudasai cannot, as in [2].

In addition, - kudasai can be used with auxiliary verbs which require verb te-forms while o - kudasai cannot.

[31 a. B T ~ ~ Q T T S ~ ~ / *%RTbl 3TSbl, (Please look at it before you go.)

o - kudasai / ornowareru 325

b. k4-c L 2 9 -n s b) / *%&4-c L 3 b T s baa

(Please finish eating.) (e - kudasai (DBJG: 209-10))

omowareru I ; b h 5 v. (GK 2) <w>

seem; appear; apparently speaker / writer feels spontaneously or his /her hesitation about assert-

+ ~ e ~ Sentences

(It seems that the business conditions of the coming year will be better

than those of this year.)

Sinf 5vhL I t w S S 6

Sinf

- - - - - - . - . - - . - 2 0 ; - - - - - - = - -

I month.) I

I I

( i ) (V/Adj(i)} inf 1 5 l=,Rbh&,

vri 1 3 9 ~ 3 z '<W? IT?

ZD 6 30% % Iba-aafl haAa6

(It appears that the treatment of this disease will take approximately one

2 Bb;kbo

326 ornowarem

< 1 {g & / %?: I k 5 C:E ;h #I 6 , (It appears that S.O. is coming /

came.)

(gg b1 / Q ~ 3 tz 1 k j C: ,F, 2 ZI (It appears that s.t. is I was interesting.)

(ii) Adj(na)stem {O/t.7?<1 kid:.E~;h#I&o ITL r ;rtgii { a / j? 3 j:) k j b:,F,;h #I& (It seems that S.O. / s.t. is / was

healthy / sturdy.)

(iii) N{D/?z~fz) kiC%?,b#I&o d'< CV

$& {~/7?3tz] kil:,F,b#I&, (S.o.seemstobe/havebeena student.)

(iv) Sinf k ,E, ;h kL 6 ,

3 L < a b1 t ,F,h #I& , (It appears that s.t. is not right.)

1: I t L *LO? :L - s l o l Y i ~ & + & b i d b&tF'?2b1k 5 LRihkL6. (It seems that Japanese exports are not going to grow so much in the future.) : t% 0 ii I i L C b ~ i V d' * L i < + l ~ ~ o ~ ~ ~ e r e ~ ~ m t : ~ t F ' ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ c ~ ~ ~ 8 t r a a i LF,;~#I&.

(It appears too simplistic to relate children's delinquency to crime movies.)

EbWA%DR Rt&@.I%d'BKbl~.r k 5 t : l ihh&. (Education at this university seems to be particularly good in science and engineering.) 1 : h 5 b - ~ v l tt? 155 +2 ihw Dt: S r i ? i * b l 3- -t&Rt&f4j @ff3$3 k @ i L ~ , t&$d'-~D% FJ$$b:ts6 7.6 5 k,R;hkL&o (It seems to me that in the 21st century society will become more information oriented, and the world will become one community.)

1: IfL - H$&$& g c & ~ - 7 + e g i h a b 1 ~ d ' k b a t , F , ; h # I & ~ (When you learn Japanese it seems better not to use romanization.)

omowareru 327

v T $ B / r C = L / r (f) & ~ & & ~ ~ i i ~ ~ l ~ + ~ j ' ~ b ~ a ) ~ ~ ~ t a a ) 7 5 . + ~ ~ ' ~ ~ 3 % N 7 ? 2 , ~ , b h & ~

(To look after your health, it is apparently effective to exercise for about 30 minutes every day.)

1. omowareru is the passive form of omou 'to feel; to think,' but omowareru in the present entry does not have the meaning of passivity; rather it has the meaning of autogenesis, i.e., what the speaker / writer feels /thinks spontaneously. The fact that omowarenr is different from the real passive use should become clear by the fact that the former does not have the true agent, but the latter does.The true passive by definition involves an agent (= actor) and the agent is marked by ni in passive sentences. Thus genuine passive sentences should be grammatical with a ni-marked agent. That is why the addition of a ni-marked agent to KS(A) and (B) as in (la) and (2a), respectively, will produce ungrammatical sentences. (lb) and (2b) are grammatical, because here ni indicates not an agent 'by' but an experiencer 'to.' Compare (1) and (2) with genuine passives of (3) and (4).

b. %Lt:tt%+a)E%bi4+h rl b h 5 ~ : , F . ~ ~ I Z I ~ (To me it seems that the business conditions of the coming year are better than those of this year.)

b. $LtZtzZa)%%o&%ii&-fi~fl &&a t E b h a 0 (To me it appears that the treatment of this disease takes approximately one month.)

(3) ? t v g Z k B L k C , ~ C Z i f & l ? 2 , R b h 1 ? ~ ~ (If you do such a thing, you will be regarded as a fool.)

328 omowareru

(If you do such a thing, people will regard you as a fool.) (= Active version of (3))

cf. 9$HAiLH*02k~T,E,%aH?2k,B,~Tb>&o (Foreigners consider Japan to be an enigmatic country.) (= Active version of (4))

(e rarerul (DBJG: 364-69))

2. The difference between (5a) which is identical with KS(A) and (5b) cannot be captured by the translation, because both sentences come out the same in the translation.

Since y6da is a conjecture based on the speaker's reasoning process, if it is used with omowareru, a marker of autogenesis, the combination sounds more indirect and even humble.

3. The experiencer of the spontaneous feeling of - omowareru is usually the speaker 1 writer, but can be a third person, if the tense is past.

L Zt f i L 4 1 i

(6) ~ ~ i ~ i ; f . ~ ~ $ O ~ ~ 7 5 ' & ~ i L , E , b k L ? : ~ ' (To Yamada the company work seemed monotonous.) 3, k :

(7) f i ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ; f . % i & i ~ ~ r : D ~ d : i i : , ~ , ; t ? k ~ ~ : , (For Kayoko marriage still seemed like a dream.)

Suppose (6) and (7) were sentences in a novel in which the reader can empathize with Yamada or Kayoko: then, the nonpast tense is acceptable.

ori 329

ori h 1) aux. v. (Gz 1) <w>

be - and (REL. ite]

*Key Sentence

1 ple) cannot enter from here.) I

b . 0 CI, L % 3 F r i b > L + ? L k i Co),AUdi%%Ar$Hb:

Vte $3 b If* 6 L T Q (be speaking and)

(This entrance is for employees only and other people (lit. general peo-

Vte

&TT

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0 ; i 5 - 0 ;

(a) @filk8$$;~7*71~fil:&3~$5Q, f~3;i&;kCf&&c3~47@~&&& TT'J>&o (He is crazy about plastic models these days and is assembling model planes whenever he has free time.)

C tr * l i b , < L 1 I: 0 9 (b) i%Tki%%&~@~ <&3Ebl~% !I, ~ ~ ~ k k ~ ~ ~ / V ~ l O O ~ ~ - +

I,*

2 P tczb', (In Japan compulsory education is very thorough (lit. prevails thor- oughly) and the literacy rate is almost 100 percent.)

2 i : i e L 0 3+?w +!L$s<+2w CW*?

(c) Zo)~~l;f:&& $uK~QT% 9, Q ~ & @ ~ ~ ~ B T & % L T ~ > & ~ (This high school is a boarding school (lit. total dormitory system) and all the students live in three dormitories.)

1. Vte ori is the written version of Vte ite. Although ori is the masu-form of the humble auxiliary verb om, when Vte on' is used in the writing of

%b, b a ? l f L Llt

-~o)h~2~Z$l;d;f:~;k2b1~

documents, articles, papers, etc., it does not express the writer's politeness.

2. Vte on is more formal than Vte ite or Vte i.

3. Vte om, the informal sentence-final form of Vte on, is not used in writing in place of Vte irv.

Vte ori can be replaced by Vte ite without changing meaning, as in [I].

o t6shite % ;Wi L 7 comp. prt.

indicate a medium through which s.t. is done or time through which

+Key Sentences

through; by the medium of; via; throughout [REL. o ts~jite]

(I became acquainted with the pianist through a close friend of mine.)

I (I go abroad about 5 times a year (lit. throughout the year).) I

N 2 B L T +h.e*1

%& Q B L T (through my teacher)

&k;p$ G:~L~~~:&%%BLT, % & O L ) ~ I ~ % C J I ~ ' T B V 3 Lf:,

(I knew of you through the books you wrote.)

?O$($OZ 2 ~ ~ % % O $ Z + % B L T % ~ T ~ > ~ . ~

(I knew about the incident from newspaper articles.) C w E d. L* Li? +=?.A.

+ a > a j m i i , B ~ ~ ~ ~ m % 3 L T , B~~:B%LI:, (That politician approached the Prime Minister through his entourage.) + f ; l TWjF 1Aii+iEO-? V & V %BLT%L < a9-cb>9f .o

(Through an exchange of letters, the two became close.) *A:6b>67LhZ 2 %$/Lf&

(I have learned all sorts of things through my life in foreign countries.)

~ - ~ ~ ~ i @ ~ T ~ ~ O ~ + $ j k ? . ~

(What was inside the room was visible through the curtain.) ti I: D t V t

L ~ L ~ ; D ~ % B B L T ~ ~ O A ~ O & % ~ ~ Q ~ ~ ~ L t:$&&a. (Through these photos, we can relive the lives of people in those days.)

332 o tdshite

ITL I f

( i ) wums ; ~ & & ~ L T $ ~ ' X - ~ . . & J ~ L I ~ ~ (They found the criminal through the fingerprints left behind at the scene of the crime.) $$ b . 9 L t i v h Y t i P r i

(j) xi&-- ~ B Z L T , - - E B R ~ B & ~ : L ~ C G L \ , (My father has never left Tokyo in his life.) -

0 tdshite means 'through the medium of -' or 'through specific duration of time.'

Tdshite can be replaced by tsujite in all cases except when the medium is a concrete, physical medium as in Exs.(g) - (i).

an auxiliary which expresses the I keep -ing; have been -ing; I idea that s.0. or s.t. keeps doing leave

s.t., or s.0. leaves s.t. in an im- (REL. mama; tsuzuke da; tsuzu- kern]

*Key Sentences

(The Shinkansen was so crowded that I stood all the way (lit. kept

standing) from Tokyo to Kyoto.)

1 (I borrowed money from a friend of mine and still haven't paid it back.) /

Vmasu 9 1Pa L 3% d 0 9 df h L ((vi.) have been sitting) 9 Gf 9 Cih L ((vt.) leave s.t. on)

mlzmm (a) ~ * ~ - ~ ' I L Q I I ~ L - S - I L . .f-4bi&d a ~ j i $ % ~ i a a L I Z ~

(Brazil's volleyball team hasn't lost a game up to now. (lit. Brazil's volleyball team has been winning up to today.))

(b) 4 8 ~ i @ . n \ ~ ; % & d b II caa ~ 7 ; ' ~ (The telephone has been ringing since this morning (lit. since morning today).)

(c) ~a-h.6 L e < 13 9 LT%&&\, (I have been talking since this morning and my throat is sore.)

7 J t l l A . t* i (d) &9-*~ F 4 . 4 1. B-E$i + ~ b f 9 I i % L ~ Z ~ ~ Q I T I ~ Y F T - ) -j5f$$

9 T L 3 9 k 0 (Because I left my car headlights on all night, the battery died.)

(e) %%&B& L 9 !fa L T E ~ ~ z ? $ ~ T % L T ~ ~ & ~ (Mitsuko is talking with her friend on the phone while leaving the water running.)

1 ( f ) ?!FI&-wA,B J > ~ ~ : - h . k f ~ d f h LC: L T & T % ~ ~ . , i- - - - - - - - - -

(Shigeru went out somewhere leaving a kettle on the stove.) - - - - - ' p s - - - (g) bef ~ 1 2 2 LQI%-~.I;&W.. < S A , X ~ T ~ ~ ,

(Many mosquitoes came in through the window which was left open.)

aQm 1. -ppanashi is derived from hanashi, the masu stem of the verb hanasu

'leave.'

2. The meaning of -ppanashi differs depending on the kind of verb which precedes it. When the verb is intransitive, -ppanashi means that S.O. or s.t. keeps doing something (e.g., KS(A) and Ex.(a)). When the verb is transitive, -ppanashi means that s.0. does s.t. to X and leaves X as it is without putting it back to its original state, which is not the proper way (e.g., KS(B) and (C)).

3. -ppanashi behaves like a noun; therefore it is followed by the copula da

(e.g., KS(A) and (B)) or particles such as de, ni, and no (e.g., KS(C),

Exs.(f) and (g)).


I. Mama expresses an idea similar to -ppanashi. In fact; -ppanashi can be rephrased as mama in most cases when the preceding verb is transitive, as in [I].

However, because -ppanashi with a transitive verb implies an improper state, -ppanashi cannot be used in contexts such as [2].

[2] ! & i 3 ? 2 ? z ~ f Z B {TLtlkQB /*T6t)7if&Ll E 0 (He still isn't smoking. (He used to smoke but gave it up.))

Notice also that in [3] mama has no negative implication while -ppanashi indicates that the speaker disagrees with Haruko's manner.

When the preceding verb is intransitive, mama cannot always replace -ppanashi. For example, mama can be used instead of -ppanashi in

[4], but not in 151.

This is because mama focuses on the state after a single action (i.e., an action described by a punctual verb) while -ppanashi focuses on a continuous action.

Note also that if the preceding verb is intransitive, -ppanashi cannot be

used in an adverbial phrase, as in [6].

[6] IE~ZT~IQ / * @ " ~ t f & L ] T?&LT?sL.~, (Please remain seated while talking. (lit. Please talk remaining seated.))

-ppanashi in [7] is acceptable because it is not in an adverbial phrase. air hrle

[7] EbaBd {@T k b b / E j Z k J = I f & L I Tk;%;3'%~)~ (I've been sitting for a long time, so my bottom hurts.)

(e mama (DBJG: 236-40))

11. Vrnasu tsuzuke da also expresses the idea "to keep doing s.t." and can be used in place of Vrnasu ppanashi (with intransitive verbs), as in [8].

Vrnasu tsuzuke da cannot replace -ppanashi when the preceding verb is transitive.

111. Vrnasu tsuzukeru also expresses the idea of "to keep doing s.t." and can be used in place of Vrnasu ppanashi, as in [9].

Vrnasu ppanashi (with intransitive verbs), however, does not express the actor's volition while Vrnasu tsuzukeru does. Thus, Vrnasu ppanashi is not acceptable in [lo].

Conversely, in [ll] Vmasu ppanashi is more natural than Vmasu tsuzukeru because standing or sitting was beyond the speaker's control.

apt to; easy to; -ish; -like some distinctive characteristic or [REL. fU no; rashii; -yasui; an attribute identified by a noun, y6na] an adjective, or a verb to which the suffix is attached

+Key Sentences

(A)

(A yakuza-like man wearing sunglasses was standing at the comer of the street.)

I (If I remember correctly, I believe she was wearing a blackish sweater.) I

1 (He is apt to fall for women, and falls in love with practically any

@I*

I woman.)

( i ) N ~ l T b 1

%!& 1Pb1 (childish)

(ii) Adj(i)stem 9 G9b1

Vmasu

C3h

$$9/9b1 (cheapish)

(iii) Adj(na)stem Q CTb a

8t~9 ~1 (pitiful)

(iv) Vmasu 9 CTb1

9GTba

bt

g k L 9 19b1 (easy to forget, forgetful)

(During the lunch hour, this restaurant becomes crowded with men who look like salaried workers.)

(b) & & @ t i ~ K k 9 d T b ~ & b f i b I?, (I like the actress, because she is so womanish.)

(c) z /"a29 l 9 4 % , & @ a b . 4 , (Who can drink such watery sake?)

(d) haj:, Z / " a ~ ~ l T b ~ 7 7 7 % & 9 ~ $ 1 r P i . f 6 ~ ? (What are you going to do with this cheapish sofa that you bought?)

Noun

& T, P a k a ~ b i & 3 ~ : & 9 ~ ~ 3 5 ,

tb (el ~ ~ $ D ~ ~ F G : E E ~ I C , 3 ~ 9 ~ ~ ~ \ g t . i t j ~ 9 ~ X P ~ & $ L - C L G ~

(Sitting on a bench at the park a foppish man is talking with a coquettish woman.)

(f) j t j ~ % + k & ? i 9 G T ~ ~ A T , % $ b ~ - ~ W L L ~ Z t. e t a A T ~ ~ S P , V. t - 9 2 L-c, $ D t : a b a b \ t v T t L O (Our son gets bored easily, and he tries new things one after another, but doesn't get anywhere with any of them.)

(g) 5 7: < b 9 tTblA9 T, !$Ttb0 (I don't like a person who is distrustful.) -

1. The Adj(i) suffix -ppoi is usually used in highly informal speech and writing, meaning something like English "-ish."

2. The suffix -ppoi is an Adj(i), so it conjugates exactly like other Adj(i)'s.

Z9 tTlt hI2 (if s.t. is blackish)

W 9 lTh33 ( T t ) (s.t. was blackish)

3. The nouns, adjectives, and verbs that can take the su f f i -ppoi are not unlimited, but quite productive, especially when it is connected with a noun. The following is a list of nouns, adjectives and verbs most commonly used with the suffix.

h l l l i

b1 (merchant-like), 5 B 7 GP b1 (delinquent-like), zl7 1% b1

(adult-like), %%7 GPb1 (geisha-like), 'g7 GPba (dusty), b1fzf

h? 7 CPL.1 (brownish), % 7 CPb1 (feverish 1 enthusiastic), ,&& 7 CP

b1 (peevish)

(3) Adj(i)stem + ppoi (restricted to adjectives of color and shape except % 7 Gab1 (cheapish)) L h I b ' h

$7 dPb1 (whitish), $7 CEl.1 (redish), 3$7 GPb) (yellowish),

37 CPb1 (roundish), 7 lPb1 (squarish)

All the examples except yasuppoi can be also grouped under (2).

(4) Adj(na) + ppoi

& 7': 7 GPb' (coquettish), 3 F 7 GPba (affected), $& 7 tPb1 U. I:< Y <

(sarcastic), Ffim 7 GPbl (cynical), C f .f 7 CXbl (vulgar), #7 GPb1

1: =* 6.h

% b 7 Gab3 (quick tempered), &kL 7 GPb1 (easily tired), 'KT 7

tPbl (apt to lose self-control), U)'j5"&7 CPb1 (apt to feel victim-

ized), #7 C9ba (dumpy)

The last example shime-ppoi is actually an irregular form, because the expected form is *shirneri-ppoi.


I. N + ppoi can be replaced by N + no ydna or by N + rashii, and N + f i i no, as shown in [l] below. Here, the choice of -ppoi expresses that the man is manifesting the distinctive character of a yakuza. In that sense

it is very close to f O no which refers to s.o.'s or s.t.'s style. The expressions no ydna and rashii are quite different from -ppoi and fO no in that the former are conjectural expressions, whereas the latter are not.

There are cases where the replacement is restricted as shown in [2] and [3]. Here, rashii is acceptable, because it means 's.o. or s.t. is like the ideal model of X.' But no ydda and fOda which mean 'to look like X' does not make sense in the context. In [3] the meanings of rashii and fa no do not fit in the context, but ydna 'like X' in the sense of 'taste like water' fits in the context.

[2] ib0kQciWc-k { 7 C 3 L \ / 5 LL\ / *Ok5f? / *rnf?l 5.6 H- 3 E0 (= Ex.@))

[3] ZAG* I7C3L\/Dk5& / * % LL\/*WJll a, & t b a b a

To (= Ex.(c))

The following N + ppoi cannot be replaced either by no ydna, rashii or f O no, because the meaning is very specific and fixed. zoku-ppoi 'vulgar,' hokori-ppoi 'dusty,' itazura-ppoi 'mischievous,' uwaki-ppoi 'Don Juan-like,' rikutsu-ppoi 'argumentative,' iro-ppoi 'sexy,' haiiro-ppoi 'grayish,' chairo-ppoi 'brownish,' netsu-ppoi 'feverish'.

II. Adj(i 1 na)stem + ppoi can be replaced neither by no ydna nor by rashii nor by f O no.

In. Vmasu + ppoi can be replaced by Vinf .nonpast + yasui as in [5], but depending on the verb with which -ppoi is connected, the -yasui version becomes marginal, as shown in [6].

b t L I I I L L [5] a. $LIi@2ilrT&%B~ { 7 W < / F b < l 7277k

(These days I became tired easily.)

[6] a. E b i % ~ 2 = T ~ b % b {7E< /??Pb<l h 7 k 0 (My father has become short tempered since he became old.)

(+ rashii (DBJG. 373-75); -yasui (DBJG. 541-43); ydda (DBJG: 547-52))

for; in; since (s.t. has continued up until the [ REL. -buri; irai; -kan; mae moment of speech or s.t. has never kara ]

+Key Sentences

1 (Tom has been studying Japanese for the past 20 years.) I

( i ) N (duration) %

(This winter is the coldest one in 50 years.)

z++% (for the past 30 years)

= - - - - -

(ii) N (duration) %a) N

- % R - - - - - - - -

hh C L L

%++%~kl&iS (the strongest earthquake in 60 years)

m3lmm h R *WLo

(a) %z++%, w C H ~ E % & T L ~ Z T , (My father has been employed in the same company for the past 30 years.)

I tL * *?

(b) %ZDW %%+$%%I? -c3 3 Lk, (I've been continuing this research for the past 10 years.)

(c) &Y%D%fi9, i 9 < 1$-3 7: 1 3 7Zo (The rain which started after midnight appeared to have finally stopped.)

(d) 54 2 El% 2 12 Ef$%D2%Zo (Okada and I have been fiends for the past 40 years.)

(el ++D%CAA++%D~S I?+ i 72, (They say that this summer is the warmest in 60 years.)

(f) z ~LCAZ+$%DT&% (This is the heaviest snow we have had in 30 years.) -

1. When -mi is used to mean s.t. has continued up until the moment of speech, the final predicate takes Vte iru as in KS(A) and Ex.(a) or Vte kurv as in Ex. (b).

2. X wa N (of duration)-mi no Y da as exemplified by KS(B), Exs.(e) and (f), means that as for X, the speaker has never experienced Y in the specified duration. When Y is a person as in Ex.(d), -mi means X has continued to have the status of Y for a certain amount of time.

I. -mi is used with an expression of time duration. The following phrases are all ungrammatical because the nouns used here express a point of time. To make them grammatical phrases -imi has to be used.

b. *I990 $% (cf. 1990 $U% (since 1990))

d. *%&c (cf. Q+U% (since last year))

e. *Q$o%% (cf. &$D$kN% (since last fall))

+A, L * i

f. *% 3 % (cf. %%U% (since last week))

g. ??%&% (cf. %3%UJR (since the end of last week))

h. ??xg% (cf. %A UJR (since last month))

i. ??%%% (cf. $%US (since the end of the year))

However, there are exceptional cases where -rai can be used with anon- duration expression as in (2):

[2] a. %E% (since yesterday) cf. %Eu%, *%d %

b. %&% (since last night) cf. %&US, *&%%

c. %$% (since last year) cf. %4U% V % I < I L

d. A@&% (since year before last) cf. -@4M%

11. When -rai indicates continuation of an action 1 state, it can be replaced by - rnae kara, or -kan, as shown in [3a], [3b] below.

(= Ex.(a)) - - - - - - - - - - -

-mi can be freely replaced by - rnae kara and -kan, but not vice versa, - - because the latter can be used with an expression of both relatively short and long duration; whereas the former can be used only with a relatively long duration, as shown below:

L: 6%

[41 a. / =~W%A3% / *ZE+W%l ElzP;BB%5& L T b l a o

(He's been studying Japanese for two hours.)

b. {M/%tP% /*%I g $ p & 9 T b G 0

(It's been snowing for two days.)

When -rai is used in X wa N(duration)-rai no Y da construction, -rai can be replaced by -buri da which means 'after the lapse of -,' as shown by [4a] and [4b]. Note that Y cannot be a person as in Ex.(d).

rei no BJO phr.

erent of the following noun phrase is definite and that the speaker expects the hearer to understand what the referent is

+Key Sentences

the - (in question); that (same); the usual [REL. wa]

I I Noun / I I

(I heard that this year's year-end party is going to be at that Chinese restaurant again.)

- - - . - . - . - . - : R s . - . - . - . - - - - -

@%O N

@I a) (the problem (in question))

0 1 I U i j r 9 E I If I YiOlfLkd,

(What happened to the project (in question)?)

reino 347

(a) LS- F i&&&a L?:$, (Have you finished the report (I requested, you mentioned, etc.)?)

(b) f lu03 v-d'ktma L?:L, (The copy (you asked for) is ready.)

(c) @!la)~47'&0%, ~ ~ ? < & Q T & L ? ? L ~ (I bought the book about Princess Diana (everybody is talking about, you recommended, etc.) right away and read it.)

(A student is coming at one.)

B: aa, @!la) ~ 4 ~ $ & # ? : 4 +&Tfh0 (Oh, that student from Germany (you mentioned), right?)

d (el A: F ! , s 2 6 ? (Can we meet this evening?)

(Then, (let's meet) at the usual coffee house at six.) IL E C r l E L Eh h6

(f) ~ ~ 3 ~ ; 3 ' a ? : ~ a ) ~ ~ 2 ~ 9 ? : d ' ~ 9 , % t 3 ~ $ 9 ? : , (Mr. Yoshida told us that (same) joke again, but no one laughed.)

1. Rei no is used in situations where some information is shared by the speaker and the hearer. For example, when A utters KS(A) to B, B must have talked to A about a project at an earlier time. Similarly, when A utters KS(B) to B, A knows that B understands which Chinese restaurant A means, from their shared experience.

2. Because rei no is a device to remind the hearer of something experienced or mentioned earlier (although not in the same discourse), rei no X can be used without having mentioned X previously in the discourse.

348 reino

Thus, rei no has the "force" to make the hearer recall the referent of the following noun phrase.

3. If there is strong situational and 1 or contextual support to indicate the referent of the following noun phrase, rei no can be omitted, as in (1) and (2). (See Related Expression.)

(1) L$- b d;lr&%Z Lfii51. (Have you finished the report?)

(2) 2 F - f l & % b L?:Lo (The copy is ready.)

However, if rei no in KS(B) is omitted, for example, ch0karyBri-ya does not refer to a definite Chinese restaurant, as in (3).

(3) ++az+&d2 b 7: FHtBEf?? 5 7?o (I heard that this year's year-end party is going to be at a Chi- nese restaurant again.)


The topic marker wa marks known information. Thus, wa and rei no have some commonality. As a matter of fact, both X wa and rei no X are used when X is definite and known to the hearer. However, wa alone does not have the force that rei no has, a force to make the hearer recall the referent of X. Therefore, [I] might be too abrupt in some situations where KS(A) is perfectly acceptable.

[I] ; P ~ Y r 9 b I ; f F 5 ~ 9 Z L l : & , (What happened to the project?)

Note also that the referent of X wa can be generic while that of rei no X is always definite. Compare [2a] and [2b].

[21 a. $i2$41:&3, (Books are useful.)

b. @Jol$ik%%:230 (The book (you mentioned) is useful.)

In addition, X wa is a topic phrase, while rei no X is a simple noun phrase

rei no / Relative Clause 349

and can appear in any position where a noun can appear. (+ wal (DBJG: 516-19))

Relative Clause

+Key Sentence

I I

(There isn't medicine which makes you smart.) -

Relative Clause

1: ItL - B ~ K ~ ~ c = % $ < aa%m r) %w, (Is there a book that will make you strong in Japanese?)

H&*< ::a LT m 3 ag%f:, (Baroque music is music that soothes the mind.)

l j b ~ i b ~ l % ?

CkLCi E l $ O ~ ~ ~ . h f d r < &iP&$T.f. (This is a book which enables us to understand Japanese management.) f i b > C*? $$gfl&&&&Ty$a,>o

(Please recommend any exercise that will reduce my weight.)

n~-bfl&a < hZ#?d7 3 f ; L > ~ . f ~ (I would like to listen to hear something that will cheer me up.)

~ k L ~ ; f ; % ~ ; 2 ~ . > 8 $ $ + ~ . f & b , rjTk< S X / ~ L E ~ ~ Q T T S L . > ~ (These are non-fattening cakes, so please eat as much of them as you can.)

ahrw - ' a &O%*O%%bi.f 44 < 2aBMXt2." (That professor's lecture is a lecture that will make you sleepy.)

Noun

350 Relative Clause

1. The example of relative clauses given in this entry are all different from those of ordinary relative clauses in that one of the two source sentences includes a topic marker wa which carries a conditional meaning. Take KS, for example: it apparently comes from (la) and (lb).

(1) a. Ab;fQbl,

(There isn't medicine.)

b. ?a)%MBfi9.1 < (If you take the medicine, you will become smart. (lit. As for the medicine, one will become smart.))

(lb) is a grammatical sentence, meaning 'if you take the medicine you will become smart.' So (lb) is the same as (2) in which the conditional conjunction ba is overtly used.

(2) ?a)%%&&i& 3w.l < aao (If you take the medicine, you will become smart.)

Because the verb nornu is missing in KS, it looks as though medicine itself becomes smart. The same explanation is possible with the other example sentences.

Since a Japanese relative clause can contain a conditional clause within

Relative Clause 35 1

the relative clause, sentences of (3) are grammatical even if Vcond is retained. So, the following sentences are all grammatical.

(4) a. @@UZ&F k < ts&%Ckab\, (cf. KS) (There isn't medicine which, if taken, will make you smart.)

b. B@t%B$%C:S& < 2 &$d.'i&, 9 3Ti% (cf. Ex.(a)) (Is there a book which, if read, will make your Japanese strong?)

C. ITn r 3b%~iRalt t5L@%3 &$?%I?, (cf. Ex.@)) (Baroque music is music which, if listened to, will make your mind calm.)

2. Exs.(f) and (g) come from (5a) and (5b), respectively.

(5) a. 2k~~;t.(%%T-%~A.&&47&kb tsb>)$%T-~3%6, P i TI: < S /vG L k d . ' ~ TTSb>, (cf. Ex.(f)) (These are cakes that will not cause you to gain weight no matter how much you eat them, so please eat a lot of them.)

b. i&,o%&a)%%ii(%%%W< t, Et < ts&)%%Ifh, (cf. Ex&))

(That professor's lecture is a lecture that will make you - - - - . - . sleepy if you listen to it.) - . - . -

- - - - - - - - - - In the process of relative clause formation, the noun in the parentheses identical to the head noun (i.e. o-kashi of (5a) and k6gi of (5b)) is deleted, but the bold type parts (i.e. donna ni tabete mo of (5a) and kiku to of (5b)) can stay.

(+ Relative Clause (DBJG: 376-80))

352 Rhetorical Question

Rhetorical Question

forceful statement with no ex-

+Key Sentences

I (I could never do such an embarrassing thing! (lit. Could I do such an I 1 embarrassing thing?))

1 Sentence ( a m a t i v e ) I

1 Sentence (affirmative) I

1 (What is there to hide now!)

Rhetorical Question 353

I (There is no reason that she would come to a place like this.) I

(Dl

Sentence

$ 6

1 (Oh, you're watching N!)

'rL r ,

1 (Do it quickly!)

bcfilf

0. - 3 1 d

(a) Z A G B O ~ F $ $ $ % K & - ~ ~ - ~ ~ ; S . , (How could we serve such a thing to guests!)

(b) h /v Q%'t:@d'ttl%& ( B 0 ) &O [male, informal] (What can a man like that do!) b k L 3 b

(c) w ~ m ~ j f i z & ~ ~ ~ a /vil~c:&*6 it / v~ - i f& , (You never understand my feelings!)

Qb>L?aba(ila),,

Sentence

7 ~re$.rbla

(d) Z /vQC%i l~QZk . ; ,T&6TLd 5ila0 (How can such a ridiculous thing happen!)

(el p i L - C - W L & ~ I : W P ~ ; ~ ~ Z 2 7 ~ ~ 7 3 5 (&I, (How could he not understand it!)

a ( & ) .

Rhetorical Question

(f) @C:-?Aa%f~blz 2#3$bC;tT75'i+bb>Ceab>($). (How could you expect him to understand such a difficult thing!)

Wb tLP6 Ht ; t r , A . 2 , A W Q < W L ~ 7?TG;t7'sb>$, (The man shouted, "Open sesame!" And look what happened: the rock (lit. rock door) opened with no sound!)

1. Rhetorical questions take various forms, as seen in the Key Sentences. Typical endings include potential verbs (KS(A), Exs.(a) and (b)), mono desu ka and its variations (KS@), Exs.(b) and (c)), dar6 ka and its variations (KS(C), Exs.(d) and (e)), (nai) de wa nai ka and its variations (KS(D) and Exs.(f) - (h), no ka and its variations (KS(E) and Ex.(i)) and

- - - . - . - : =

nai ka (KS(F) and Ex.(j)). No matter what form it takes, however, a : R g rhetorical question always uses falling intonation. Note that in Japanese, - - - - -

genuine questions always use rising intonation.

2. Rhetorical questions in some forms are equivalent to their corresponding negative sentences in meaning. For example, KS(A), @), and (C) are semantically equivalent to (I), (2), and (3), respectively.

(1) -?/va8bT;t)>Lvz 2 Ii&%ab'o (I couldn't do such an embarrassing thing.)

(2) %B &AaAG:$3&aA$G?s a b > o

(No one would lend money to such a person.)

(3) +sI;liil$k~tz2b~ab~, (There is nothing to hide now.)

Rhetorical Question / rokuni - nai 355

Note that rhetorical questions are more powerful than their corresponding sentences.

3. A simple negative question can function as a strong command, as in KS(F) and Ex.(j), and is often used for intimidation.

not sufficiently; not satisfac- that s.t. animate does not or cannot torily; not properly; not well; do s.t. satisfactorily / sufficiently 1

+Key Sentence

3 < 1:&48 bl (s.o. doesn't eat properly.) - 2 3 *L*L C

(a) 3 < 1:@5$.6 L ~ ~ ~ T & & Q & ~ S ~ . O T , &%ffl5kGd'-7z0 (I took the exam without studying properly, so it was a disaster (lit. I couldn't do well at all).) k C d * r ; b 1 8 w

(I,) ~ w v ~ ~ r z ~ t : a ) ~ , f$%ktas< t:bna-nx3rz, (It was such a short stay in Paris that I hardly met her.)

(On the plane I couldn't sleep well.) - - = - - - - - a a - - - =

356 rokuni - nai

(c) & $ ! f 7 ? ~ x o z t i l r h < c = $ I , ~ ~ ~ w c L . 1 ~ , L ~ ~ S BiFU < . (He hardly knows about France, but he talks as if he knew a lot about it.)

(I went shopping, and got as far as to a department store, but I came home without doing much shopping (lit. shopping properly) because I felt sick while shopping.) I%( wn ITV

(e) BoAii6 < CLZ& Lfdb10 (My dog hardly does any tricks.)

Along with rokuni - nai there is another structure similar to it; i.e., rokuna N - nai which is used to indicate that s.t. animate does not or cannot do something decent / sufficient / satisfactory. Examples follow:

(1) a. &d$jZi23< & & b > 3 = & LQt \ , (He doesn't give us even a decent greeting.)

b. 5-72-b23< a+$$.&%bf&t\, (Nancy cannot write even a satisfactory letter.)

c. & o y $ b i 3 < QXQB L T b > Q t \ b L L ~ , (It appears that they are not eating decent meals.)

d. & o R i 2 3 < & R 3 B & ~ T ~ > & L \ , (That dog is not eating decent food.)

e. ~oK&ii3< m g e ~ a t \ , (That professor is not a professor to speak of.)

If the prenominal form rokuna in all the examples except (le) is replaced by the adverbial form rokuni the meaning will change. The rokuna version indicates that an action does occur but not in a satisfactory manner; whereas the rokuni version indicates that the action hardly takes place.

rokuni - nai 357

(2) a. b j D % C A 3 < E b j b > l ~ $ L t ? b > , (cf.(la)) (He hardly gives us even a greeting.)

b. -f;/2-Ct3<cZFff&P1fi'sb>, (cf.(lb)) (Nancy can hardly write even a letter.)

c. b j D A g l A 3 < E&%b L T b r G b l C j L b ) , (cf. (lc)) (It appears that they are hardly eating meals.)

d. b j D R l A 3 < K k Z % & e T b > t ? b ~ (cf. (Id)) (That dog is hardly eating food.)

sa P prt. <s>

highly informal speech by male speakers to express different degrees of assertion ranging from a light touch comment up to opposi-

+Key Sentences

you know; sure; I tell you [REL. ne; tomo; yo]

1 (A: I wonder if I can get a job. ) 11 (B: Sure you can.)

I (Life is something like a long journey.)

- - - - - - s g - - - - - -

(C>

(A: You cannot read ~a~anese , right?) (B: Yeah, sure I can.)

I (How come I can't drink sake?) I

{-&<a / &<k 1 3, (s.o. eats / ate it, you know.)

{?3Lb>/-?3Lt~37:1 S o (~.t.i~lwaseasy,youknow.)

(ii) {Adj(na)/N] {0/7?9?:1 S IfL #

{ Z % / Z%7.9 I: I 3 (s.o. is 1 was healthy, you know.)

{v& / +&7? 9 72 1 3 ;., (s.o. is 1 was a student, you know.)

(iii) Wh-word - 0 3

yj L T & < ~ L . > o ~ , (Whydon'tyoueatit?)

(iv) NP 3

z ;kbLEi% S o (This is tea, you know.)

(a) A: qi-'$ OI H $ ~ O I F X c ~ ~ ? L L . > ~ ~ I , (I wonder if today's Japanese test is difficult.)

B: b>-?, @ L < a'4>so (No, it's not difficult, I tell you.)

(b) A: ZOX-Y.L/-X, & T ~ ; J % (I wonder if I can carry this suitcase.)

B: %Tb3, (I'm sure you can.)

(c) A: ~ $ $ ~ d $ ~ & i & ~ f i t t b 1 ~ t tO (You don't have money to buy a car with, do you?)

B: blJP, & & S o (Sure I do.)

Lltbhz. s (d) A: L=-- 3 - - 3 a ) - - h $ ? i ~ & t t b ~ f . . ~ i ~

(Walking alone in New York City must be unsafe!) t3. e r i r

B: 'dl?, k X k S O (No, it's safe, you know.)

t; 6 (el A: ZDK$, % t : ~ & i t t t b > k s i k ,

(I bet you can't solve this math problem.)

B: t L t t & a ) , JPS Lb'So (This is a cinch, you know.)

(f) h & k C i Z L t b & a ) S , (Such is life, you know.)

L L r t L ? l f V

(g) f k S G c B % t i 9 3 & a ) S o (Work and failure go together, you know.)

(h) r j ~ - c ~ ~ ~ t b ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ i 4 h ~ i ' s ~ ~ ~ ~ , (How come you don't understand such a simple thing?)

f b W < -)A ( i ) A: ~ b & k f t L ~ < a ) 9 & ? i b ~ 1 : k 0

(I've given up the idea of going to college, you know.) *E b.

B: N 9 B 9 T b 1 b a ) S O (What are you talking about?)

1. Sa as a sentence-final particle is used usually by male speakers in very informal speech and it expresses the speaker's encouragement as in KS(A), Exs.(a) and (b), or his assertion to negate someone's challenge as in KS(B) and Exs.(c) - (e), or his light touch comment as in KS(C), Exs.(f) and (g), or his irritation about s.o.'s words or behavior as in Ex.@) or opposition as in KS(D) and Ex.(i). Sa is also used by both

males and females to draw the hearer's attention to something. (See Related Expression III.)

2. Note that when a Wh-word is used with sa, the predicate part has to be no-nominalized. The non-nominalized version is totally unacceptable.

(1) E5 LT%B&LC?b>Gff2bl I*P /(DPI, (=KS@))

(2) ABS7Tb>b I*8 /(D81, (=Ex.(i)-B)

I. All the uses of sa in the KS and Exs. can be replaced by yo.

Note that [3] and [4] will change to strictly female speech, because yo is attached to a noun or to a nominalized clause, respectively, but other than that the crucial difference is that sa is far more informal than yo. That is why yo can be connected with both informal and formal forms = - - - - - but sa can be connected only with informal forms. - 1 8 - - - = -

[S] a. A: %%kT$&*Q,

B: B%$T {&/*$I , (cf.KS(A))

b. A: B;GiB$%, %tbQblk;ta,

B: bl?, ?%tb$T Ik/*Pl , (cf.KS(B))

c. A&tkEb>Ea) k 5 Q & 0T.f I & / *P I , (cf. KS(C))

Wh-word - yolsa is always connected with informal forms, so there is no contrast between yo and sa.

II. Another sentence-final particle tomo can replace sa when the latter expresses encouragement or assertion to negate someone's challenge.

B: / ffi%bTl 295, (cf. KS(A))

[6c] is an acceptable sentence, but the use of tomo presupposes s.o.'s insistence that life is not like a long journey, whereas the use of sa does not presuppose it.

111. The sentence-final particle ne is fundamentally different from sa, because the former indicates the speaker's request for confirmation or agreement from the hearer, whereas sa indicates a male speaker's assertion. But both can be used in a non-sentence-final position to draw the hearer's attention to something as shown in [7]. Sa used this way can be used by both male and female speakers in very informal speech and sounds much more informal than ne. The excessive use of such ne and sa in a single sentence leads to vulgarity.

(Yesterday I went to see a movie, y'know, and there was power failure, y'know, and I had a bad time.)

sae 363

sae $2. prt.

even; if - only; if - just; as expresses the idea of "even" in long as; The only thing - need non-conditional clauses (or sentences) or the idea of "only" in (REL. made; mo; sura] conditional clauses

+Key Sentences

(A)

Noun

I I I

(She can read even classical Japanese, not to mention modem Japanese.)

I I I I

(Researchers even from America visit this lab.)

Noun Prt .

364 sae

(Dl

(If you just leave it here, the people in this place will take care of the rest.)

Conditional Clause

ZZC:

I Conditional Clause

Main Clause

Main Clause

Vmasu

&\7i~s3

Vpast

(If we can only finish (lit. If we only finish) this work, the rest will be easy.)

S f

( i i )

(iii)

-f&.LCf

N S f L1). 'r

d S f ttl b (even deer appear)

3 L 6 3 f kd b (eat even sashimi)

N (Prt.) S f

7 7 15 (+ / C : ) S 2-69 f i (went even to Africa)

N Prt. 3 f 2 %

Z / v G U C : S f d j b (existeveninsuchatown) bfi L

$L C: S 2- &+ b (understandable even to me) 73%- '

% @ T S x&?. b (teach even at school)

3 2 3 f %& (play even with a dog)

& . Z Z 0 ~ 7 j ~ ~ f ~ ? 3 ~ < kL5.fo

8*i Z<

9 H;fi' CJ 3 2- % & (come even from China)

(iv) N(Prt.) T3k +

E$ By %T 3 2 %-@ I; G b> (even professionals don't understand Oit. one doesn't understand s.t. even if he is a professional))

%&$TI i?&<Gb> (don't eat even fruit (lit. don't eat s.t. even if it is fruit))

$L;fi' I; T 3 2 6 CJ ;k ?'s (don't accept (s.t.) even from me (lit. don't receive s.t. even if it is from me))

% ~ ~ 3 2 b > G b \ (havenotevenread)

$T 3 A%-@ I; ?'s bl (don't understand even by looking at)

(vi) Vmasu 3 i? % &

&332t& (evenwrite)

(vii) Adj(i)stem < I i? dj &

8 < 3 2 & (be even inexpensive)

(viii) {Adj(na)stem 1 N} T 3 2 & ^(A. 0 @$IT 3 2 dj & (be even convenient) dr< L T YZT 3 i? & & (be even a scholar)

(a) @ki6 ia ;d~D3; i0 ls 'Q$$iCJGdl~I& (He was no longer able to eat even porridge.)

L I L A . H t R

(b) $LbL+05BQ%Ab:bL 6 %StvT-RC: l ;iR-@;t~, (I showed the picture even to kids, not to mention adults.)

(c) ~ ~ i t ; f ~ ~ 0 ~ ~ Z k Q ~ Z i k l ; i L G b ~ ~ (He doesn't even try to listen to me.)

366 sae

(d) 36b=.s;i&+fitvl2d.~;%b:Bffi%ad:. (Even Yamada could do it, so you can do it, too.)

I: C *A.

(el a ~ s ~ z o K E G $ < DG=IE+W ~ d . d . 9 1 ~ (Even my teacher took (as much as) two hours to solve this problem.)

E*3 d.W

(f) 3LPr FYJ- FI.'R&hb%k1QTBhGffl%3T0 (You can join our club any time if you only have a credit card.)

(g) ~~;i%$~~T<;kj'.b$f c Z O ; P ~ P ~ - 3 F % % @ b ~ i l 0E0 (As long as you agree (to our plan), we are planning to begin this project right away.)

eAS;5 L lfA. f i b , t r i b:

(h) a L@GLBS& LT s jik>kLb%%%d&k X kEo (As long as you study seriously, you'll do okay on the exam (lit. the exam will be all right).)

( i ) F ~ h ~ s ; i t ; k ~ ~ - i f ~ W & ~ h t v ~ < 6, (If you just raise your hand, a policeman will rush to you.)

(j) %< s;ij'bv;kti&;ka G&TIL (It should sell as long as it's not expensive.)

$i&~:%$o:'~s~~ti,;kc~rtv~~ Z ~ T B L W L T T ~ (Any location will be fine as long as it is convenient for commuting.)

1. As the Formation shows, the particles ga and o do not appear with sae, the directional particles e and ni optionally precede sae, and the other case particles must precede sae.

2. When sae is used in a conditional clause, the clause expresses such ideas as "if only," "as long as," and "the only thing someone needs is," as in KS(D), (E), and Exs.(f) - (I). In other words, in "S1 (conditional with sae), S2)' S1 presents the only condition that must be met in order for S2 to be true. In this structure, the ba-conditional (e.g., KS(D) and Ex.(f)) is most commonly used. The tam-conditional (e.g., KS(E) and

sae 367

Ex.(g)) can be used but is less common. The nara-conditional is used only in limited contexts such as (1) and (2).

(1) EPR@%I(L-C< ~ ~ ) Z C % + T C Z D Y ~ Y ~ - ~ I - Q W ~ Q b 11 72, (cf. Ex.(g)) (As long as you agree (to our plan), we are planning to begin this project right away.)

P bL.>L;GL.>, (2) &%P R&&tb%f&d? (As long as my family is all right, I ask for nothing else.)

The to-conditional is unacceptable.

3. In conditional clauses, sae can appear in various positions. The focus changes according to the position, as in (3) and (4).

(3) when no auxiliary verb is involved:

a. E kL P 2 I & CB (if (you) read only this)

b. E & % I & P XTkLiB (if (you) only read this)

(4) when an auxiliary verb is involved:

a. =I kL P R I A T L d 2 (2 (if (you) finish reading only this)

b. E h Q I k P R L - C L d (if (you) finish only reading this)

c. z h a m e X L 3 A r f (if (you) finish only reading this)

d. Z k L B I A T L 3 b a P RTkLiB (if (you) only finish reading)

The pattern in (4b) is not commonly used.

I. Made is also used as an emphatic marker and can replace sae, as in [I].

368 sae

In the case of sae in KS(C), made replaces both the sae and the de.

Made, however, cannot replace sae in negative sentences and conditional clauses, as in [3] and [4].

II. The emphatic marker sura is very similar to sae but sura is more liter- ary. Sura can replace sae except in conditional clauses.

III. Although it is weaker than sae, made, and sum, the particle mo also functions as an emphatic marker in some contexts. First, mo functions as an emphatic marker in negative sentences, as in [6].

sae / sai (ni) 3 69

Mo can also replace sae after de, as in [7].

As a matter of fact, de and mo are often used together as an emphatic particle.

Mo in ordinary &rmative sentences does not function as an emphatic marker. Compare [8a] and [8b].

b. Z O@REb: 12 7 % ' I j5 t~'b &@fR%fl%a (Researchers visit this lab from America, too.)

In addition, mo cannot replace sae in conditional clauses.

sai (ni) C:) n. / conj.

when; on the occasion of; at the time of [ REL. ba'ai; ni attattelatan'; ori ni; toki ni 1

370 sai (ni)

+ ~ e ~ Sentences

1 (I will tell you the details when I come down to Tokyo in August.)

(This is a word processor which my father bought me on the occasion of my college graduation.)

(I feel much obliged to have received such an unmerited gift on the occasion of our wedding.)

( i ) Vinf l%(G:)

f K 5 / W 7 k I l%( K) (when S.O. buys 1 bought s.t.)

(ii) N 0R(C:) L I t &

1% ( 1:) (at the time of an examination)

(iii) N b:R L T Wid'< A f C: l$2 L -C (on the occasion of entering a school)

sai (n i ) 371

(iv) ( Z O / + O / & O ) R

Z OR (on this occasion) - %%S** TLS.4 86. L t i l r i 0: kEl:$i;;B-TaRb:, S 3 A R %G:ELf& (When I transferred to Osaka I left my wife and children behind in Tokyo.)

% ~ b a ~ # % - T & ~ b : C ~ $ & ~ @ f l ~ ~ f ? ~

(When you engage in strenuous exercise, you need to do stretch exercises.)

nese views on balance of international payments.) L*o if3

Ltl %ORKC&, hFhF%&%!l b:&-Cb>kf?3, & 9 Pk 5 ZFb> I Lf:, (Thank you very much for taking the time to see me off at the time of my departure.)

(When I go on a trip I always take my camera with me.)

$ r < * 3 L * 4 r i ZOR, $LPE@$t El:%LT&3-To (Since this is an important occasion (lit. on this occasion), I will talk directly to the president (and see what happens).)

t', ' C r l t b l

z ; ~ ~ & ~ o R % % 1.7 7 2 1) -O%%S/vfl < ; ~ ~ : ~ R M T - T , (This is a wrist watch which my host family father gave me when I left for home.)

372 sai (ni)

1. - sai (ni) is used to indicate a special occasion on which s.0. does s.t. So, the phrase cannot be used on common occasions as in (1) and (2).

t b

(1) @ & 3 2 W/*EI Ef l&97& (When I got up in the morning I had a fever.)

1% S A 2 9 L+ (2) a. BPfi8~jT91: (@/*El $-B-W6V:,

(When I went to the library I checked out 3 books.) I f A $ * i D

b. @f%gB % b,9T!3EH$%!&%~??97: (@/El , $-?? y:w,s & Lpo

(When I received research money and went to the National Diet Library I checked out a dozen books.)

Notice that the occasion of going to the library is far more special in (2b) than in (2a). That is why sai is acceptable in (2b) but not in (2a).

2. Only Vinf or N or demonstrative adjectives kono, sono, ano can be used before sai ni. Vinf . nonpast and Vinf . past indicate incompletion and completion, respectively, in relation to the action in the main clause. Kono sai as exemplified by Ex.(h) can be used only when the occasion is special.

3. The particle ni of sai ni may be dropped. When ni is dropped as in Ex.(i), the focus shifts from the occasion to what is described in the main clause.

4. - sai ni is a formal expression that is often used with Sino-Japanese words, as shown in all the KS and Exs. except Ex.(f). Notice that in Ex.(f), an honorific-polite Japanese verb is used. In the following sentences in which neither a Sino-Japanese verb / noun nor a honorific- polite verb is used sai ni is unacceptable.

sai (ni) 373

5. N ni saishite is more formal than N no sai ni. When the former is used, N has to express a very special occasion as in KS(C) and Ex.(g). If N expresses an occasion which is not so special as in Ex.(e), N no sai ni cannot be replaced by N ni saishite.


I. Sai ni indicates the time when s.t. special takes place,whereas on ni

indicates an occasion when s.t. ordinary takes place. SL? k % V

[I] a. H ~ F c = L ~ L ; ~ L + ~ I ) J ~ / * K I C=~~Z$&&T;SL~, (If you have a chance to come to Kyoto, please let me know.)

bi? A $ L * . b. ~~~ii%%?!&F& {B& / *)Jil $JDWTQ&TL~Q~.~~:,

(When Bill got married he hadn't obtained his parents' permission.)

For the difference between toki ni and sai ni, see Note 1 above. (+ toki (DBJG: 49044))

11. There is another expression ba'ai, 'case,' which is used in the form of Vinf ba'ai or N no ba'ai.

b. %PF& 7: / e / *RI din4 + 7 TCP$ZT-F~ (If it rains the hiking will be cancelled.)

c. AKD {a+/ @ / EI car~.-;-~-~T&bi~b~.a~~s L A O

(In case of fire please don't use the elevator.)

Ba'ai means 'a suppositional case,' so an event that precedes it may not take place. So if the event is a real event, ba'ai cannot be used.

374 sai (ni) / sasuga

LlhL

[3] a. &q,fl l b : 7 ? ~ k {If$$/@/*%&] l Y>=ILG:&=~;,

(When I went to Paris last year, I met Michelle.) e*3 kv..

b. %m I% L k / @ / *%*I K%&Eb:*T < (When I was hospitalized, my friend came to see me.)

sasuga S bfif adv.

speaker / writer's strong feeling that s.t. has turned out as s 1 he

+Key Sentences

as might be expected; after all; it is only natural that -; naturally; truly; really; indeed; impressive (REL. yahan]

(Because Mr. Nelson has studied in Japan for three years, naturally he speaks Japanese well.)

- - - - - - - - - - I S F - - - -- - - -- -

- I (After all, they are Hiroshima oysters. They are really good.)

I: 1% BLhL O * l f < %ILY 2StvG;f.B$G:Z~ 2 Y L T b a k D T , Sf P b:

Main Clause I : l tL- C L ~ +

E J I ~ : ~ ~ I ~ & F T T ~

(After all, he is a former boating man. He has a fine physique.)

I-+$

I 1 Subordinate Clause I 1

(It is only natural that he is well versed in things French, because he lived in Paris for 10 years.)

Noun b t x*- bag$

S Tif;3r I:, &W:, (It is only natural that I got tired.)

EGf Ih9-C / I:),

(The great teacher that he was, even he'had a hard time answering the difficult question.)

(ii) S-if$(l&) NR

g & b > b > o

-

S-W(C&) 8$.0($12, (After all, it is a Japanese car.)

- - - - -

-%$~i S - w A < {%I $&?I-& /a$.$L?'..} t'.bj { h 9 T / I:) (as might be expected from the fact that S.O. studies / has studied hard)

376 sasuga

Sf75.' { g 8 b > / m ~ f i 3 k 1 ??If { & - T / /:I (as might be expected from the fact that s.t. is I was interesting)

(iv) 3-W {N ( 0 / f?773/Adj(na) (a / 7?77'$1 EL? { & 3 T / I:]

33-75.' { % b ~ ~ / & > ~ E ~ k l f?V { & - T / I:] (as might be expected from the fact that s.0. is I was a young person)

f t d F {$kLb>a / $kLb>??321 Ebf { & Q T / l:] (as might be expected from the fact that s.t. I s.0. {is I was} beautiful)

(v) 3-ifdTa)N b

3 -if75.'0%% b (even a genius)

3 0 1 C * i t d . L ILTL

%El l i - k F $ ~ ~ ~ & ~ $ Z ? ? L k D T , f 'ifjtr'b:$!ZkL% LIZ, (Yesterday I drove a car for 10 hours, so I got tired, as might be expected.)

%%&b LLWT, & e c i f f i v ~ l m c ; , ~ ' i f i & ~ ~ ~3 =f:, (It is only natural that I gained weight, because I was just eating without doing any exercise.)

1 / > 9 $ , C D T % ~ Q # ~ L ~ T I C > Z , ~ ~ - P ' ~ ~ ~ , 29- I- ti3-w~: L'b'T'ifh, (I'm always listening to music on CDs, but concerts are good, after all.)

3'if,F(ii)%3a)4 9 1) 7% El$a)4 9 1) 7 8 4 ~ 2 li%75.'& (After all, it is authentic Italian cuisine in Italy. It tastes different from the Italian cuisine in Japan.)

7% d'< L? d % e = t h . ?

3'if,F(li)3+e3%7'& B%75.'$$b>o (After all, he is a scientist. He makes sharp observations.)

Z 5 9 t 015 h L ? k

s ' i f ,~ , Zb>R~Llbc% TWY.VC:, $-P~~E,FSW~ (As may be expected of a person who used to climb mountains in his young days, he still has strong legs.)

sasuga 377

2L Y l Z * 1 b a L S . f f l & i t , +E~hEb;t:ZI:; i I:dr 5 R, (Even on my father the recent hospitalization seemed to have been hard.)

S-i f f l0%&L:6, &8f l&*baf i l3 I : , (The great teacher that he was, even he couldn't figure out the solu- tion.)

fbl: 13

{i&$j&7~dr 5 -72, ~ 3 a z 7 - + $ ? ~ i t ~ b ~ ~ I : ~ i i s . f $ 729 k, (He seems to like meat a lot and it was impressive that he ate two large steaks.)

9 s 2 i ; t : S . f f l l 2h0 ~ ' - I L $ ~ % $ & , L T L ~ ~ I : ~ : ~ (As might be expected of John, he drank 10 bottles of beer.)

Sasuga expresses one's strong feeling that s.t. has turned out as one expected, as shown in KS(A) - (D), Exs.(a) - (0, (i) and (j), or that s.t. has turned out to be contrary to one's expectation, as in KS(E), Exs.(g) and (h) as one has not expected.

In the structure sasuga wa X da, wa can be omitted.

Sasuga - dake may take either atte or ni as shown in KS(C), (D) and Ex.(f). -

= - - - - - - - z s s In the case of sasuga no X mo, the speaker wants to say that s.t. has -

occurred contrary to what one can expect from the characteristics of X, as in KS(E), Exs.(g) and (h).

Sasuga can be used like an exclamation in conversational Japanese. L 15.) L l t L vi ? 1

( 1 ) A: ~ ~ $ I C ~ E J & ~ % L : - J B ~ T ~ . * ~ I : + ~ 7?dr0

(I heard that Yarnada passed the bar examination on his first attempt.)

B: PbS! (I knew he would.)

378 sasuga / sei

[Related ~ x ~ r e s s i o n ]

Another adverb yahari / yappari is similar to sasuga. For examples, sasuga ni of KS(A) - (D) can be replaced by yahari 1 yappari. However yahari does not express the strong feeling of fulfillment of expectation that is expressed by sasuga.

[I] ; ~ . I L ; ~ ' J S A I ~ B $ G : ~ ~ @ % L T ~ ~ ~ : O T , TUt)EI$&Fk%T To (cf. KS(A)) (As expected, Mr. Nelson speaks Japanese well, because he has studied in Japan for three years.)

[2] Tqi$bJKEOd.3 f?, % b c $ 3 b ~ L b \ , (cf. KS(B)) (After all, they are Hiroshima oysters. They are really good.)

Also to be noted is the fact that yahari does not have prenominal nor pre- copula use, as shown in [3].

a dependent noun expressing a because; due to cause which brings about an un- [REL. okage; tame (ni)] desirable result

sei 379

+Key Sentences

(A)

I (Because of the depression, cars are not selling well this year.)

(Because of lack of sleep, I suppose, I feel weak (lit. the body has no power).)

Noun 2% $ 2 3

;r\%

1 (It is because of him that I failed.)

-11-1.1 0

I (I am dizzy today because I drank too much last night.)

( i ) N 0-11-1.. ( T / 7 5 / etc.)

&%a>-t?b>T (because of overworking)

T < A *

@ f l & $ k ) & k L f b b l ,

380 sei

(ii) Sinf *b> ( T / @ / etc.) (the same as the relative clause formation) l i t 6 #!I 3 $ ? i k @ - b 1 T (because s.0. worked too hard)

su,Sh?hP. K +< fir, C*? ~ x g d $ ~ a + b a T # S $ & A ~ . . ~

(I've gained weight because of lack of exercise these days.) 64 t< h < i=$j$+2$9 k * b T + + i i ~ $ $ f $ E . ? 5 Eo (It is reported that becaue there was little rain, we are going to have a bad crop of rice this year.)

ga*w$@x~$bz A i: < < 2 9 f& (Due to my age, I suppose, I cannot hear well these days.) * f i r , t 3 I X 1 6. ~ L P ~ ~ ~ M : ~ - C * - ~ P . E ~ ~ t3+jllE&3a~a3$q3+-h.'h ( aw, (Maybe because I have moved to a new place and the water is different, my stomach is uncomfortable these days.)

v31:3 t * j i$E< a97?abi-EI+2xL-9e7&97&g72 ~ - C b > & * b >

7: (It is because you work with a computer all day that your eyesight has deteriorated.)

. .u L-Irw @bi h < h 5 3 a % & ~ ~ a + b a ~ : $ & ~

(He often blames others for his own failure (lit. claims that his own failure is due to others).)

z ; k b i $ o ) + b ~ T 6 (This is (due to) no one's fault.) -

1. Sei is a dependent noun; therefore, it needs a modifying word, phrase, or clause.

2. Sei de is used only when the result is undesirable. Thus, (la) is acceptable but (lb) is unnatural.

(1) a. ~~%FW&~L\T~~Z+VFI&, a 17 & & t s ~ a ~ (Because she is here, I cannot do a lot of work.)

sei 381

b. @&flb1& {a%% /CI)T/k@CZ/???+?L\Tl .tts$d:< Y m s o (Because she is here, I can do a lot of work.)

Sei ka, however, is used whether the result is desirable or undesirable, as in (2), KS(B), Exs.(c) and (d).

(2) a. %E&flbl&+?~\aWWd: < B%ao (I think it is because she is here that I can do a lot of work.)

3 rv - . b. $i&flx%$l1$%$~8~r:+?~\a~zg8&fl%d:o 3 k ~ ~ l b : , a7k0

(Because the emission control rules have worked, I suppose, the air has become cleaner than before.) (tl)

c. ~&LE~;&o+?L \& ~Edsd: ( ts9 f i , (I feel a little better after taking medicine, although it might be my imagination.)

3. Sei de is used when the speaker finds the cause of an undesirable result to be beyond his 1 her control, as in KS(A). Thus, if the cause is within the speaker's control, sei de cannot be used, as in (3).

Sei ka has no such restriction as KS(B) and Ex.(c) show.

4. Sei cannot be used to express a reason. The following sentences are ungrammatical.

382 sei

I. Okage and sei are similar in that both express a cause. The difference is that okage is used when the result is desirable, as in [I]. Note also that okage implies that the person who attained the result is thankful for the cause.

b W t , kt [I] a. a ~ ) b b ~ & f i > ( f T @ f l r t t l d ~ - 3 1 : o

(The safety belt saved my life. (lit. My life was saved thanks to the safety belt.))

b. @kflFIZ-3 T < ;k7':&fiW'lrf~~~flg < g&11:~ (Because she helped me, I could finish my work quickly.)

(Because I studied English hard when I was a student, I don't have much trouble with my life in America now.)

Okage is sometimes used with an undesirable result for the purpose of sarcasm, as in [2].

Itl.+< El., b b. S~ f l&&fh z 2 2 L T < ;kk&fi>(fT$+j@fl&@ LG:@

-3 ?z0 (Because you did something unnecessary, thanks to you, our plan was ruined.)

11. Tame (ni) can also express a cause (as well as a reason), as in [3].

Unlike sei, tame (ni) has no such restrictions as those in Notes 2,3 , and 4. (+ tame (ni) (DBJG. 447-5 1))

semete 383

semete adv.

at least speaker / writer's minimally satis- [REL. sukunakutomo]

+Key Sentences

(A)

Number + Counter

(I am not saying that I want to get 100 points, but I would like to get at least 80 points.)

I (If we had a pan, at least, we would be able to cook rice.) I

I (I wanted at least my parents to understand me.) I

( i ) +?dTNumber+Counter ( ("bb1)- E C +L

+tb TI@ W (" L; b 3 (at least two hours)

(ii) -&&7 N { C b b ~ / ( f ? l j ) T h }

384 sernete

h T#% I C b b> / ( E l f ) T b 1 (at least a newspaper)

(iii) - & h T N P r t .

4 b T % K (at least to my wife)

W3hL te d. *hT-qb:+Ei C b b ' , W&75'&;k& k b > b ~ t v T - w , (I wish I could take at least 10-day's leave each year.)

i % i ~ ~ l z , ~ h ~ i z , *~~)T~&cL;I/~~~&L~G:&TY~LI>~ (Please come and see me at least once while you are in Japan.)

$%XTG { T & b>b>hf?, * h T , vgb ~ b ~ ~ & k $ & $ ~ j : b > ~ (It's alright if she is not a real beauty. But I would like to marry at least a cute girl.)

i: it& : +" * L $

EI$GL{+< Xl l?dlb , * h T , El$SI?lf i $ & L T & ~ : 5 2 2 3 . ~ - b>-a . f , (I am going to Japan, so, I'm thinking of learning at least Japanese.)

gtv3i:3 b.

+ M T ~ ~ j ~ - - ~ l ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ j : r ; , ~ O ~ G L ~ ~ G L ~ ; ~ J ; I J ) G : ~

(If my father lived at least one day longer I could have been with him when he died.)

L l t - 9 & t , G G = E b > % T G < - c b b > b ~ h f P, -&bt)Tb 5--68E&& kb>b>a) GL

(I don't need that spacious house, but I wish I had at least another room.)

6 Z%%GL?2& t v T * d l b , * h T , i i & & & d : 5 K G 0 J:blTB, (I would like to become able to engage in daily conversation in Japa- nese.) -

Sernete indicates the speaker 1 writer's minimally satisfactory level; he is

semete l shidai 385

well aware that he cannot realize an ideal state. Each sentence ends in a direct or indirect expression of desire, such as -tai as in KS(A), (C), Exs.(c) and (h), (to io n desu ga as in KS(B) and Ex.(a), noni as in Exs.(e) and (f), -(sase) te kudasai as in Exs.(b) and (g) and -yd to omotte imasu in Ex.(d). Of these, noni of Ex.(e) and (f) express counter-factual desire.


Sukunakutomo is another adverb with the meaning of 'at least.' The crucial difference between sukunakutomo and semete is that the former focuses on rather objective lower limits of number 1 quantity; whereas the latter on the speaker's strong desire to realize a certain minimum level of satisfaction. So all the KS and Exs. of semete can be rephrased by sukunakutomo, but the following use of sukunakutomo cannot be rephrased by semete, because it does not express the speaker's desire; it merely expresses the speaker's esti- mation of numbers / quantity.

i%ld'< * < . t t k . t '

[l] a. z D k W l ~ & & i & {$a < 2 -6 /*%@TI 5$7?6 5 (I guess that enrollment at this university is at least 30,000.)

PLV?< 3 L t L b. Z O ~ G & {$a< 2-6 /*+!@TI 3EZiFJbWaE6i.

(This car will cost at least 3,000,000 yen.)

(This semester I'm supposed to have memorized at least 1,000 kanji.)

shidai R$!! conj./n.

that an action indicated by a preceding verb or an action implied by a preceding noun is a prerequisite for another action

as soon as; depend on [REL. ni yoru; -tam sugu]

386 shidai

+Key Sentences

('4)

Vmasu

I I I

(As soon as I get to Osaka, I will call you.)

( (I will send my manuscipts as soon they are completed.) I

(as soon as S.O. has read s.t.) d . i

jjj+ "I% (as soon as S.O. has returned)

Exceptions:

r / \ (j -3 L .e ?I &% (as soon as S.O. comes 1 goes there)

-3 L .e rl%% (as soon as S.O. says it)

ts 3 9 &% (as soon as S.O. does s.t.)

(ii) VN %%

shidai 387

$$%a% (as soon as S.O. comes back to his / her country) t 3 6 * <

FIJ (as soon as S.O. / s.t. arrives)

(iii) (X i i ) N & % ? ? / T o i ?t;i +A S

( % ? (Fanning depends on the weather.) S * ? l r i $k #&ST (depending on the salary)

$92 L Z t

(a) klmW&;h 17 &%, gl$ $3 t if$$% L 3 -$o

(My husband comes straight home every day, as soon as he has finished his work.)

(b) &;tr.r;zgp&, 17 &$&I, $3&&17 $.if, (I will go to pick you up as soon as you call me from the airport.) *LFL+?A+?W S b

(c) LLlW%!+7Yb'r;3 L 9 9&%, ~ & 9 % & 7 ~ . b ' 2 . ~ , b ' a t , (As soon as Professor Yamagishi comes here I'd like to begin our meeting.) t i f v 1 9 F i i S L ~ ,?v , ? b w < b ~ L I:*? fl<

(d) RA%$ % %%, JZ ADAWEKA $W&q & 17 7% (Upon graduation from the University of Tokyo, I intend to enter the Graduate School of Kyoto University. )

i t A h 3 'Jda f$ T&%, & @ ~ % % & a - $ ~ (As soon as the reception is finished we will start the dinner party.) L * i L r <

(g) 8% ii=;i.&%-rtbc, (Finding employment depends on connections.)

fi) ~ & % D & & & ~ & % ( ? Z ) I 2 ~ 5 z 2 ; h ~ & i ~ ~ - ~ a - $ ~ ~ (Do you know the proverb "Even affairs in hell depend on money" ?)

6 * i b h ( i ) t' @*&ST, P ~ ~ ~ & T B Y $ & B L ~ - $ ~

(Depending on your orders, I will cook you anything you like.)

388 shidai

(j) Z#&%TIA, + a > b t t . ~ B f 1 3 & ~ t f z l / ~ 2 . ~ , l / ~ 3 % ~ (Depending on the employment terms I would like to accept that job.) -

1. Vrnasu / V N shidai and N shidai dalde mean 'as soon as' and 'depends on / depending on,' respectively. What is common to both cases is that an action or state indicated by the preceding verb or noun is a prerequisite for another action or state expressed in the main predicate.

2. The Vrnasu of Vmasu shidai can hardly be sum-verb, probably because it will create a sequence of shi-shi which is hard to pronounce.

3. As noted in Formation, as far as Vmasu shidai is concerned, the Vmasu forms of honorific, polite verbs such as irasshatu, osshatu, nasam are not irasshai-, osshai-, and nasai-, but irasshari-, osshari-, and nasari-, respectively.

4. For the shidai structure, the main clause cannot be past tense.

(3) a. ??kIAb97F%;k ?XR, @El 3 7% C%& L3 Lfz, (My husband came straight home every day, as soon as he finished his work.)

b. *eRd.r;%%Pbj I1 &%, a;ib:jT7 l:, (As soon as I received a call from the airport I went to pick him up.)


I. There is another structure -tam sugu with the meaning of 'as soon as.' The crucial difference between Vrnasu 1 V N shidai and -tam sugu is that

shidai 389

the former expresses a planned sequence of two actions, whereas the latter can express any kind of sequence of two actions. Examples in [I] and [2] show that both forms can be used to express a planned sequence and those in [3] show that Vmasu shidai cannot be used in a non- planned non-controllable sequence. In this case -tam sugu is much better than shidai, but slightly marginal and should be replaced by -tam marnonaku.

b. f$U.k%b: {fT9k%H&tc< /f79t:%b<'/*%T3R%l g&,~:fb9?:~ (As soon as he got to Japan he got ill.) - - - - - - . = - ' 8 1 -

N shidai da in KS(C) and Exs.(g) - (j) can be replaced by N ni yoru, as shown in [4].

But not all cases of N ni yoru can be replaced by N shidai da, because the former has a wider meaning: N ni yoru indicates 'cause' for s.t. as in [5a], 'means' as in [5b], or 'source' as in [%I. N ni yoru cannot be

390 shidai / shika mo

replaced by N shidai da in any of these, simply because the latter lacks these particular meanings.

*v t 7$L*bL

b. @3A&t6Hqm {L&7T/*R%Tl , ~ O ~ T ~ ~ L 7 - . . o (He succeeded in this world by means of his political skills.)

c. 7~ i j -C : { ~ Q L : / * R % T I $$s"i~&~+i~~, (According to the radio, it will snow tomorrow.)

(+ ni yottelyori)

shikamo La>% conj.

moreover; furthermore; be- provide additional important sides; on top of that; what's information more; what's worse; more

surprisingly; at that; nevertheless; and yet; even so [REL. omake ni; sono ue; sore de ite; sore mo; sore ni; (sore) ni mo kakawarazu]

shika rno 391

+Key Sentences

(The tape recorders available these days are compact and light, and on top of that, their sound has improved greatly.)

Commentz 1 Topic

II I

(He bought a house, and more surprisingly, a house with a large yard.)

Commentl

(B)

I Sentencel I 1 Sentencq I

Sentence

(He studies till late every night; nevertheless, he gets up earlier than anyone else.)

( i ) {V/Adj./N+Cop.} te L@h

%k$LTbaT, L a 6 + % Z T b a & (S.O. is married, and what's more, she even has a child.)

H b L J < T , L 6 6 1: 12 7'2 (S.t. is interesting, and what's more, it is free of charge.)

>Sf k T , L a h &%&% 72 (S.O. is handsome, and what's more, he is rich.)

Phrase / Sentence

392 shika mo

L - S l i C * ' , V r ? ti 5 % @ T , L 73' b d %j? (S.O. is out of work, and what's worse,

she is ill.)

(ii) Vmasu L-hlb

L < 'Ws , L $ $ $$ $ Q ba (s.o. works hard, and yet (or nevertheless), she does not complain.)

(iii) Adj(i)ko L73l b

< , L$ by&? (S.t. is cheap; futhermore, it's durable.)

L * ? l t i z a ) & % C i ~ $ bl , L g b $.k $b'~%lbl, (This job is interesting. On

top of that, the pay is good.)

d m C l V CL 7% L P < * t b a tr 6*i

(a) @ k l 2 % h T L$ b%$blbaO W3YEkflf +b:tb& a) b khb2tbblo (She is pretty, and what's more, (she is) smart. It is natural that boys (lit. male students) should be crazy about her.) I I k & L XrLB? by*, eh,

(b) E I * & G ~ & B ; ~ ' ~ E ~ k B f b 7 L*Eb%Lbl, L$b, El$Zt:bid &mao (Japanese has entirely different vocabulary from English, and the grammar is also difficult. On top of that, Japanese has kanji.)

z L r < (c) mokx b 3 ~ / O Q * C ~ B P L < -c2wr ~ - h l b , 11) =-i\$ma

$ r ; y ~ k ~ g ~ + f 5 1 ) -7 j / b:X&~m a. (That restaurant's teishoku (set meal) is good and reasonable. On top of that, it is substantial (lit. it has volume), so it is popular among students and young white-collar workers.)

SSbb5 **. (d) ~&fi~i~a)~~a)+~&dl~f~631:~ L$b, %b&l:-Tb:,

(He went out in this heavy rain, and more surprisingly, without an umbrella.)

% r L L = X L

(el ~EI~$$&G&~LT ~a 3 7 ' ~ ~ L + & , ~+%5jc6, (He was late for the exam, and what's worse, as much as thirty minutes late.)

shika mo 393

k.4 :< Z Ith I f - < Z t, L 1

4Ei$kc&E%a)Gr&ccm$~B%%%.fD L& h , ~ ~ - C & ! Z J % % & ~ I b: j 1: 0

(She speaks four languages besides English, and more surprisingly, she speaks all of them like a native speaker.)

% & S i s % s " ~ ~ - c ~ a ~ j ~ ~ L & % , X&azam%Ei:~~ (I caught a cold, and at that on the day before an important exam.)

@ c & P A ~ ~ ~ L ~ B o T ~ $ $ ~ T z ~ L, L & h , i$k#GL9b>Ti3&a) $2'0~ j ~ : + ~ ~ ~ ~ t s ~ - ; , 7 ~ . , (No matter how hard the job was, he did it quietly, and what's more, he did not complain about his salary like the others did.)

4Ei$kC&?+%-P7T il,"iiB~, Lfi.6, f a ) % $ ~ ~ l t b & S t c b a ~ (She is good at everything, but even so, she does not show off her talents.)

1. Basically, shika mo has three uses. First, shika mo is used when one provides additional important characteristics of s . ~ . or s.t., as in KS(A) and Exs.(a) - (c). Second, shika mo is used when one adds special information to a statement about a rather uncommon action or state, as in KS(B) and Exs.(d) - (g). Third, shika mo is used when one provides information which is rather unexpected from the preceding statement, as in KS(C), Exs.(h) and (i). - - - - - - - I S

2. In the second use, additional information can be provided with an independent phrase, as in Exs.(d) - (0, or with a sentence, as in Ex.(g). However, the version with an independent phrase is more common.

elated Expressions]

I. Shika mo in the first use described in Note 1 can be replaced by sono ue, omake ni, or sore ni, as in [I].

I . . Shika mo in the second use described in Note 1 can be replaced by sore mo, as in [2].

111. Shika mo in the third use described in Note 1 can be replaced by sore de ite or (sore) ni mo kakawarazu, as in [3].

shika rno / shitagatte 395

shitagatte L k fif 7 7 conj. <w>

therefore; accordingly; con- cate that a result I situation follows sequently necessarily from the foregoing [REL. da kara]

+ ~ e ~ Sentence

I1 I

(The budget is insufficient. Therefore this plan cannot be implemented.)

S1, LfifF9 T SzO

g$l { &ao ~ f < f 1 ~ 9 ~ @ p ~ k > ~

(It rains a lot. Therefore there is a lot of greenery.)

t*3 ?< 23

(a) + a m ~ w E ~ ~ @ ~ ~ % ~ T ~ & ~ ~ ~ L L ~ , LT:;~~.'.;,-c$FS 2 3 1 ~ 7 %-Ah f2bl0 (This week the executives are busy attending meetings from morning till night. Therefore they don't even have time to play their favorite golf.)

3 9 6 shitagatte

* t (b) %&2-F& 2 , = + l b ~ - % & L f z f 1 9 T k h & b > o

(If you do exercise, you use energy. Accordingly you don't gain weight.)

K l t L ( h l t L l i f < Z (c) EI$O@biifk@fl$Gb>., Lf:fl~-Ck < ~ ; k & ~

(Japanese cars have fewer troubles. Therefore they sell well.)

(d) f i Z i i ~ ~ $ & g $ & / v ~ ~ f : ~ ~ r z ; 3 " 9 ~ ~ 1 z i c o z t 8 d : < S h Q r b >

0

(She lived in Japan for five years. Therefore she knows a lot about Japan.)

$%Y* lilt80 - Yb S i i w (

(el m-mixm;f:ak,a 11 % ~ = ~ > a l j > ~ L ~ : ~ ~ ) ~ = - c ~ B & ~ o ~ ~ 8 d : ~ a z 2 t:az0 (In Japan fathers are seldom at home. Therefore mothers are in charge of their children's education.)

1. "S1. Shitagatte S F is used to express that S2 naturally results from S1. The focus of the conjunction is more on the result than the cause.

2. Shitagatte is used either in written Japanese or in formal speech.

3. If what is expressed in S1 is a reason for what is expressed in S2, shita-

gaffe cannot be used; da kara has to be used. . I t L f '

(1) a. * ~ & a > X & & d ~ ~ z ~ L ~ S ~ T W ~ E R L ~ b. ~ ~ ~ O A f l E E L f : O Eh>%%L$BRLfz0

(The majority of the people agreed. Therefore I also agreed.)

The conjunction da kara can replace shitagatte in all the KS and Exs., but not vice versa, because the former can express both reason-action and cause-result relations, but the latter expresses cause-result relation only. (See Note 3.)

shitagatte / s6 ka to itte 397

L r O r 5

[1] a. $ D % D + i r i f b & ~ l : . {Es% / * L k F 7 T I % i f f 7 - C z* 3€tvl?, (The review of this book was good, so I bought it and read it.)

a structure which expresses that the speaker I writer cannot easily accept the corollary from the preceding statement owing to some circumstances, although he feels

; like accepting it

+ ~ e ~ Sentences

but; yet; even so [REL. (s6) desu ga; keredo(rn0); shikashi]

(I hear that fish is good for your health.)

(Land and housing are less expensive in America, but we cannot easily immigrate.)

( i ) A: Slo

B: + i $ k Z - > T , 8@l~&~&A~b~&b~f~:bb~b3@AL, (But you can't read just comic books, you know.)

i5iiBibkEi8baP.fdT, + i f i k S q T , j@@lf&IIS/vTb>&bGfC: b ba b 3 -@ X. L o (Comic books are fun, but you can't read just comic books, you know.)

(a) A: $ & b T & T ? ~ b a k $ 3 T b a 3 LI:L, (He told me not to bring anything.)

B: 5 j &LZQT, % ~ & ~ ~ $ + f i ~ ~ a ; h . ~ f ~ : i t b 1 ; 3 . ~ b a ~ ~ ~ j ia, (But, we cannot go there empty handed, you know.)

(b) A: &fs"a>&&lkkTb-?~ L b 1 5 j ~ - f k , (They say that tomorrow's examination is very easy.)

. c & * r i

B: 5 j & k $ ~ T , Nb%%LababGfC:bb~ ;S~Qb~TLd io (But still, it can't mean that we don't need to study at all.)

(c) A:

B:

(d) A:

B:

(e) A:

B:

s6 ka to itte 399

SW L e i hh3*3 % B m E # R d l b , %3 t h o (There are consecutive holidays next week, so we can have fun.)

+i dakgg-C, 97'1k76fd117 LTb>&bCf G~&bai31Qb>h~ (But, I cannot just play golf, you know.)

b h

7; t f Z bi#b:Eb>T-F dr . (Cigarettes are bad for your health, you know.)

+ i i 3 1 k S g T , 7 ~ ~ f Z G : k b & & d ~ & 3 i 3 1 b h b ~ ~ ~ (Even so, I cannot find a substitute for cigarettes.)

P L t 9 P L gsz+a< 1;b&Uta k b ~ b > + i T t i f o (They say that it's good to exercise for about 30 minutes every

day.)

+i d l k g q - ~ , + ~ L E G ~ O & ! % I ~ & L Q L \ L&, (But it is next to impossible to make that amount of free time, you know.)

(f) ! $ $ ~ & . = , k ~ f Q ~ f k L b f G b Q b > ~ b i $ d l - s , ~ b > b ~ , + j d . k s g T , z%?b%i31 17 B k ~ b > b b M ~ : &b>dlQb>, (I know I have to memorize more kanji, but even so, I cannot memorize just kanji.) P V L bdl 7Wd.W L * = i t 3 : tb

(g) Z&TkXUkLbObi3bb>P, -Ti d b k B = T , Za)&fl ffi CZQBJfbb Gf tc & b>d>Gb>, (It is painful to leave my wife and kids behind, but I cannot excuse myself from this business trip abroad.)

1. S6 ka to itte is used when one is inclined to accept what one's conversational partner has said as in KS(A) and Exs.(a) - (e), or what has been mentioned in the preceding sentence as in KS(B), Exs.(f) and (g), but this inclination is accompanied by a realization that it is impossible to accept its corollary due to some circumstance.

2. S6 ka to itte always occurs with an explicitly or an implicitly negative predicate. It often occurs with - wake ni {wa / m o ] ikanai, but there are

400 sb ka to itte

cases where an implicitly negative predicate is used as shown in the following:

(1) a. Z n @ i & c ~ b G b l / r ~ s f , - F i d . t t q T , f lQj&-j-~

kt.$fP'fi'fi"Q Lo (I don't like this town, but it costs a lot of money to move, so . . .)

* t L D t 9 t* b. % b c A ? L ~ \ V P, +?j * ~ ' S Q T , @-Ab=B+27dj'Cfb

fi%' ? (We are busy, but how can we leave the work to him alone?)

The predicates kane ga kakaru 'it costs a lot of money' and makasete okerukai, a rhetorical question in informal male speech meaning 'we cannot leave it to him,' are cases of an implicitly negative predicate.

Sb ka to itte used in sentence-initial position as in KS(A) and Exs.(a) - (e) can be replaced by disjunctive conjunctions such as keredo(mo), shikashi, (s6) desu ga. The same phrase used in non-sentence-initial position as in KS(B), Exs.(f) and (g) cannot be replaced by such conjunctions.

Disjunctive conjunctions such as keredo(mo), shikashi, etc. cannot be replaced by the structure in question unless sb ka to itte satisfies the condition mentioned in Note 1 above. The following example sentences all explain this point.

[3] A: Za)7/\"- b i s < T b l b ~ b O (This apartment is spacious and nice.)

sd ka to itte / soko del 401

[4] A: :8imb=L<aL.>Lo (Alcohol is not good for your health, you know.)

rsl i p a a z h o a X P r . { L ~ P L / C ~ ~ Z C /*t)t~tz=~), -EBL h k%$W0 (It is tough to memorize kanji. But once you have memorized them they are very useful.)

soko del ? c T conj.

so; because of that; therefore situation presented as a reason and [REL. sore de] an action taken because of that

+Key Sentence

(My friend told me that something simple would be fine for supper. So, I ordered a pizza.)

S1o %CT, Szo d.k. L cr-3 &&7Fgz?2 { a3ko %CT, &@Th%&b*%-Th C k b:~?:~ (The conference room has become unavailable. So, we've decided to have the meeting in the cafeteria.)

402 soko del

&&m< s t v & Z , o b : ~ 7 F & ~ $ , ~ f : ~ ? Z T , 3 ' 9 3 - ~ & < ; ? 1: L f L (I had a lot of baggage and it began to rain. Therefore, I decided to go by taxi.)

1) - ~ - ~ 3 6 ~ t v ? & b t L a < t?=k0 ? Z T , ' < -5+4 27i&&& @ F b B k a < h ~ f : , (It has turned out that our leader Mr. Yamada can't come, so we have no choice but to postpone the meeting.)

6 l&&e T$$&,y- CLNII, C L b

Ci-z Y. f l lS t?< t?qf:, ? Z T , X!kl:%%L-c

N o B t,&bf b ~ Z , & h b \ T & f : , (I got injured and couldn't go to school on the day of an exam. So, I called my teacher to ask if I could take it another day.) *tt bkL bh

%Ei&-F<T$Lf lZ7hf :15 csb+e L f z 0 ? Z T , + L & E ~ T W , fit? < a 9 T , $b% ~ 7 : ~ (He talked as if it were all my fault. Therefore, I couldn't hold my tongue and I talked back.) >

S k ~ h L 7 ? W d r 6 t v ~ ~ F Z P , % & b W & a t v ~ ? ; 3 ~ , ,~~1:%3%&~+?9 ~ b l f : f ? b j 3 - @ / v s , (My son is going to college next year but he is not good at English (lit. and has trouble with it). Therefore, I'd like to ask a favor of you. Could you teach him English?)

mmm 1. Soko de cannot connect a cause and a result, as in (1).

,?u C L L (1) a. + f - ~ ' ~ 7 ? ' J ~ % ~ . r C ' A ~ B ; t r ' & = f : ~ *?LT)~&&W.:<S

t&tLf:, (Acceptable form: {?Ulf;65 / ?hTl !&$hJfl . . .) (There was a big earthquake in San Francisco. Because of that, many buildings collapsed.)

soko del 403

D 3 4 P t b. ~ ~ ~ b ~ . t d i c + - ~ I : < S L & 3 3 ; k l : , *?LT%;b&

$g-h.'% < T k b b h h b a . (Acceptable form: {?Olf; L% / t hT1 4 8 13. (I was forced to drink a lot of cheap whiskey last night. Because of that, I have a headache and cannot get up today.)

(~ tame (ni) (DB JG: 447-5 1))

2. In general, when soko de is used, the situation presented as a reason is a special situation. For example, (2a) is acceptable, but (2b) is somewhat odd.

h t b b ?? tr* L (2) a. Y ~ & H S L O ~ % T I ~ - F ~ - - ~ . ' & ~ T ~ O ? ~ X ~ - 1.

-h.'r.:< s c v h a k ~ a j . ~ L T , % L B ~ T ~ : ( z ~ c = L ~ : ~ (I heard that there is a party at Morita's tomorrow and many of my old classmates are coming. So, I've decided to go, too.)

b. N 8 & H S I v O j % T 1 f - ~ 4 - ; 5 f & & t b ~ j . ???LP, %L%qT<Ztb:Ll:o (Acceptableform: ? h T , %LB...) (I heard that there is a party at Morita's tomorrow. So, I've decided to go, too.)

3. In "S1. Soko de, Sz," S2 usually represents a controllable action. Thus, in the following examples, (3a) is acceptable, but (3b) and (3c) are

- somewhat unnatural. - - - - s s -

H I -

Ii/rd'< - = = --

(3) a. - - I , R 9

T& 3 7 k

(The fur coat was on sale at fifty percent off. So, I made a big decision and bought it.)

b. ?O%EO3- 1. C&+-ILP*%~?~I:~ ????LT, %LB EbaI: < h 9 T 3 I : , (Acceptable form: ? h T , %L%.-) (The fur coat was on sale at fifty percent off. So, I wanted (lit. began to want) to buy it.)

404 soko del

(The fur coat was on sale at fifty percent off. SO, I could buy it.)

4. In "S1. Soko de, Sz," S2 cannot be a command, a request, a suggestion, or an invitation, as in (4).

(4) % J 8 % E f P A Q , i t ; ~ / ~ - 7 4 - - f l h ~ T 8 0 3 7 x % - P75y: < SA*$-F, * ? Z T , &GI:& ( Q ~ ~ % T Y ~ L ~ / L ~ L ; ~ L ?7I:L;tr'iT-F75'/ k '1;7L?L1$@A@). (Acceptable form: { E + I a % /TB+13%l &GI:&--) (There is a party at Morita's tomorrow and many of our old classmates are coming. So, {please join us by all means. I how about joining us? I would you like to join us?})

(+ da kara in sore de (DBJG: 413-14))

Sore de and soko de are similar and are interchangeable in many situations. Some examples follow.

In addition, like soko de, sore de cannot be used with a command, a request, a suggestion, or an invitation. (See Note 4.)

Sore de, however, differs from soko de in several ways. First, sore de can connect a cause and a result while soko de cannot, as in [2] . (See Note 1.)

[2] a. " f 7 7 7 7 3 X ~ T k f & E d " & 7 f : , { ? h T / * ? Z T } $Z@W fz < S A @ W & (=(la)) (There was a big earthquake in San Francisco. Because of that, many buildings collapsed.)

b. ~@&%L~S~I 'X+-BI:< Sh.@kZSt~f :~ { ? h T / * ? Z T l 4 8 i2Bd5% < T W 3 1; kLGb1, (=(lb)) (I was forced to drink a lot of cheap whiskey last night. Because of that, I have a headache and cannot get up today.)

soko del / soko de2 405

Second, sore de is used to mean 'that's why.' Soko de cannot replace sore de in this use, as in [3].

0 * -€

[31 a. @ E l b k ~ % B $ 1 3 3 L k , {?hT/*?LTl % @ B & w E C ~ T t o

(I had a cold yesterday. That's why I took a day off from school.)

HHB* L I ' b. A: @ E l b k % ~ - 3 k k ~ T f f l & d ' d j c l $ L T b ,

(I had some business in Osaka yesterday.)

B: &&, {?hT/*?LTl b a b 7 L . t . b G ~ 7 1 : / v T . f b o (Oh, that's why you were not here.)

Third, when sore de is used, the situation does not have to be a special one, as in [4]. (See Note 2.)

Fourth, when sore de is used, the situation does not have to be controllable, as in [5]. (See Note 3.)

soko de2 =f LT conj.

then; at that time event and an action taken at the time of the event

406 soko de2

+Key Sentences

1 (When I wave my hand, (lit. then,) please clap your hands.) 1

Subordinate Clause b t L

L : b ,

1 (He might offer you a drink. At that time you mustn't hesitate.) 1

( i ) S1, ? Z T S 2 ,

? Z T

t a i T L lit z o q >-P75.'9bb?:b, ?ZTj tE Z B & b T T f b',

(When this light comes on, (lit. then,) start charging it.)

Main Clause

8 3 % ~ L T Y s b b o

(ii) S1, -? T S20

nt, c I)*&

(a) + m ~ : ~ r . ~ ; % ~ f i r.eb J t & t t + r ; , -?zT%< O B . ~ @ - C & E c & b ~ - c ~ ~ b ~ ~

(In an hour I will say, "Stop!" Then, stop writing and put your pencils down.)

(b) $Ld'Z&B L k b , ? Z T % 3 t v % 3 - t ; E b ~ t - i f O (When I give you a signal, (lit. then,) you will all stand up, please.)

soko de2 / soko o 407

I Hb ~ ~ f : j b k , ~ ~ f : ~ ; , + ~ ~ & i t p o e - = ~ 6 a < $ ~ - i f , (If you think you are intoxicated, you should stop drinking at that time.)

:?b t* X s ~ ~ ~ m c = . k L - T ~ Q w L ~ ~ : - T L ; w ~ . + ~ ~ % i ; f l i t ~ ; a - ~ l k blijjbblo (Little children sometimes get into unbelievable mischief. Their parents must scold them then.)

(Prof. Yano scolded a student. It would have been all right if the student had apologized to him meekly at that time, but the student talked back (instead).)

amB 1. In "S1. Soko de Sz." S1 represents an event and Sz an action at the time

of the event.

2. Sz is often a command, a request, a suggestion, or an invitation.

3. Soko de may appear in mid-sentence position in S , as in (1).

(1) a. %Lfis&He L k b , B S L - ? Z T ~ 2 % ~ B b ~ 3 - i f o (=Ex.@))

b. 4 \ s b ~ ~ R c i @ c : k L T b a-blblf:Tb e-ifao %I&+ZT Pkb fhblk blCf j b (=Ex.(d))

S O ~ O o ;f. C f conj.

a conjunction used to indicate that I but; in spite of that in spite of the negative situation mentioned in the previous part of the sentence 1 discourse some positive effort is made

408 soko o

+Key Sentences

(Tom is small for a football player, but he makes up for it with his swift legs.) 1

v C r 5 d . h ZhJI :l. 1:e&-Mv b=.iibl*ab>b;.

(I cannot loan you more money than this.) i (But, could you do something about it?)

Ph h t f (a) %EiiGBCi+hb%Ed: < abld', -?ZQ&%T@~;~.T~T~>&~

(He is not that bright, but he manages to get along on his efforts.)

(b) +oZ@iih iV&eii-i?z kii&&abW, +z %2Tmk&?:* Tblki., (The actress cannot hide her age any longer, but she is somehow pre- serving herself with her arts.)

L*l .tt* (c) $FLI/>~GG+C-~-W, + z e m k + f f i ~ ~ ~ b > ? ~ f z c f a b l ~ ~ ~

i So (I know that you are busy, but I wonder if you could possibly attend it.)

+7 S i i (d) A: Z/~QF&C.~, %, +%T3fbb>b;,

(With such poor grades, you cannot graduate, you know.)

soko o / -s6 ni naru 409

B: ?t 9, g&, r j G:dbLTbakECSG-I/>TLd: j fib, (But, could you do something about it, Professor?)

(e) A: t tv&&dk:8$$9fiif6 ;~GSI :~ ;~ : I /~&G-L~G-~ (I cannot allocate a budget for such a project.)

(But, chief, could you give me a chance?)

1. Soko o is used to express some positive efforts in spite of some negative situation mentioned either in the first half of the sentence as in KS(A) and Exs.(a) - (c) or in the interlocutor's line as in KS(B), Exs.(d) and

(el.

2. Soko o is often used to push one's request in spite of an initial negative reaction, as shown in Exs.(c) - (e). In this case, the sentence often takes the form of Soko o nantoka - deshd ka.

3. Soko o can be replaced by soko no tokoro o without changing the meaning when soko o is used to express the speaker's beseeching, as in KS(B) and Exs.(c) - (e).

almost happens [EL. rn6 sukoshi/chotto de

- sum tokoro (datta)]

410 -& ni naru

+Key Sentence

(While walking in the cold rain without using an umbrella, I almost caught a cold.)

- - -

Vmasu ? 5 G: a 6 b f S ik? 5 GL l's 6 (s.0. almost forgets s.t.)

$6.11 ? 5 I: 2 b (s.0. almost understands s.t.) L9 L t < % %k L + 5 C: 2 6 (so. almost loses his 1 her job)

*fiL - rb %~i&+wlk$, 7=-lbTE5 < %IWL+? 5 Kl's9 k Z 2 f l & b o (When I was a child I almost drowned in a swimming pool.)

~ d + , 5 % ~ 9 2 ~ ~ ~ : 0 d % + ? 5 Gzfb97L

(Yesterday I almost got run over by a car.)

&&&a>gt3.9&&? 5 C : g ~ j : ~ (My house almost got destroyed by an earthquake.)

go&>&&Fgj&&L+? 5 G : f t 9 jz0 (An old pine tree in the yard almost fell down in the typhoon.)

y d & k A a g o y T , % & B ~ b & + ? 5 K 2 9 k0 (Today in a crowded train I almost got my purse pickpocketed.)

-M ni naru 41 1

l i l t V r 3 s (g) +gkh%+{i~f?jC:Qg?:@l:, @t.71'fi5,bL8~-cL331:0

(When I was almost able to go to Japan my mother got ill.)

rCmrL*- 1. Vmasu sb ni naru expresses the idea that s.t. almost happens. As shown

in Exs.(a), (b) and (f), Vmasu sd ni naru is often used with an extra adverbial phrases such as ayauku 'narrowly,' and md sukoshi/chotto de 'a little more, then -,' which reinforce the idea of 'almost.'

The verb is restricted to non-volitional verbs, that is, a verb that expresses s.t. that is beyond human control, such as (kaze o) hiku 'to catch (a cold)' (KS), oboreru 'to drown' (Ex.(a)), tsubureru 'to be destroyed' (Ex.(c)), taoreru 'to fall down' (Ex.(d)). Since passive and potential forms are regarded as a non-volitional verb, they can be also used with sb ni naru, as shown in Exs.(b), (e) and (g). If the verb is a volitional verb, Vrnasu sb ni naru cannot be used if the subject is the speaker himself 1 herself.

(1) a. *%L&~gB&&=f [:& fZ@, gg$l;@$$$g -c 3 7 k

(When I was about to eat my lunch I received a call from my friend.)

-c b7'& - - - - - = - - - - b. * @ - h ' ~ & B & = f . j ~ ~ & 7 f ~ @ , @&< 8 9 3 LIZ,

s 2 - - - - 3 - - (When I almost graduated from college, I lost my mother.)

However, if the entire situation expressed by the whole sentence expresses a situation that is beyond human control, a volitional verb can be used even if the subject is the speaker himself as shown in (2): in both (2a) and (2b) the action is not the speaker's choice. What (2a) and (2b) mean are 'I was almost forced to eat that poisonous bean-jam bun' and 'I was swindled by somebody to use that counterfeit paper money to purchase things.'

b. ~ t & $ i % r ~ k ~ + O ~ ~ T f i b 1 & ~ ~ - f 5 ~ Z & = f z ~ (I almost bought things with that counterfeit paper money.)

If the subject is S.O. other than the speaker, Vmasu sci ni naru can be used, even if the verb is a controllable verb, because whatever happens to the third person is considered to be beyond the speaker's control.

(Because a small child almost drank sake, the mother hastily took it away.)

(Because Yamada almost quit the company, his colleagues retained him with great efforts.)

All the examples of Vrnasu sci ni naru can be replaced by rnci sukoshilchoito de - suru tokoro datta, except Exs.(f) - (g) in which Vmasu W ni naru is used in a dependent clause. The latter expression focuses on both the impending aspect of something and the point of time at which s.t. occurs, - - Y but the former focuses only on the impending aspect. s g

= = - - - - - [I] a. $Lt&3ROF%, Y-lLT65 ( 9 L / 4 ~ 7 t I T%1;C%&b t C

b f i 7 fz , (cf. Ex. (a))

-xi ni nam / sono ue 41 3

As mentioned in Note 2, the verb of Vmasu sd ni naru is restricted to a non- volitional verb. But md sukoshilchotto de - sum tokoro datta is free of this restriction.

c. 8 3 I $ L / B & 7 2 1 T f f i ~ ~ ' r 6 2 C - 3 ~ : ~ ~ ; 5 " ~ - > T & f : , (When I was just about to leave, a friend of mine visited me.)

sono ue 30k conj.

on top of that; besides; more- additional, emphatic statement over; furthermore; what's

more; what's worse; not only - but also [ REL. omake ni; shika mo; sore ni; ue (ni)]

+Key Sentences

1 Topic 1

(He looked for an apartment with me, and moreover, he even helped me move.)

03)

(This job pays a good salary, and what's more, it offers opportunities to go abroad from time to time.)

(Bananas are cheap. On top of that, they are nutritious.)

( i ) {V I Adj. 1 N+Cop.} te -?Dl

b > ~ T. 6 @;i T, +Dl, @#i? (You can use it any time, and on top of that, it's free.)

kj L.> L < T , % D k , %%fl& b (It's delicious, and what's more, nutritious.)

%@T, % D l , &%fl%b> (It's inconvenient, and moreover, the rent is expensive.)

C*lrS/r+?W @&?%T, % D l , T4-'i'dTC;f39Tb~b (It'smadeofpuregold,

and besides, it has a diamond (lit. a diamond is embedded).)

(ii) Vmasu % D k

CSdt) l; kL, % D l , CZ 5 V 3 T b l; 9 7: (I was praised, and what's more, I was given an award.)

(iii) Adj(i)ku % D k Is*L f i B L h

sifi f l m h < , % D L , & & ? F b > (The story is interesting, and on top of that, it's easy to read.)

(iv) S L, % D l

% D b $ b ; f ~ 3 57'sb>L, % D k , $k#d%~.> (The job is boring, and what's worse, the pay is bad.)

(v) So % D L h ' t h +57? h C lmi

% o ) & ~ l ; f ~ f l ~ ~ E b I ? ~ % D l , gdz%b>, (The old man is disabled. Furthermore, he is hard of hearing.)

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - I S Z -

a W C t u t h - - -

(a) ~ E ~ C ~ S A T , %DL, &$T~~L.>L>*L; , J+L~G:&MLT~/>L - - - -

(Everybody loves-her because she is not only pretty but also good- natured (lit. because she is pretty, and what's more, she is good- natured).)

L * i L r < ti?/, m) Y&oi 3c:pL~~wac:a97: l ; , l i > h ' i > h ~ Fif-lxer>f:r?b> T , % D L , ~ k ' a T ~ " % % i C : a 9 1 : , (When I went to my professor's house to consult him about my job, he gave me all kinds of advice, and on top of that, he even served me dinner.)

'J s 20 j - t ;d&~i : f i7 f i r ; , % a > e > + & ~ B T I Z ~ S ~ L , TOJ-, (C) LN * X%!l V3TS+i?L;kL7'& (When I went to see John at his place, he got me to help him paint his house, and what's more, he even got me to mow the lawn.)

&*.IL*t;',

(d) ~ 0 7 1 9 - P IG&$c:%$JT~~~~%<, 5 0 ~ m f 3 - m a o (This apartment is convenient for commuting and the rent is reasonable. Moreover, it even has a parking space.)

(The structure of Japanese is considerably different from that of English, and on top of that, it has kanji; therefore, it is difficult for Americans to learn.)

(f) Z@$5@ikba,,>%&&G {Ed% & { &b>,, + D l , g&'&+@ b > o

(This school does not have many good teachers and the facilities are not good, either. And besides that, there is a lot of juvenile crime.)

Sono ue is used to introduce an emphatic statement. Thus, an emphatic marker like made often appears in the added statehent, as in KS(A) and Exs.(b) - (d). (See Related Expression 111.)

- n - elated ~x~ressions] - - - = - - - - - - -- - I. Ue (no can replace sono ue, as in [I].

11. Omake ni can replace sono ue without changing meaning, as in [Z], although omake ni is slightly more casual.

In. Sore ni is similar to sono ue except that the added statement is not emphatic. Thus, this statement is often supplementary information. In the following examples, [3a] and [3b] are acceptable but [4a] and [4b] are somewhat unnatural. The reason is that in [3a] and [3b] the second statements are not necessarily emphatic while in [4a] and [4b] the second statements are emphatic as the emphatic marker made shows.

418 sore demo

sore demo ;t' hTG conj.

nevertheless; yet; but in spite of pressed in the preceding sentence that; even so

(REL. (sore) ni mo kakawarazu; te mo]

+ ~ e ~ Sentence

I

(The parents are opposed to the couple's marriage. Nevertheless, they seem intent to marrying.)

*L11 3 (a) ~ L ~ o T E E ~ , @ ? ~ - . ~ ~ c ~ I T F , ? h T 6 3 I . $ $ & ~ I : ,

(It was so hot that we turned on an electric fan, but it was still hot.)

(c) 20%i;tk T &%b>a)K, F h T & b > b ~ $ d . & i , 1 < &TL>6, (This book is very expensive, yet it is selling well, because it is a good book.)

sore demo 419

(e) A: 20%-I<-, & b l k a k o

(This overcoat is expensive, isn't it?)

B: S ~ L T ~ & ~ Q B 3 ? (But do you intend to buy it?)

Sore demo means that in spite of the circumstance expressed in the preceding sentence something surprising or contradictory takes place. So if this basic meaning is missing sore demo cannot be used.

(1) &dbkk%~b, {T.f / CfhZ.f / LaaL /*?hT&l $$a"b;f% &J?,

(I have work to do today. But I can take a day off tomorrow.)

(3) &ihw-ho IT^ / [ t w a / L ~ > L /*tnralBkit e % L a b l ,

(I do exercise a lot. But my younger brother doesn't at all.)

e elated ~x~ressions] - = = - - - - - - - - - =

I. (Sore) ni mo kakawarazu also means of 'in spite of (that)' and, in fact, it can replace sore demo in all the KS and Exs. except Ex.(e). The reason why the replacement is impossible in Ex.(e) is that (sore) ni mo kakawarazu is used only in written or formal spoken Japanese; therefore, it doesn't fit in a very colloquial use of sore demo in Ex.(e).

[I] A: Z0;5-1<-, &b.kaR,

(This overcoat is expensive, isn't it?)

B: ~?hT.f/*?ht:&~a~ab%-d'l W i Q h b ? (Do you intend to buy it in spite of that?) (= Ex.(e))

420 sore demo / sore dokoroka

537 IAbi%@-if&9 9, W Lba,

(The parents are opposed to the couple's marriage. In spite of that, they seem to intend to get married.) (= KS)

11. Sore demo can be rephrased by te mo as in:

[31 a. Ri%ijrXAa>%%l:EkkLTb~T6, IACi@@f Q Z J 9, !I EI L L a , (cf. KS) (Even if the parents are opposed to the couple's marriage, they seem intent on getting married.) (cf. KS)

But Wh-word - te mo cannot be rephrased by sore demo.

sore dokoroka ? $I ttE L 5 h' conj.

a conjunction that is used to indicate that the level / degree of a fact or a situation expressed in the second sentence is far above or below the level / degree of a fact or a situation expressed in the first sentence

on the contrary; far from that; as a matter of fact (REL. dokoroka]

sore dokoroka 421

*Key Sentences

(A)

(Mr. Smith cannot write kanji. As a matter of fact, he cannot write even hiragana satisfactorily.)

% < a bl. -? kL P z 5 ;3.%~. (It's not hot. On the contrary, it's cold.)

(Shall we go to the party tonight?)

(ii) k. So

(No way (lit. Far from it). Dad got hospitalized.)

A: $;kk b, (Tired, aren't we?)

(a) $a>Xct%< ith~ a-tl-tvd:O +;krzbd>, B % S A , & X ~ L ~ ~ L , T-if L o

(She is not young. On the contrary, she has as many as three grand- children.)

422 sore dokoroka

d l h vo-L'l. L+= 6 L (b) %&b2-@B&b3+?/vo ?kLFE6&, I B & T ~ L L T ~ ~ ~ / ~ T ~ .

(I don't have a penny. As a matter of fact, I'm suffering from debts.) .L??/.

(c) ' ~ k ~ i ~ ~ & D ~ & j ~ & # $ i ' s b ~ ~ +kLFZS&, ~ & ~ f s b j b 1 3 9 & j34i %T&sffQb>, (Jim cannot speak Japanese. In fact, he cannot even make simple greetings in Japanese.)

(d) A:

B:

(e) A:

B:

(f) A:

k&%f~b'f:/vf?gT ? (Did you have a cold? (lit. I heard that you had a cold, but is it true?))

?kLFZ6&, %'%Kfs=~, ARLTb>k/Lf?o (On the contrary, I had pneumonia and got hospitalized.)

&&g-&&E -j & ? (Shall we go see a movie?)

-WLFES e p f s b a k o F%~28&~fs1fk~t ; ta~ i 's~>~22;F~ b>ty7?0

(Are you kidding? (lit. Far from it) Tonight I'm so busy that I have to stay up all night.)

$8, +723-c < fib ? (Kazuko, can you help me?)

V f L*< fib.

?kLFE5L::.e8blOb:, + @ I P K L < - c , (No way, I'm busy doing my homework, you know.)

(g) 3 4 - 3 2 / v ~ t 3 $ $ ~ Z c ; . 1 ; ; k b ~ ~ ~ r t ~ i & i ? a ~ ~ c ; . 1 ; ; k h , (Clark can eat sashirni. As a matter of fact, he eats even natt6.) -

Sore dokoro (ka I de wa nai I ja nai} can indicate a flat rejection of an invitation 1 request / command of the conversational partner as in KS(B), Exs.(e) and (0. Sz gives an unusual circumstance which makes it impossible to accept the invitation 1 request / command.

sore dokoroka / sore ga 423


Sore dokoroka can be replaced by { Adj(i 1 na) I V}inf. nonpast dokoroka or N dokoroka, if the negative predicate of S1 is switched to an affiiative predicate.

sore ga + htlf int. <s>

well (contrary to your expec- the speaker is going to provide an tation; I'm afraid to say this,

but) [REL. sore wa; tokom

* ~ e ~ Sentence

1 (Does it look like you can get a scholarship?) I

I

(Well, (no,) it looks difficult.) i

424 sore ga

L lth (a) A: %jeR, P j F 3 7 : ?

(How was the exam?)

B: aw, f:lvrzo (Well, (I'm sorry to say this, but) it was no good.) ~ M X . I: MA, lire

(b) A: H&T@ < lvT-ifhO (You're going to work in Japan next year, aren't you?)

B: WJP, WLW&GSQ < a9-c ~3 9r : l v~ - i f 0 (Well, no, it's turned out that I can't go.)

(c) A: &$K&3~$i!~i?lvi?6 5 (You met her and talked to her, right?)

B: +tw, e3 r ~ z 2 ue3 r . l v r w P , &&I: &eS;ia < a 9 - c L 3 3 - c o (Well, I did meet her, but when I saw her face, I couldn't say any-

thing.)

1. Sore ga can be used with or without an interjection such as iie, ie, or iya. When an interjection is used, sore ga follows it, as in KS and Ex.(b).

2. Although sore ga is often used when the response is negative, it can be used when the response is positive, as in (1).

A: %%, 7'?&29r:h'r?6i. (You didn't pass the exam, I bet.)

ts B: bl?, ?hiif, B3l:tLl?h0

(No, (the fact is that) I passed it!)

3. Because of the nature of the situations where sore ga is used, it is often pronounced with a somewhat hesitant tone.

elated Expression]

In, contrast to sore ga, sore wa is used when the speaker provides an

sore ga / sore mo 425

expected response to a question.

[I] A: @ R i k t : b b l k b l T L r i. (You want to see your girlfriend, don't you?)

B: =fhlt, % b l f Z b l T - $ - L ,

(Yes, (naturally,) I do.) (e sore wa)

sore mo =f hit conj.

what's more; what's worse; at more specific information to infor- that; furthermore; moreover; on mation about a rather uncommon top of that

[REL. shika mo]

* ~ e y Sentences

AdvP, AdvPl Verbal .PL<L t,

, +f ib SET B ~ f i f . ~ D T 2W3@bh@91:, - - = = - - - - - s g - - - - - - - - - -

(Because he spoke (lit. I was talked to) in English, and what's worse, rapidly, I didn't understand anything.) '=

(B)

first-class ones.)

426 sore mo

(Because she has as many as five children, ahd moreover, they are all very mischievous boys, Mrs. Noguchi is extremely busy every day.)

( i ) AdvPl + ;k 9, AdvP2 (Verbal)

, ; k & { L 6 (It is written in Japanese, and what's worse, in flowing style.)

(ii) AP1 +;k b AP2 (Noun)

4 , 4 (Itisadiamond ring, and a Zkarat diamond ring at that.)

(iii) Clausel f ;k G Clausez

K%T, + ;k G I; 5% 2 b1 3 %$u Q%l: dj a. (It is newly built, and on top of that, it is conveniently located five-minutes from the station.)

(a) T&!I~+D&T, F~LG%%T$?.= 7 < w..~ (He paid on the spot, and what's more, in cash.) i h@ 13 L

(b) B&:, fhG iil2LT~~~., (I ran in midwinter, and what's more, barefooted.)

b % t j 3 It/rL? (c) +a)&hkXm, ~ ; ~ G % ~ R # O - ~ ~ ~ : : ~ P : ~ ~ ~ ~ I L ~ & T I ~ ~

(The bank built their headquarters building in central Tokyo, and moreover, on the best spot, in front of Tokyo Station.)

sore mo / sore ni 427

(d) %&*Ci&&!E%, ?;k% YYY ~%sosE%C:fi9$9T ~3 9ko (She was seen by a magazine reporter, and what's worse, a reporter from a gossip magazine.)

f 3 6 L- %;<+=L T 92%

(el KLL\+M~C:. -~;~~%K$o&~~&IIEEc:+$~~B~LIc<;~~% 3 &I:, (I was asked to translate a letter when I was busy at the end of the semester, and what's worse, just before the deadline for my term

paper.)

(Because it was one hundred thousand yen in coins, and what's worse, (they were) all ten-yen coins, it was terribly heavy.)

1. The phrases or clauses before and after sore mo are connected to the same noun phrase, verbal, or clause which follows, as in KS(A) - (C).

2. Sore mo usually appears in mid-sentence position although it can appear as an independent phrase as well, as in (1).

sore ni + hK conj.

(and) in addition; moreover; additional item or statement furthermore; what's more; on

top of that [REL. omake ni; shika mo; sono ue; sore to]

428 sore ni

+ ~ e ~ Sentences

(4

(The "morning set" here includes coffee and some toast; in addition, there is a boiled egg (lit. it is accompanied by a boiled egg).)

(Even if we bought a car, there would be no place to park it, and moreover, there would be few occasions to use it.)

- - - - - - - - -

(I make it a rule not to discuss business at home. In addition, I'm very tired this evening, so could we discuss it tomorrow?)

sore ni 429

ammm ( i ) N1 (k/G:/,l N2 Ik/G:/,l -5;ki:N,

I

F L Y , Z F L ; S , ?kLb:V7f j5%7

(a TV set, a stereo, and, in addition, a video camera)

(ii) S1 L, ?W: S2 I*? r i b b

?a).ff$bi3$b tsbl L, 5;kG:#&d.'~bl,

(The job is boring, and what's worse, the pay is bad.)

(iii) S1, ?fib:, SzO h ' U L ' I O i

5a)&~t2@ft%b!W..~ +;kt:, %d.'%bl, (The old man is disabled. Furthermore, he is hard of hearing.) -

btLf;%Li b i rib h t h %Lo5 -bG:t&%L F1,3?Rk3R;sCA, 5kLb:;i. 2 k 4 xd.'?Ef c~b l&. (My family consists of my wife and me, and two children, and in addition, (there are) a cat and a dog.)

ILltL f-i

blbl.ff$fltsbl L, ?kL1:3Ab H$a)W&-&2 7?d.'3 7 b l & a ) ~ , ~ $ 4 6 5 k%=7b>&., (We are thinking of going back to Japan because there are no good jobs here, and what's more, my child wants to go to a Japanese school.)

r " 7 / ' t s A f t ~ ~ ~ - ~ b % b $ < & t t s b l ~ , -?ht:5 % c $ $ ~ ~ D T E < % s Ed.'& !I $*Ao - = = --<

(Even if we bought a piano, no one would play it, and moreover, there would be no place to put it because our place is small.)

C071T- b t i # $ & < 7i@7.,, 5kLt:&&&dao (This apartment is light and clean. Furthermore, the rent is reasonable.) Lr*L ~tjb~~$~;:laP+arz~b~~~U~~#$~:~;s~i&&. br t t l ~ ,

F P V E ? & % @ ~ k + € i + o k % ~ a f t ~ b ; & ~ C k b&*&,, (Unlike the old days, we can easily talk with people over the phone these days no matter where they are. Moreover, if we use a TV telephone, we can talk with someone while watching his or her face.)

430 sore ni

1 . Sore ni introduces an additional non-emphatic item or statement. (See Related Expression.)

2. When sore ni is used to introduce an additional statement, the patterns (ii) and (iii) in the Formation are commonly used, as in KS@) and (c). However, {V / Adj. / N + Cop.}te, Vmasu, and Adj(i)ku can also precede sore ni, as in (1) - (3). (Vmasu and Adj(i)ku are ~ s ~ a l l y used in written language.)

~ W C I 19-L

(1) a. % & k b & % L - ~ l r > ~ , ; f h l Z 3 % & B &ao (She is married, and what's more, she has children.)

b. 2 5 .Lb2%?< 7, ?hl~%%7F&&,, (Tofu is cheap, and in addition, it's nutritious.)

c. 2 0 7 1 T - b I&&?, ; f ~ h l Z ~ ~ @ ~ l r ~ , (This apartment is inconvenient, and moreover, the rent is expensive.)

d. $LCA%&T, ; f h ~ # $ , 6 $ ~ ~ ~ 7 ~ . 1 6 ~ (I am near-sighted, and what's more, I have astigmatism.)

I: liL ' ILhL+L<L lli (2) ~ ~ ~ ~ Y $ T B $ & ~ Z ~ W S ~ L , ? h l Z E l $ T B $ Q L k 2

2 B & & o (He studied Japanese at college for three years, and in addition, he worked (lit. has worked) in Japan.)

+ L r i +

(3) % & 0 % < lJ\ %biz 1. - 'I - 7 F W < , ? h l Z & k ? - i f l r ~ , (The novels he writes have interesting story lines, and on top of that, they are easy to read.)

Omake ni and sore ni are used in similar situations. The difference is that omake ni introduces an emphatic statement while sore ni introduces a non- emphatic statement. Thus, in [I] omake ni is acceptable because the additional statements can be emphatic.

sore ni / sore to 431

However, in [2] omake ni is not quite acceptable because the additional statement is not as important as the initial one and, therefore, cannot be emphasized.

When omake ni is used to introduce an item, an emphatic marker like made is necessary, as in [3].

[3] L L O ; E - - ~ ' J 7 + v I.biJ--k--K I.-% I., h'blflZ9Tkbc" IbT /???#I W ~ - C b \ & .

(The "morning set" here includes coffee and some toast; in addition, there is even a boiled egg (lit. it is even accompanied by a boiled

egg).)

sore to ? f i t conj. <s> = - - = - - - - - - = S l - - - - - - -

and; also; in addition; as well additional item or statement [REL. sore kara; sore nil

+Key Sentences

Nounl

7 -

(Give me three apples and two oranges, and three bananas, as well.)

t

Nounz +f;

7 , +ht,

Noun3

/ ~ t t t g * -

ysw,

(Speaking of sports, I play tennis and golf.)

Sentence2

I (In addition, I played ice hockey at school (lit. in my school days).) I

F - 1 b 2 - f - X , - ? ; k t , s 7 - P - f ~ Y (beerandcheese,and potato chips as well)

(ii) S1, -?;k t , SZ, S A P < *> ~ A i t ~ - 9 x Q : LTba3$ , -?;k t , %&G9$71b- P ~ 5 ~ 9 4 3 L k , (Speaking of music, I am a member of a chorus. In addition,

I played flute a little when I was a student.)

(a) F I E S L , X?SL , Y ~ s A , , W L ~ , % # S L % ~ ~ % , ~ K G 4 3~~ (Mr. Yamada, Mr. Kinoshita, and Mr. Ueno are coming. And Mr. Taka- hashi, too.) d4r: < r K 1% - It*

(b) M@git F4 Y g K 7 9 an, -?;kk, E I & & ~ W L S W ~ T ~ (Talking about foreign languages, I can speak German and French, and a little Japanese.) .b ; t 6 m 3 4 3 6 6

(c) @ - ~ + I = L L I $ ~ , ~ L ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ s L ~ ~ B % & $ & ~ ~ L I : . -?;k t , %8 SLi5 .1 ;~%%7E+T8b3- i f0 (There were calls from Mr. Yamamura and Mr. Harnada while you were out. Also, a letter came from Mr. Yoshida.)

sore to 433

$ A S * ? B A f V CAQw V t

%ddOB8E3bi%!+kB P j t & d r t w j Z t T t , f h t , 9 , j L 9 , # f ; 7 0 ~ ~ m i % Y ; i a ~ ~ i ~ a g 3*k0 (How to get a teacher is the urgent problem. And, for another thing, we have to think about the classrom problem.)

3oi l ;o z o n a P ~ ~ q 1 ~ ~ a r 1 - c < fia? h , t f i t , W H ~ T L I Z 5 6

sw..mmv$i&, %fir: ? (Could you type this letter by noon? Oh, and did (lit. could) you get the air tickets I asked for yesterday?)

Sore to appears only in spoken Japanese. It is often used when the speaker wants to add an item or statement which she has forgotten to mention.

[Related ~x~ressions]

I. Sore ni is similar to sore to in that both introduce an additional item or statement. The crucial difference is that sore ni is used when the preceding clause I phrase and the following clause I phrase are closely connected while sore to is used when this connection is weak. Therefore, sore ni cannot be used when the speaker adds an item or statement which she has forgotten to mention.

I (Give me three apples and two oranges. Oh, and three bananas, - - = s = too.) -- - - -- - --

On the other hand, sore to cannot be used when the preceding clause or phrase has a continuative ending such as {V I Adj. I N + Cop.)te, Vrnasu, Adj(i)ku, and S shi, as in [2] - [5].

61oc1 I ? L A

121 a. z ~ ~ ~ G ~ ~ % L I c L ~ T , {?htz/*?htl +#&ha, (She is married, and what's more, she has children.)

T L I;*

b. z07,\"- 1. C ~ F & T , {?hE /*?htl %&FBL', (This apartment is inconvenient, and what's more, the rent is expensive.)

434 sore to / sore wa

ih.h i ? k w < P&h&dl&4& C r i

[31 @ 3 2 % 9 ~ 8 $ 5 ~ 2 f +Bd% % L , ( thE / * Q h t 1 B$T 88% L T ~ Z 2 &&a, (He studied Japanese at college for three years, and in addition, he worked (lit. has worked) in Japan.)

L r l r ? [4] ED/J\RGix l.-~)-P%Lij<, {?hC=/*?h(I1 &'WT

'J'o

(This novel has an interesting story line, and moreover, it's easy to read.)

P * i ) l z i b h [5] ?DttSC293 r ; Q b > L , I;fhCZ/*?h(Il T$eNPEb~,

(That job is not interesting, and what's more, the pay is bad.)

(e sore ni)

11. Sore kara can replace sore to without changing meaning, as in [6].

sore wa ;f' h lb int. <s>

(yes,) naturally; (yes,) of course; the speaker emphatically provides oh, surely

[REL. sore

sore wa 435

*Key Sentence

(I bet you want to win (the game).)

B:

(Aff. Int.)

I ((Yes,) o f course, I do.) I

(a) A.

B:

(b) A:

B:

(c) A:

B:

H b &%~)13,'2,g,5 Z ~ S ~ Y ) aaa, (Are there times when you want to go back to your country?)

(2-2,) +;kbih!laf 1, ((Yes,) Of course.)

Z O & I Z ~ I : ~ & L G & ~ T L L ia, (I wonder if they would buy (them) for this price.)

+;kti~~a'ififk, FtvamwiiRi%~;ia*/var;~ = - - - - - - - 3 - 8 3 (They surely would. They could never buy them (anywhere else) for that price.)

?in? r i C ,

% 7 ~&+SBL.~%;~. 'L~I,~T L j ? (You would prefer a higher salary, right?)

? Y) -v (h) F i TTS-a, (Naturally, I would, but. . .)

1. Sorya(a) in Ex.(c) is the contracted form of sore wa.

436 sore wa / sorezore

2. Interjections such as hai, ee and un can be used with sore wa. When such an interjection is used, sore wa follows it, as in KS and Ex.(a).

3 . Sore wa in the following examples should not be confused with the sore wa presented here. As a matter of fact, sore in these examples is a demonstrative pronoun. That is, sore in (1) refers to A's idea and sore in (2) refers to A's giving a gift.

(1) A: &Z~;f%s&~licth~f:a>~a%. (Perhaps she doesn't love me any more.)

B: ;fhl&5L0 (That's not true.)

(2) [When giving a gift,]

A: ZkL, 36bth~16DTTif;JP~ (This is nothing special, but . . .)

B: ;fhlbzy!&c, (That's very kind of you.)

Note that sore wa in these examples cannot be preceded by interjections such as hai and ee.

sorezore ?? h?h adv.

each of two or more things / per- / each; [REL. respectively meimei; ono'ono]

sorezore 437

+Key Sentences

(-4)

1 (Yamada and Suzuki bought fruits and cakes, respectively.) I

I I

(Each of the novels I read was interesting (in its own way).)

t * i c ' 8 * . 1 C * i 8 L H, %&+, E%Ii?-;k?;k+~%, -I- G%, %%T% (Yoshiko, Mihoko, and Nobuo are 15,13, and 9 years old, respectively.) +,+, b t L bWt b , b t L % L xrm 2 t: I:, ? - ; k ~ ; k , --zHo~J\%L~~ < fir:, (Father gave me and my younger sister a 10,000 yen allowance each.)

t L r + L < & $ t i 4 C;~&D$L&T, % I W ~ P T , +;k~;kg wzi,

(Tom and I study in the dorm room and at the library, respectively.) +f 33

S7I i4X 2 , - t I i Y r < - 2 , t ; k Q ; k & ~ ~ f f:, (Bob and Kazuo went out with Beth and Jemmy, respectively.)

t b l i i f i w % L ~ R jffrzc, & & ~ + ; k ~ ; k E 5 . (We are brothers, but each of us has different interests.)

+ , i 5 L L * L L i

% T . B + ; ~ Q ; ~ E P S ~ ~ & E G ~ . (Each of us has our strengths and weaknesses.)

ZO-?.?. ~ ~ ~ X ~ ~ $ $ I i ? - ; k ? ; k h ~ ~ d j z i .

(Each of the buildings of this campus has its own individuality.)

43s sorezore

(h) LX 1.7 ; / ~ c i w ~ ; t z t & ? i ts%~&-'.a LIZ, (At the restaurant we ate what each of us like.)

VIfL*L

( i ) h ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ - w ~ ; k a ) % ~ = . B ~ ~ r : ~ (The judges took their respective seats.)

mmm 1. Sorezore is used to express an idea of 'each' or 'respectively.'

2. There are two types of construction that involve sorezore. One is the construction that is a condensed version of two or more co-ordinated sentences as in KS(A) ahd Exs.(a) - (d). For example, KS (A) is a reduction from (1) below:

(1) LLIHS tv l ; t%%BR~T, % * S / U C ; ~ % % ~ B E Q ~ : , (Yamada bought fruits and Suzuki bought cakes.)

This sentence can be condensed either into KS(A), (2) or (3).

(2) LLIBStvCiRYS1%, %*StvGi$GWB!331:0 (Yamada bought fruits, and Suzuki, cakes.)

(3) LLIBStvb~%CQ, %*StvGiB%3B, ?h?'hE-k, (Yamada bought fruits, and Suzuki, cake, respectively.)

The other type is a construction that is not a reduction from a coordi-

- nated sentence as exemplified by KS(B) and Exs.(e) - (h). = - . - . - . - 2 s . - - 3. Sorezore can be used as a pronoun as in Ex.(i). In this case sorezore is - - -

used in a combination of sorezore no N. Two more examples follow:

(4) $-?X b ~ G i i h ~ h ( D & ~ B & 3 T b ~ & ~ (Orchestras have their own respective sounds.)

C T L L * t i : ? (5) ~ G ~ = ~ ~ Q ~ ( D Q S ~ T B ~ ~ ~

(Students come to school on their own bicycles.)

4. Sorezore can be used as a kind of noun as shown in (6) and (7) below. $ 0 3 ItL $,A. 11.<

(6) '&~bli?h?'h~~,S'Sl f i ~ , S ' S l ?i&Tbl&, (The stars of the universe are each pulling others by gravita- tion.)

sorezore / sugu 439

(7) ~ 0 7 4 ' J O F G L ~ L ~ ~ ~ K B ~ F ~ Y E & L ~ T L . > ~ ~ ~ b~2iW7?7?hfT, th?h&b4~& Z k&&a*h, (In these wines are mixed both French wines and German wines. Can you tell the respective wines by just smelling them?)


Meimei and ono'ono are similar in meaning to sorezore. SOSO ) 5 ~ ) 5 b ,

[I] %L3W5!,%EC, BR6' {Qh?h I&& / $841 B i a (=Ex.(e))

But they are distinctly different. Meimei and ono'ono can refer only to a human, but sorezore can refer to anything, as shown in [2].

Furthermore, sorezore can be used in a condensed structure as in KS(A) and Exs.(a) - (d), but neither meimei nor ono'ono can be used in this structure, as shown in [3].

sugu bC adv.

at once; soon; right away; im- physical distance mediately; readily; instantly;

easily; right [REL. mb sugu]

+Key Sentences

1 (I went to sleep as soon as I got home.)

1 (The bank is right in front of the station.) - $3; i d w L +

(a) avwmxji < 2.f C, &&%&f:, (The departmental head started to work as soon as he arrived at the company.)

(b) ii%i&f: 6.f C, % & L T ? S I , ~ ~ (Please call me as soon as you come to Japan.) l i 0

(c) Z&Lf:b>jS\b, - i f ("%-CTSb~, (I want to talk with you, so please come right away.)

(d) % I , \ ~ L Y B % Q ~ : ~ - ~ ~ c , $ k ~ T L 3 b > 3 Lf:, (I bought a cheap TV and it broke right away.)

3 5 (e) if d i a j ~ h b , ~ b l ~ ,

(He easily gets angry so I don't like him.) t'?< & A f h

(f) ?a)&+ DFWb&.f Okbf f:, (I could solve that math problem easily.)

(g) %D%b&.f C5 z Tt, (My house is right there.)

lm3V/ .Sr< @I) BE ~ t ~ x - / f - O ? (.'$T$,

(The post-office is right next to the supermarket.)

amm 1. Sugu in KS(A) and Exs.(a) - (f) means 'without much temporal dis-

tance,' whereas in KS(B), Exs.(g) and (h) it means 'without much spatial distance.'

2. - taralto sugu is used to mean 'as soon as -' as in KS(A), Exs.(a) and (b), if the main verb is a volitional verb. Ex.(d) cannot mean 'as soon as,' because the verb is a non-volitional verb. Another example follows:

(1) ?~stZ%&dk%, bC%k;h-h~3%< th~iF:, (I got a stomachache straight after eating that shrimp.)


Mo sugu as in [I] is used to mean k t . is going to take place very soon since a triggering event has already taken place.' Sentences [2] and [3] are unacceptable because in [2] the triggering event (i.e., a telephone call) has not taken place and in [3] the triggered event (Smith's coming) has already taken place.

111 x:xs/vcazmLiF:+r;, +,~~c&adc, (Because we have called Mr. Smith, he will come pretty soon.)

[21 *x : xs/vtam.t;kt%, tcsa dc. (*If we call Mr. Smith, he will come pretty soon.)

[3] *x:xS/vt&%SLiF:b, &ibCW& (*Mr. Smith came pretty soon when we called him.)

tabi ni f'U.'CZ conj.

every time; each time; on every time s.o.1s.t. does s.t., s.t. else occasion; whenever

[REL. itsu (de) mo; to itsu (de) mo; toki (ni) wa]

+Key Sentences

(A)

Vinf. nonpast

2 %+ &< 7:~l"b: RLW: 2 &A,T#V %to

(Each time I go to Japan I come home having learned something new.) ! I (On every trip my father comes back with souvenirs.) I

%I*

6 ( i ) Vinf. nonpast 7: Tl" I:

7 : ~ b : (each time S.O. eats s.t.) S a i

B G6T 6 7: VC: (each time S.O. studies (s.t.))

( i i ) N a)I:Tl"C:

Noun

&

L 1t.l %%a) 7: 7% (on every examination occasion)

IZO~: a,

(iii) VN a) 7: b:

B S 6 0 7: Vb: (on every occasion of study)

B W ~ P Q A . > - C ~ T < ;ka.

tabi ni 443

mlmzm ::a ?2z

(a) & a > ~ k ~ . f f : U c ' C = ~ i ~ i 5 ~ ~ ~ k 3 ~ ~ (Each time I talk with her my heart softens.)

(b) z O % ~ & + ~ ~ V G Z ~ L L & $ ~ ~ , a . (Each time I read this book I make new findings.) a t t i P ~ ? _ , -

(c) #iiR~C-n- < f:VG:!%&O&??%$a6 z k GZ LTb\&, (I make it a point of visiting my professor's residence every time I go to Tokyo.) bkL *r ""

(d) + ~ 0 g i i 4 j f : ~ ~ ~ a u ~ ~ k ~ < ~ 7 ~ b > a ~ (My grandson is growing bigger than before each time I see him.)

SLVt CL*W UP* (e) E-.;1 ~ I L ~-OG$%F&< f:~~:~gss;5.t=a~~:ks.ta.

(Each time I listen to Mozart's music I feel my life is enriched.) kh, C r l D

(f) ~ ~ H O ~ ~ U ~ ' ~ ~ & ~ C ; ~ : I ~ ~ O ~ B E ~ T < ha*, (On every birthday my husband buys me roses.)

b * ? h r ? D (g) 5 3 ~ i k ~ ~ ~ E l O f : ~ C ~ ~ k a ) ~ x P ~ ' J T % & B L ~ %

(Our family eats at a restaurant in Ginza every payday.)

1. The meaning of 'each l every time' is emphasized by inserting goto between tabi and ni.

(1) a. B$+f7<f~SZkt:%Lb~Ct:BYLTR113.f, (cf. KS(A)) =Tg

b. Xb2%j'iOf~tT;,"kI:%kF17BB3T 3 T < h a , =_/

(cf. KS(B))

2. The tense of the verb that comes before tabi ni is restricted to nonpast.

3. The particle ni of tabi ni cannot be dropped.

I. Sinf tabi ni, N no tabi ni and VN no tabi ni can be paraphrased by Sinf

444 tabi ni

toki (ni) wa itsu (de) mo, N ni wa itsu (de) mo, and VN suru toki wa itsu (de) mo respectively, as shown in [I].

The paraphrasability between the two structures does not always mean that they are synonymous. Since the tense of the verb that comes before tabi ni is restricted to nonpast, Ex.(e), for example, is ambiguous as to whether the speaker feels his life is enriched while listening to Mozart or after he has finished listening to it. The two readings of Ex.(e) correspond to [2a] and [2b] below.

[2] a. + - ~ r l L b a ) G % % W < $ G : t i b a 9 T 9 , A & ; 3 ' f $ K ? ' h 9 t:X;3'-if 5. (When I listen to Mozart's music I always feel my life is enriched.)

b. *-'Y 7% I ~ D @ % % ~ L \ ~ c @ C Z G ; ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ T ~ , A & ; ~ ~ ~ $ 6 : h9t~z73va0 (When I have listened to Mozart's music I always feel my life is enriched.)

Such two-way interpretation is also possible with Exs.(a) - (c), but the - - - - - interpretation is logically impossible for KS(A) and Ex.(d). T - - - - (+ toki (DBJG: 490-94)) - -

11. Sinf tabi ni and N no tabi ni can also be paraphrased by Sinf.nonpast to itsu (de) mo. The original and the paraphrased versions again mean practically the same. Notice, however, that unlike Ex.(e), [3] is not ambiguous like [2] above: it means only [2b].

tada 445

only; just; simply; that's all idea of "only" (REL. tatta]

+Key Sentences

(His only (one) defect is that he is not punctual (lit. he is slack about

time).)

/ (She didn't write me even once (lit. only once).)

I (He has no one else to rely on but his lawyer.)

I I I I I

(I just talked with her over a cup of tea; that's all.)

( i ) 1: I? One + Counter (0 N)

I: 7 ~ 2 ~ x 0 ,& (the only son)

I:???& (with only one shot)

(ii) I: 7.0 One + Counter 6 Verbal(neg)

I:I?o~'$ b %&I? t 2 St? bl (have not taken even one day off)

(iii) I: I? N I? i f (Prt.) RI1

I: IZ~@I? 1$ ( 4 ) 2 ZI (remember only words)

I: I!$I? ~f ~ @ K - i f & (solve s.t. only with force)

(iv) I: I? Verbal ( 2 b l j ) I? I$ (I?)

1 I: I&& I? ( 2 bl j ) E l f ( I?) (S.O. just read it; that's all.)

I:I?&l(2 bl 5 ) I?Gf (I?) (S.t. is just cheap; that's all.)

- - - Lf - ~ = . - I . { / I 2 b 3 1 I I (S.t. is just quiet; that's all.) $ 4 g . - - - rva( a r i - *

I & ( I ) 2 b 5 I ( I ) (S.O. is just a college professor ; that's all.)

(a) @iiiI:I?--AT?7T 3 I:o (He came over alone.) btLf i i j

(b) $L & F ~ Q ~bbI :%, 81f T < ;kI:%b;fI:I?0-~$ blt?73\3 I:O (Not a single person helped us when we were in trouble.)

tada 447

(c) j : j f + f i l f l f O Z k T ~ ~ B ~ k : ~ j : t v ~ . f d . ,

(Did you fire him only for that reason?)

(d) f:~f&mt:~ k t f ~ f ~ e ~ ~ b a ~ % g g i ; t . c b a ~ (There will be no progress if you do only what you are told to do.)

(el * ~ i ~ j z ~ E 3 f i t z ~ 2 2 L T ~ ~ Z I ~ I ~ ~ Z ~ (I am just doing what I was asked to do; that's all.)

st: (f) &O%i27?7?3 CkbjZkbaj E l f jz0

(He is just serious; he has no other merit.)

(g) % i : X ~ f i & & i 2 ~ ~ a t v ~ ~ j t r ' , wftj 2 k h ~ ~ - c a j : ~ ~ f i t v ~ - ~ ~ (It doesn't have any special meaning, but I just wanted to ask.)

S b L h I ig+ j

(h) t:r.%wj z 2 ~k$bw: L - c ~ ~ - c ~ L ~ E I w ~ ~ & ~ ficvo (If you simply swallow what other people say, you won't come up with any interesting ideas.)

1. Tada is a device to emphasize such ideas as "only," "just," and "simply." As a matter of fact, a sentence with tada and one without tada mean the same thing unless tada is followed by One + Counter no Noun (e.g., hito-ri no otoko 'a man,' ichi-dai no kuruma 'a car'). For example, the two sentences in (1) and (2) are semantically equivalent. The addition of tada however, makes the (a) sentences more emphatic.

When tada is followed by One + Counter no Noun, the meaning changes, as in [3].

(3) a. %EOkt~-7013r;,~i2@Bw'1G:~L-~Ifkb~~ Z 2 I fo

(=KS(A)) (His only (one) defect is that he is not punctual.)

448 tada

2. Tada can be used in a variety of sentence patterns. Those presented in KS and in Formation are not exhaustive. (See Exs.(g) and (h).)

[Related ~xpressiod

Tatta can be used instead of tada when One + Counter immediately follows, as in KS(A) and Ex.(a).

However, tatta cannot replace tada in its other uses, as in [2].

On the other hand, tada cannot be used to modify a number beyond one or to mo'dify an adverb, as in [3] and [4].

v * d . i

[4] Ya2i;t. { k ~ f ~ / * ~ E l 4!9Izi2@13T-ifO (John has just leftkome back (lit. leftlcome back just now).)

tada no 449

usual; ordinary; plain, common; rank-and-file [REL. futsii no; ni suginai]

+Key Sentence

I (I'm only an ordinary employee, so I'm not aware of that.) I

CLCV

I: ED%& (an ordinary teacher)

d . F Hb I tk l iL

fz f?0rn%f?k,F,9-cb>f:b9 f l $ % f ? ~ f : ~ (I thought it was an ordinary cold, but it was pneumonia.)

& 0 ~ i i f : f ? D $ @ T t i h b l d : 5 T f h, (He doesn't appear to be an ordinary scholar, does he?)

but to my surprise there were big shots attending.)

A: % % & i % @ b + % f:? 5 T T h o (I heard that your father was a great man.)

T%V< S r i L B: ~ ; i , 2 m e & f:mkyan-wf:o

(No, not at all. He was an ordinary college professor.)

450 tada no / tashikani - ga

t r i LL (e) f:fa)Z 3Pt d:,

(I'm just kidding, you know.)

am Tada no N is used when the speaker makes nothing out of s.t. I s.0. There- fore, it can be used as a humble expression as in KS and Ex.(d).

Tada no N is similar in meaning to futsij no N which means 'ordinary N.' The latter does not carry the former's emotive overtone of 'making nothing out of s.t. 1s.o.'; it is, rather a neutral term to mean 'not special,' or 'standard.' So when the emotive overtone is strong (including a case of humble expression) tada no can hardly be replaced by futsO no, as shown below.

[I] a. 5 ~ 1 2 { tz t : /? i&~ ~ w L R T - F ~ ' ~ ; , .t-bazkt;faba* /Lo (=KS)

tashikani - ga @M'C;--fif stz

indeed - but; certainly - but; idea "indeed - but" truly - but; it is true that - but;

I admit that - but; definitely - but [REL. - koto wa -

tashikani - ga 45 1

+Key Sentence

I I I I

(This car is certainly attractive, but the price is too high.)

Topic

SI TO+-? > - D z 2 i ~ ~ w $ j w : ~ , w v . . 9 r : e , ~ , ~ & + m b ~ o (I certainly heard about the party, but I don't remember when it is going to be.)

<i< B W ~ K C A L ~ S , %- ~2 i k + ; h w 9 ~ : , (It's true that I promised (to do it), but I didn't say that I would do it right now.)

i ? b w d b ~ L L r 3 I iLt 3 &BWB--EP g g ~ < a w , ; iPt~ii~a$h'a~,rz~~ (He definitely makes a bad first impression, but actually he is a nice man.)

Commentl

Z D $ $ @ C A B ~ G : W L + ~ E ~ , ~ ~ : i & ~ ~ a - c w a b ~ , (I admit that this is a good school, but it's not suitable for me.)

Comment2

a$jtr'b~#-h'$$d'31:d, T X , ~ ~ G : E ~ Z ~ G ~ G I , ~ I Z ~ ~ ~ (I admit that it was my fault (lit. I was bad.), but you shouldn't be that mad.)

(It it true that many Japanese go abroad now. There are also many who speak other languages (lit. foreign languages) well. However, there are still few who can be called "true internationalists.") -

Tashikani - ga is usually used when the speaker admits that something is certain or true but wants to say something in opposition to what is admitted.

452 tashikani - ga / ta tokoro de


- koto wa - ga can replace tashikani - ga, as seen in [I]; however, the sentence with tashikani - ga sounds more subjective.

ta tokoro de 7: 2 L 3 T conj.

even if an action or a state were even if realized

+Key Sentence

I (No matter how low we estimate the construction expense it will go I I beyond 500 million yen.) I mmmm

Vinf.past 2 Z 6T

&hE 2 2 6 T (even if S.O. read s.t.)

&&7?tZST (evenif s.o.dranks.t.)

ta tokoro de 453

mamm (a) 2 0 ' g % & I W 7 ? 2 ~ 6 ~ , k%7Ff ~ % 6 h t f ~ c G - b 1 ,

(Even if you took this medicine, it would not be the case that your cold would be cured right away.)

1: 1% Y*~SW (LLV (b) Z O % % % A ~ ? ~ Z 6 T , € l $ O @ j % ~ ~ @ t k & ~ b G - b 1 7 . 6 -j

(Even if you read this book, you wouldn't understand the entire economy of Japan.) V , 9 Le5 *L b,% ?

(c) - % b 9 ~ : - b ~ b b ~ % ~ ~ 7 : k Z 5 ~ , &;s: 9%ktkG-ba~Ldr jo (Even if you exercise once a week, it won't be very effective.)

(d) !f/v7'hC:%&= 7: k Z 6 T , 2O&!dTtk@fl&k~ZI t$.q;t)%b1,

(No matter how much I worked, it would be impossible to get an A in this course.)

(e) &+G:%&~F&< ~-97:k Z ~ T , P Z ~ - & ~ ~ I ~ Z I & T & t c ~ 1 ~ (Even if the weather gets better on the holiday, there is no particular place to go.)

- If*

(f) E & ~ S W ~ : ~ Z S T , B * - & < ? $ & ~ L . ~ T , ?&:~a1;G-~a, (Even if I were able to speak Japanese, it wouldn't amount to anything, because I cannot afford to go to Japan.)

b 5 C r i I*

(g) L ~ L H ~ & L & Q ~ ~ Z ~ T , $ $ $ < ~ & T L L ~ , (Even if we discussed it more, it would probably be futile.) $LCw 8

(h) B07Efl&t 97:k 2 6 T , $$b:t$.%%bkM~\bG-ba, (Even if a problem arises, it will not cause you any trouble.) -

1. The conjunction tokoro de is used with Vinf.past. The past form is used here not as the past tense marker but as the counterfactual marker. So in every case what is expressed in the tokoro de clause has not taken place yet. What the conjunction really means is: 'even if one supposes an action or a state in the clause has already taken place.'

2. The main clause usually takes an explicit negative marker nai, but there

454 ta tokoro de

are cases like KS and Ex.(g) in which the main clauses express some thing undesirable.

elated Expression]

Vinf .past tokoro de can always be replaced by Vte mo.

However, there is a crucial difference between Vinf . past tokoro da and Vte rno. The former has a clear counterfactual meaning, but the latter does not have a clear counterfactual meaning.

There are a lot of cases where Vte rno cannot be replaced by Vinf . past tokoro de owing to the crucial difference. Notice that in [2] below Vte mo clearly expresses not something counterfactual but something factual.

L w C L b t L Q L ? % * i W

[2] a. 2ACS.NNE?3& ILTS / * L f ~ t L 3 T l f:C%Z%FkbQ b h

(My husband won't quit smoking no matter how many times I advise him.)

Another crucial difference is that the main clause for Vinf - past tokoro de has to be negative either explicitly or implicitly; whereas the main clause for te mo can be affirmative. (See Note 2.)

t7 S l . 3 [31 a. $$XH-H% I B % & < T & / ? ? B % & f i 3 7 f c t L 3 T l $%Ck

&%ao (I can graduate even if I don't take this course.)

ta tokoro de / te 455

c. %dr-2 {i5EA.Tif /*%A.EL:L?iTl ~ ~ I ; G - L G F . ~ ' ? ~ - F C %isla, (Even if you read a little you can tell that it is a boring book.)

(+ te mo (DBJG: 468-70))

and; since; having done s.t. which s.t. takes place (REL. te kara]

+Key Sentence

(How long have you been here / How many years is it since you came here?)

am5m Vte N (duration)

AT?+ (it has been two years since S.O. came) - bt: 0 I 7 L L

(a) ZA&W LTZ$&~:$~BL~':~ (The couple got married and two years later they got divorced.) Z L *

(b) , B % & ~ ~ T & ~ X L L > ~ (It has been a long time since I quit the company.)

Lf di.3' (c) CDE%33j;k-C$ 54DJ$C:G-&7'?55 $,

(I wonder how many years have already passed since I last visited this island.)

456 te / te hajimete

lti;5 I t C

(d) Z ~ ) M ~ T ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ T Z ; L L T ~ I + G = . ~ 13 a*, (It's been four years since I began to work at this company.)

~7 hi +A. n (el ~c18i:g-c a E- BB'JB il*o

(It's my first week in this town.) - 1. The te form in question is followed by a duration.

(+ -te (DBJG: 464-67))

2. The antonym for Vte + N(duration) is Vinf.nonpast + N(duration) mae ni as in (1) below.

3 .i

(1) ~ A ~ ~ ~ ~ T Q = ~ ~ c ~ B ~ & ~ B LIL, (The couple met by arrangement two years before they got married.)

All the te forms in KS and Exs. can be replaced by te kara. The only difference is that te kara focuses on the point in time at which s.t. takes place; whereas te focuses on the duration of time following te.

(e karaZ (DBJG: 177-78))

te hajimete T#l@T ph,:

that s.0. does s.t. or s.t. happens

only after s.t. else happens or s.t. 1

not until; only after; for the .first time

te hajirnete 457

+Key Sentence

1 (It was not until I came to America that I saw a tornado.) I

Vte 8Jtb-C k

%/vTa b T (only after you read)

L:ltL -2b+= K U A t A +Ad* 6.1;

~ ~ a - c $ ~ o o o * 9 - c ? i t : , (It was not until I lived in Japan that I started to understand how Japa- nese people thihk.)

K I % + < A S ; ? d V : < Z i B H b L h L

El$&%% 5'&LT8JtbTfiHB%YSEiB S %5n31:0 (I didn't realize how interesting learning a foreign language was until I studied Japanese.)

g;icik$~ L - c ~ T ~ ~ T c ~ ~ 3 O - F ~ z k-n'Zf~1, (It is often not until you write down your idea that it becomes clear.) Vr16 % ~ ~ : a 9 - c a b T & ~ o % v E S f 1 9 * b o (It is only after you become ill that you realize the value of health.)

& a h T a b T S Lke&<f:, (I ate sashimi for the first time in my life.) -

Umarete hajirnete in Ex.(e) is an idiomatic phrase which means 'for the first time in one's life.' Note that it does not mean 'only after one was born' or 'not until one was born.' This phrase also appears in the structure in (1) below.

458 te hajimete / ten (de)

(1) [Before, while, or just after eating sashimi]

3 LJ+(%?&460) Ckik%h-ic#[email protected]. (This is the first time I've had sashimi.)

t en (de) &(TI n.

point; respect; regard; aspect; "a point of argument; a point of way; in terms of; -wise; in that;

as far as - is concerned [REL. -men]

+Key Sentences

(B)

Dictionary in terms of ease of use.)

ten (de) 459

I (In terms of commuting convenience, the present apartment is the best.) /

Noun

3%

(This table is valuable in that it is handmade.) ~ - - - - - - - - - -

( i ) {Demonstrative I Quantifier) ,6 (T)

Z a) ,6T (in this regard)

-, za),6T (on a couple of points)

(ii) {N I Adj(i 1 na)stem 3 } a),6 (T)

&@D,~T (in terms of price)

3 3 a) ,6 T (in terms of size) L 1 %& 3 D,&T (in terms of quietness)

(iii) N a) Adj(i 1 na)stem 3 t bl5,6 (T) *fit

So> d: 3 k b > 5,6T (in terms of brightness) d. r L*? A

Ah& $k 3 Ir b > j,6T (in terms of body flexibility)

(iv) Sinf Ir bl 5.6 (T) * T 2 q > > 'Rabfi b b Ir b > 5 ,6T (in that the performance is good)

(,, Adj (i 1 ria) stem

jg,, P kb>i ,6 TI& v*

+a)71\"- c~~~~~~

- - - =

T I - 3 -

Ten can be followed by particles other than de, as in (1 ) .

i < f W 4 W C

&-h"&dm&f ~-C~~~TB%PI-~)%#X%G dr b &h-CbG:,. (Our product is superior to similar foreign products in every way.) f < 1 z < f <Qbr *.r?lfL f fJa,6Tkt =l a5%k75'--%7?.5 5 (With regard to scholarship, this student is probably the best.)

I E ~ . ~ . . ~ P o , ~ T ~ I ~ ~ ~ = . o ~ D % $ ~ % c ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ I ~ u L v &G=.X~ ~ 1 . 1

6 0

(In terms of livability I like this city better than the one where I lived before (this one).) t Z ~ L rw+( I- &t/u +7r Q ~ b w t ,

WADEAS 2 bli ,GT:-~& B*O~$C&~R-TL d: 5. (In terms of punctuality the railway systems in Japan are probably the best in the world.)

t v r w 17

4 ~ b f i t&$$$??$&-2~5 ,~T&o%{ a&&g$@~dr (I &$~&a 2% La, (Dolphins can be said to be superior to other aquatic animals in that they speak (language).)

BZw,r&!xj~~ ~ % % ~ s & ~ r ~ ~ ~ ~ 5 , 6 ~ # & ~ ~ & ~ - C b l a ~ (She and I share the same taste in that both of us like classical music.)

C f2l.r Pa r L q 6 2 3 T S K L A < x&rtwwmm &&a 2blj ,6~;i:t E1~3%E7'?~ (Mr. Smith is the right person for president in that he can anticipate the trends of the times.)

(1) a. ~EXOT 5 ba5 ,wXC:&~~L~ (It is that aspect which people dislike about her.)

K l 5 L - b. ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ a ~ ~ f s ~ ~ d r ~ f f i ~ a a a % & ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

(I value (lit. I'd like to value) the fact (lit. the point) that he is very good at Japanese.)

ten (de) / te wa 461

c. mza)gg~ae%%e&% LTP%~C=~IMI.B. (I am attracted by this product in that it is future-oriented.)

d. + a > a ~ ~ ~ \ - ( r % X m ~ ~ BEe4mo (I was asked questions on that point by some people.)


The suffix -men and the noun ten express a similar idea. As their original meanings (i.e., men 'face, side'; ten 'point') suggest, however, -men reflects a more general, broader viewpoint than ten does, as in [I] and [2].

s c*2*/, [I] a. w 02Xi;t: IB R EI / *WRDAI C P J ~ ~ W 6,

(That company has problems in terms of technology.)

b. % ~ i ; t : 4 ? a ) i . d l 3 \ ~ : 8 ~ . 3 - c {ibi@(DA / *ibi&EIl ~&hli%fb~> 9 kc, (In that business deal we couldn't agree in terms of the price.)

[2] a. z a)'$& {M%H / *BP(DAl 9% < RlrHiS kLk0 (This car was highly regarded in terms of performance.)

b. Za)$ii%k&WiEkLTb~& {A / *HI < RiEiSkLf& (This car was highly regarded in terms of its excellent performance (lit. the point that the performance is excellent).)

(+ -men)

te wa Tl t conj.

if; when; because tion 1 state as a topic about which a

+Key Sentences

1 (If you study that hard, you will ruin your health.)

1 (We cannot go out in this cold weather (lit. when it is this cold).)

1 (It's too bad that you hate your work that much.)

(ii)

(iii)

Vte bk

&dT bb (when I if one eats; to eat)

Adj(i l na)te Ck

% 3 < T bk (when I if s.t. I s.0. is big)

%%Tl;f: (when / if s.t. is inconvenient)

N Tdb

%%,~bk(@&Qbb) (if s.0. is ill (I can't ask him to do s.t.))

& D y& T i i &1= h 6 h b\) (that teacher (would be out of the question)) -

L lWh. L?Ifb. ?Lts t = % / v T b m , %,%b=%%L3%.lo (If you are fooling around like that, you will fail the examination.)

;tjn%'j5'&-c ia3bc:as. (If he comes he will get in our way.)

z/vact'&;trl~h-cia, ~ Z ~ = ~ ~ T L L 5 io (If I'm forced to work like this, I will end up by becoming ill.)

.. o 2.m Z Lh1=gi3E$& < T i i , 8%SLd."fi;i1:k!b:&f ;trlLb>, (Because the room is messy like this, I feel ashamed when I have a guest.)

Xd."@&K$&$jTGi, fi r c i ~ ~ ~ b 1 ~ f h b ~ ~

(If everybody is individualistic, a country cannot get along well.)

z/vac::jF'~< -cia, k j i % k & & a ~ , (When one is this busy, one cannot read even the newspaper.)

hw r h/vtsZE;3f7- I - D B F T ~ ~ , f $ i i X k < t s 9 - w a m 5. (If a woman like her is his date, he must feel intimidated.)

1. The conjunction te wa is used to connect an action or state presented as - -

a topic and a negative comment. The information of the te wa clause is = 'Ti shared information and often includes the demonstrative adjective ko-, b so-, a-, as shown in KS, Exs.(a) - (d), (f) and (g).

2. te wa is etymologically Vte + wa (topic marker), but it is used like a conjunction.

3. Vte wa ikenai, a phrase which indicates prohibition, is a special case of the te wa construction. (+ - wa ikenai (DBJG: 528))

to t: prt.

a particle which makes an adver- (thinking / saying) that -; be- bial clause, with a verb of saying / cause; like; in such a way thinking 1 understood after it fi that-

+Key Sentences

I (Yukio is very happy that he can buy a house next year.) I

1 (Wondering if the museum is open I called them.)

(With the intention of playing tennis (lit. Thinking that I will play ten-

nis) I went out, but on my way it started to rain.)

Sl r r%L$ ia i Lb T i i b ? z $ & ~ d : j ~ %&LTD?zfl, 5353K$59T3?:0

(I felt at ease, thinking that my father still looked healthy, but suddenly

he began to grow weak.) ! Vb,:< c' 0 3 ? A < t;L c' fiaraoe;tliirasi3,ail.iEM, i ~raril.i%g& t , 1bo-c~ <. (Foreign language proficiency develops from words to sentences, from

1 sentences to paragraphs, and then from paragraphs to complex paragraphs.) I

I6 *, ( i ) {V/Adj(i/na)}inf t ( E g T / 8 9 T ) Vofpsychology

&&b 2 (,KcJ T / S9 T) 5 kLLfl9 T b ~ b (LO. is happy thinking 1 saying that she can read it)

f i b Lh Ah:

Q 2 ( 9 T / 8 T ) L T b 6 (s.0. is happy thinking I saying that s.t. is interesting)

I saying that s.t. is convenient)

(ii) S (internal monologue) t (,E 9 T)

b 5 4 5 3 L.> IS, %& 9 7: (thinking that s.0. would not see s.0. else, he severed the relationship)

8%~ bf ib :&~ 5 73.2 2, ffiil.V?: (wondering if I should go see a movie I left home)

(iii) Vvol k ( E 9 T / LT)

&4 d: j t (B 9 T / L T) (thinking that she would eat it)

466 to

(iv) { V I Adj(i / na)} inf (conjectural) 2 (1 9 T )

&a ba f 2 6 5 2 (E 9 T ) (thinking that s h e might not come)

7 2 I ; a w i t ~ k ~ a v t : ( , R ~ T ) (thinking that s.t. might be boring)

%&,f.6 5 2 (,K?= T ) (thinking that s.0. might be healthy)

(v) N P r t N , . . . N P r t N ( + L T ) N P r t N t : ( b a i I l i / % l b:)V 92: K d W *&ti Irl3d.bl

I ~ I B , k t k - ~ g t : ( ~ l i I L i / E L I I:), i i i&~&a (s.0. divides the rooms in such a way that men are placed upstairs and

women in the first floor)

tb t : ; 'b tra h w w +tr Z ~ ~ ~ E ~ ~ F A B ~ T ~ ~ ~ : % P & A T L ~ ~ T : ~ : , ~ L $ ~ ~ T P ~ L (My friend looked sad, saying that a cat, which she kept for a long time, had died.)

@kt$/vc=.fb9f:$it ~ k L a b ~ t : ~ & ~ ~ ~ ~ . ~ a . (He is worried that he may have cancer.)

Oa( K L (9

5 ~ 1 Y & i i it i 6 t; 9 t: TTB ,GP~;SZ~L~:CI 1: 2, ,E ~ $ 9 f:, (That student felt chagrined that he could almost get 100 points.)

@ % k % i C I i t ~ k L $ f % & ~ > t : , g ~ f i 9 f : C I - F ~ ~ (Thinking that this would be the last time to see her, I felt lonely.)

H t t t tr L

%aS$Lf;a 2 , %Kffi-Cdt.f:P, m T 9 , 72$7f:, (Wondering what the strange noise was, I went outside, but it was nothing.)

d . i %ti%$i&b&itra~~t:, 3 9 ~ ~ z ~ : f t 9 f : o (I came straight home, thinking that I would not drink tonight.) bL*V h/rJ/r I t / u l h b > Ell L < +FJG:WC?~-&~VL i t:, % ~ G : % B L T & \ ~ t: Z G T T , (Thinking that I should complete the paper before the end of the year, I am right now doing my very best.)

@ t : & B ~ & i 2+bT$fCI1:, E $ w I Z t: t f s l 7 B L - c , k;+L?i-

bt z i m B S t L T L b 7 k 0 (I came here intending to thank him, but I just talked about something else, and forgot to thank him.)

(i) $Li$~~:blb\ j?6 5 t , ~ h i t # g ~ ~ ~ b 1 a . f ~

(I thought it would make a small improvent to my body, so I am taking walks these days.)

(j) # B i e s t ~ ~ : o ) ~ = i : % r ; ; k ~ $ h L ~ L Q L \ ~ , V < V < LT~~T:, (I forgot my homework so I feared that I might be scolded by my teacher.)

o h P o $ b i t , C * 3 c Oia?i;n.eda, f i t % $ s X a , $htAjq$c,T - 8 , & i i + I f l $ b I B a T k , P O @ ~ G ~ C P ~ C $ $ ~ E G ~ T ~ ~ Q 0 (In Japan the four seasons are of approximately equal length, in such a way that spring is from March through May, summer from June through August, autumn from September through November, and winter from December through February.)

b L < L l h

(1) ma@ii+a k, ~ b t ) ~ & , ~ i t $ ~ t , % + m 1 ~ 9 - - ; . 7 ~ & a g ~ w . (His eating pattern is fmed so that he has a Japanese style dish for breakfast, noodles for lunch, and a western style dish for dinner.) L r $ 2 3 * & I T 9 Lo-Gr-5 S f

(m) + t ~ i t ~ ~ t m ; . ~ ; . , y E i i % x 9 r 7 , ~ ~ ~ ; t . ; ) ~ / ~ t , %1:s& ba0

(The president is busy making business trips, to London last month, to Moscow this month, to Seoul next month, and so on.) - - - - - i - - - - T - - - - - - -

1. For all the sentences given in KS and Exs, the verbs of saying, thinking, feeling or doing are ellipted, except KS(E) and Exs.(k) - (m) in which the entire iu y6ni / iu fU ni is deleted.

KS(A) type, i.e., Exs.(a) - (c), KS(B) type, i.e., Exs.(d) - (f), KS(C) type, i.e., Exs.(g), (h), and KS(D) type, i.e., Exs.(i) and (j), usually take. omoffe. They can take iffe, if the to-clause can be interpreted as a quote, as in KS(A) and Ex.(a). Notice that Ex.(a) may take omoffe, but the meaning is not the same as the original ellipted one. It means 'My friend looked sad, wrongly assuming that a cat which she kept for a long time died.' For that matter, one of the interpretations of KS(A) is 'Yukio is very happy assuming wrongly that he can buy a house next year.' KS(C) type, i.e., Exs.(g) and (h), usually take omoffe and shite. KS@) type, i.e., Exs .0 - (m), take iu {ydni 1 fii ni}.

(ct> to3 (DBJG: 478-80))

2. In KS(A) type, the only type which allows ellipsis of iffe the main verb is usually a psychological verb such as yorokobu 'rejoice' of KS(A), kanashigam 'deplore' of Ex.(a), shinpaisom 'worry' of Ex.@), and kuyashigam 'feel chagrined' of Ex.(c). Another notable thing about this type is that the whole sentence refers not to the speaker's but to a third person's psychological state.

- - = = T g - (2) a. *#Ci%Pr$G&Zjjr.F$;i& 2 kES/vTb>& (cf. KS(A)) - - = (I'm very happy that I can buy a house next year.)

b. *&kf b>Bn?@J9Tb1l:B;tr'EATL3 77: 2 , %L$9l:, (cf. Ex.(a))

(I was sad that the cat I kept for a long time died.)

The acceptable versions of (2a) and (2b) are (3a) and (3b), respectively.

3. The omotte-ellipsis is possible when the preceding verb expresses the speaker's volition with Vvol as in KS(C), Exs.(g) and (h) or his 1 her conjecture as in KS(D), Exs.(i) and (j). However, if the preceding verb does not express either volition or conjecture by means of dare (as in Ex.(i)), kamoshirenai (as in Ex.(j)) and ydda (as in KS(D)), the omotte-ellipsis does not usually occur.

1: lmL-- * L 3 ~ 3

(4) a. B ~ ~ ~ & Q B ~ T % 3&t&a>BE3Ob>2 ~ . 7 7 /*@I, 2% a>EEl$TB$%B%3&Lk0 (Thinking that it would be interesting to study Japanese in Japan, last summer I studied Japanese in Japan.)

a! B $ % Q 8 $ T % 3 $ - i f & o B E 3 O b a t f 3 i t { l77 / @ I , w a > z a $ ~ s m e % ~ & LT:, (Thinking that it might be interesting to study Japanese in Japan, last summer I studied Japanese in Japan.)

f i h 3 he f d . b W b l r L i L r i (5) a. ft&~ti&k&C:%%k'r'iTBLf:b>l: ~ : 3 t 3 % 0 T L {,53.~7/*01, bb:

i&DE < oh'i4€B~C:ffi&lf f i , (Taro suddenly went to a travel agent near his house, wanting to make a trip abroad during the winter break.)

a'. k&Bii&%&b:%%%f'iTBLk32 ( !377 /*01 , LC= %a>% < a>Kfil€BEb:ffi;fr>lf 7'2,

(Taro suddenly went to a travel agent near his house, wish- ing to make a trip abroad during the winter break.)

4. The shite-ellipsis out of Vvol to shite is possible only when the Vvol to shite clause appears in a larger construction, as in KS(C), Exs.(g) and (h). For example, in (6a) below, no action is described, so the shite- ellipsis is impossible, whereas in (6a') an action is explicitly mentioned, so the ellipsis is possible.

(6) a. $&??&3 5 2 ( L 7 /*@I, & $ ? C a b a ~ 2 K&'~~9ba7 ' :~ (When I tried to pay, I realized that I didn't have my purse.)

470 2 0

a'. %&??#L%5 k { L 7 / @ I , $!TY bKg%%~h.E?~f, W*ffijtr.'tsblZ 2 b:%7F9b~jzo (I tried to pay and put my hand into my pocket, but I realized that I didn't have my purse.)

5. The iu {yo I M} ni-ellipsis is possible when N Prt + N, . . . N Prt + N (soshite) N(Prt) precedes to iu {y6 / fU} ni, as in KS(E) and Exs. (k) - (m). Otherwise the ellipsis is impossible unless the main verb is a verb of saying or thinking.

b/vCw (7) a. +fEb~i&bqBl&a;I,\37'zt~tj I k i /&I KEgT%baT

% bbo

(Please tell the president that there were no particular problems with it.)

-- +kj?ZC:lLf@Bi&2d~~ I : ~ B Q T % ~ . I T T ' ~ ~ ~ , boi+frl v 3 L r W , hi L

b. 2 0 % Zi&.?O+fGBJ!%$B LTbl6 t:L\3 { k j / &I tz C $ ~ R C; ;k3-t?&7PO (Can't we regard this story as mocking contemporary society?)

-+ ZO~Zi&+O+fG%J!%~U LTbl6 t i&%L C;fL3-t?& 7 P O

(e to iu fii ni) * ' * L T ?3

(8) a. pi21 iRBffijtr.'asabltc\i / B I K$YL < 6% h F 9 72, (He stood up abruptly in a way that showed he could no longer stand it.)

--*%Jib& B 53?187Fffl%ablt:, Rk L < %%_tffijtr.'~I:,

b. %JiliY5 LL 5 Btsb1t~15 I k i /&I Kg%&gfzo (He shook his head in such a fashion as to suggest that there was no way out.)

4 *4Jil&Pi LL 5 B a b a t : , E??E-?zo

to d6ji ni 2 FM$CZ cornp. prt. / conj.

at the same time (as); at the the idea that s.0. does s.t. or s.t. time; when; as; while; as well takes place at the same time as an- as - other action or event, or that s.0. or [REL. to torno ni; totan (ni)] s.t. is in two states simultaneously

+Key Sentences

C b W < .t3 5 s i

(He got a job at a bank at the time of (lit. at the same time as) his grad-

uation from college.)

(B)

Vinf - nonpast

I I I

(The telephone rang (lit. at the same time) as I entered the room.)

g&'t H@b: (at the same time as s.o.3 arrival)

(ii) Vinf .nonpast k H@ b:

$ ( t R@t: (at the same time as s.0. arrives)

(iii) {Adj(na)stem 1 N] Tdi 2 Fl@ t: {Adj(na)stem 1 N] T $ di 21, -1L 1 p s b , T $

E m d i a t F ~ R c : ~ w ~ - F ~ haO (S.t. is economical as well as convenient.)

7 7 ~ ~ - I L G ~ ~ $ T ~ ~ ~ ~ @ ~ : & ~ O ~ ~ T $ & ~ ~ (S.O. is a baseball player as well as a football player.)

mimm i l ' r n C t I f l L L

(a) % ~ k i 2 % ~ k H@b:&&9&&tc0 (She quit her company at the time of (lit. at the same time as) her marriage.)

(b) ~ ~ ~ W ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ c r ) ~ t ~ p ~ ; t z . j c o

(We heard the shot and saw one of the policemen fall. (lit. One of the policemen fell at the same time as the sound of a gun.)) h f i 5 fiL-r %< Lwi SLlZi b.< L l i 17f

(c) %Lba$;3Dq 8 kH@t:*&7la 8 h S t L T ( 2 2 6 a k a o

(You mustn't forget grammar review as well as new vocabulary study.) l : l % L r - 1 L S i 3 1st

(d) FG~IL-X t mt: E I ~ W ~ S @ B % & ~ , (I started my Japanese study when (lit. at the same time as) Ruth did.)

(el %&FL%QTFTP%< t~~@t?&k~j.?;tz.&t?~ (The train came to a halt and as the doors opened the passengers rushed into the train (lit. the passengers rushed into the train at the same time as the doors opened).)

L1*W -L:3 (f) %+w&%taa t R E ! + ~ : + ~ ~ E L I Z ,

(The new president changed the company's name when (lit. at the same time as) he assumed the presidency.)

drv: < : ILltba :i ti fiL Lw3

(g) f i E l ~ B ~ ~ & 3 - & 8 b i , *&B&hh-if& t R@KfcB0UBiFi l Fi! & L h C f ;kC%@ 1; 8 w 0 (When you study a foreign language, while you learn (lit. understand) grammar, you must also practice sentence patterns orally.)

+ i t , hL<L

(h) Z 0 % L b + m w i & T & & t R@d&$bW0 (This new equipment is safe and, at the same time, its performance is good.)

Lr?+t - d.

(i) ~ & { b i & $ T d j b t R@k:/l\ % S T & $9 k , (Mori Ogai was a novelist as well as a doctor.)

am!m 1. Na-adjectives and nouns with to d6ji ni (e.g., KS(C), Ex.(h)) usually

appear in written language or formal speech.

2. I-adjectives are usually not used with to d6ji ni, as in (1). hb: * b

(1) Z 0 % $ i i IJ!%T&~ / *%*t\l 2 W E F E $ W P E b ~ , (This equipment is dangerous and, at the same time, its performance is bad.)

To torno ni can replace to d6ji ni when a noun immediately precedes to dcii ni, as in [I].

To tomo ni can also replace to d6ji ni when {Adj(na)stem / N) de am precedes to d6ji ni, as in [2].

When a verb precedes to d6ji ni, to tomo ni can replace to d6ji ni only if the

474 to doji ni / to itte rno

two actions or events are not momentary actions or events. Thus, to torno ni is acceptable in [3] but not acceptable in [4].

Note that if a noun precedes to d6ji ni, to torno ni can replace to d6ji ni even if the two actions or events are momentary, as in [I]. Compare [I] to [5] where verbs precede to d6ji ni.

[5] a. @iikf %$%-if6 t {ARC: /*#[:I WTI:E% LIZ, (cf. KS(A))

(He got a job at a bank when (lit. at the same time as) he graduated from college.)

b. % & F % a t IHRCZ / *#Kl %ED-A7F@J1BlkLIc0 (cf. EX.@)) (We heard the shot and saw one of the policemen fall. (lit. One of the policemen fell at the same time as the sound of a gun.))

Note also that to torno ni is usually used in written language. (6 to tomo ni)

toittemo &a976 phr.

although - say / said that -; statement in the preceding dis- even though - say / said that - course which might be misleading

to itte mo 475

4Key Sentences

(A) r sentence, I1 Sentencez

(I have a child. Well, although I said, "child," he is already a college

student (lit.. he is already a college student, though).)

(B)

be^ % ~ u t + % m > a . t ,

/ (You are busy every day, aren't you?)

Noun

3%

I (No, although people may say that I'm busy, I do not work on week- 1 b>k,

I ends, so . . .) I

2

( i ) N k S 7 T b

Adj . inf

f t L ~ \

+?,Lev %& 2 S 7 T & (although (I) say, "teacher")

fwa(aw 5 . t

(ii) {V I Adj(i) I Adj(na) I N+Cop.}inf 2 S 7 T &

$so

&

{ < / 7 7 1 2 7 T & (although (I) say that s.0. {will go 1 went})

Lei 3 3 i H ~ b i & / v ~ b ~ a . t ~ b .

{ b / 7 7 I 2 7 T & (although (I) say that it is 1 was cheap)

476 to itte mO

{ k (although(I)saythatitis/was quiet)

&&j? / @&7?9 ?:I k S- T & (although (I) say that s.0. is / was ill)

aE!mmD PLfF-3 -4 ItJ

(a) & i387?o Ljt)lL, 38 k B 9 T & Z02ikt37?%b~0 (It's already March. But even though I say, "March," it is still cold around here.)

:tail f r x (b) xl&Lkb&3l?$3%b1~-ifk~ & 6 6 t Y , 5 b > k B 3 T & h f ( t T - $

7Fo

(Prof. Yarnazaki is still young. Of course, even though I said, "young," he is in his fifties (lit. he is in his fifties, though).)

(c) &37$!,9$~ 3 L k 0 k S = T & I $ - l- GtYT-iffF0 (I've found a job. Well, although I said, "job," it is a part-time job (lit. it is a part-time job, though).)

(d) A:

B:

6L;< E

% ~ B ~ % G ~ Y T L L i ? (You know Korean, right?)

1: hLx.4. S i 3 b . 9 , & q T b a & k g 3 T & I ~ @ $&LI:I?~~ T$$L;%L?zz kt;f:&II a*&, (No, even though people say that I know it, my knowledge is limited because I studied it only two years.)

~ $ ~ s t Y ~ ~ + T ; 3 T < f i & ? i T - i f k 0 (I heard that Mr. Tsujimura will help us.)

); 2L lf *L T & , ~ ( Z q T < f i h a k g ~ T & * b ~ @ b a I , ~ % B P L L ~ ~ (But, even though he says that he will help us, it will probably be for a couple of hours at most.)

&O+ii?&b>T-ifk,, (That boy is strong, you know.)

L ~ ? a t r w LIP, $&bat: Sq T &1~7j.;3r4\ f 4T-5 k.

toitterno 477

(Well, even though you say he is strong, he is only an elementary school kid.)

1. X in X to itte rno can be dropped, as in Ex.(c), when the preceding sentence containing X is uttered by the same speaker and to itte rno imrne- diately follows thepreceding sentence- If to itte rno does not immediately follow the preceding sentence, X cannot be dropped, as in (1).

2. X to itte rno can be used without a preceding discourse containing X, as in (2).

(2) %e 2 9 f z t ~ 7 ~ ~ ~ ~ v i i % ~ ~ $ $ r ? o ~ L T I & - c ~ N ? ~ i o (Although (people may say that) Bill has gotten old, (he is still strong because) he used to be a professional athlete. I won't be able to beat him.)

In this instance, people may or may not actually be saying that Bill has gotten old, but by using to itte mo the speaker can avoid making a direct statement like that in (3).

(3) $e tr -c b F ~ ~ Z Y U B F R ' , -

(Although Bill has gotten old, (he is still strong because) he - T EEzsS

used to be a professional athlete.)

in such a way that; in such a ner or a way in which S.O. does s.t. fashion to suggest I show (etc.)

that; as if to say I show (etc.) that (REL. to iu y6ni]

+ ~ e ~ Sentences

(A)

1 (He shook his head as if to say that there was no way out.)

(I have been informed that Mr. Kawarnura cannot come. (lit. I have been informed in such a way that I understand that Mr. Kawarnura can-

not come.))

(Each of them ordered the (different) things they liked-Hiroshi, eel, Tomoko, tempura, and so on.)

to iu fi7 ni 479

( i ) Sinf kb\jEkC: : L h t f 6.6.

B-3 I: 2 b>iEkC:4Q+Qkk (So. held his head in such a fashion as to suggest that he didn't know what to do.)

(ii) X C i A, Y C i B 2 b~ 7 &K I f 3 l 5 t* 9. L 3 V a n g a i a v 7 / , A E ~ B ~ ; ~ : T Y X ~ ~ > j ~ ~ c g + i a & ' $ ~ y x Y - n f b j a, (Yoshiko has a lesson every day-piano on Monday, dance on

Tuesday, and so on.)

j g t i b i &~&F&&cL> 2 L> j H C Z ~ A : L < 3 1 d f i ~ ~ ~ (He stood up in a violent manner showing that he could no longer bear it.)

VLfA?# gzii b 5 Z f L U k M 3 7: < 8 b l 2 b > j )i&1?#+~?$?$$-3 k0 (She covered her ears as if to say that she didn't want to listen to it any more.) L* $ A ? t < &/. f ib>

?k EKii, @ l : ~ ~ 7 ~ i i 8 d . - 3 ? : 2 b ~ i ) i & 1 = ~ - 3 7 ~ b ~ 7 ~ ~ b > , (Please tell the president that (lit. tell it to the president in such a way to convey that) there were no particular problems with it.)

6o)@&oIig y e v h? L

u, ,a, r t e ~ ~ k t l ~ ~ m a 2b>i)i&1=~&& ~ ; f ~ 3 * ~ , i 5 1 ~ (Can't we think that (lit. think in such a way that) this story mocks contemporary society?) - - = - - = - - - - -

I t It& T - - -?j b > j Z 2 c ~ ~ ~ z w ~ c : ~ ~ & ~ ~ \ L ; ~ ~ ~ L ~ ~ L > ~ A c : ~ @ L T B c ~ i f b b =-

ba0

(You can explain that (lit. explain it in a way to mean that) we cannot do things like that because they are against the rules.) I t h A - t L %+~$;J;'x Y , $+ i i l a - 3-3 ku>im1:, ~a)*&&~r&ii

&%%&7%&i~%fi~k~~b>&~ (This association's convention is held in a big city on the East Coast every year: last year Boston; this year New York; and so on.)

480 to iu fg ni / to iu koto wa

(g) Y a 7 y . Z - b 2 , ? 1 ' 3 d i Y 7 7 i ' l ' - 2 , 2 b > i ~ G c s F t L G d c A - p "r-%J€~GfTfl7G:a~7':~ (Everybody found a partner and paired up-John with Kate, Mike with Cindy, and so on.) -

1. To iu fir ni is used to express what the manner of a person's action shows or suggests, as in KS(A), Exs.(a) and (b).

2. To iu fi , ni is used when the speaker does not want to be exact about a message or an idea, as in KS(B) and Exs.(c) - (e).

3. As KS(C), Exs.(f) and (g) demonstrate, to iu fir ni is used to present specific examples of the way in which someone (or some people) does something.

elated Expression]

To iu y6ni can replace to iu fir ni without changing the meaning of a discourse.

[I] a. 4ECiFi L d r i % i F s b a t ~ \ i { I / & i I C ~ E % $ E Q ~ ' Z ~

(=KS(A)) - b a T b > a o

(=KS(B))

1 iC&5b>&5L1

toiukotowa I = L \ j L I = C t phl:

that; the fact that into a topic noun clause [REL. koto]

to iu koto wa 481

+Key Sentences

(A)

1 (It is unthinkable that he won't come to this meeting.)

(The fact that the letter came back means that she no longer lives at this

address.)

Sinf T f - 3 b ? I

~7~ k b l j z 2 i i

Sinf f C * l Z i 3 , L ~ 4 L S i - 3

B~'B~HCZE~*S%%%L~L\&L\

Sinf

f , g ~ k h 5 ~ 0 g & ~ i i 1 / 1 ~ 1 / l 2 1/15 z 2 7Z0

21/19 Z 2 C2

- - - - - - - - - - - - - 'TI =- -

Sinf

$k~s*~&&-if~,&%1/> O&

(The fact that he is not studying Japanese seriously means that he is not serious about working in Japan.)

482 to iu koto wa

(The fact that he lent me money means that I am trusted by him.)

(d) 6 3 Z k ~ & j @ ~ b > k b > j Z k d 2 & g ~ $ ; i & L @ G b > k b > i Z k j zo (The fact that he doesn't listen to us means that there is no alternative but to punish him physically.)

(e) $L$Z;k7?GfSqr&%j51r;Gb>kb>i ZkC&Y."b>i Z k Q A t L a 3 0

(What does it mean that he doesn't understand me even though I have talked to him such a lot?)

vl -d 'la F r s (g) jfk%$-h"kik % C L $ - C ~ ~ & k b l i t ~ c ~ @ ~ & Q % c S b Z k G: ~ f z o E 6

3 , (The fact that he is attending the class every day probably means that he has decided to continue studying.)

S to iu koto wa is used when the speaker / writer views the content of S at a conceptual level. Specifically, S to iu koto wa is used (1) when S is unlikely or impossible (e.g., KS(A) and Ex.(a)), or (2) when the speaker/writer concludes or attempts to conclude s.t. from S (e.g., KS(B) and (C), and

Exs.(b) - (g)).

to iu koto wa 483


Koto also changes a sentence into a noun clause. The difference between S to iu koto and S koto is that the former is used when S represents a concept rather than a fact (e.g., KS(A)) or when the speaker / writer views the concrete content of S at a conceptual level (e.g., KS(B) and (C)). On the other hand, S koto is used when S represents a fact (or something nearly factual) and the speaker / writer views it at a concrete level. The following examples illustrate this point.

First, S koto cannot be used when S is unlikely to happen. In this case, S to iu koto is used, as in [I].

Second, if S represents a fact which the speaker/writer knows through his 1 her direct experience, only S koto is acceptable, as in [2].

[2] @Pf 0%3 9 G:?+?27P37': I @ / ? ? t L \ j ] Ztb3.$&l?, (It is a fact that he didn't come to the meeting.)

However, if S represents a fact which the speaker / writer knows through indirect experience (i.e., through secondhand information), S to iu koto is acceptable, as in [3].

[3] @@&%LI: { 0 / 2 ~ \ 3 1 ZtbiS$U& (It is a fact that he got divorced.)

Third, if S represents something likely to happen, both S koto and S to iu

koto are acceptable, as in [4]. In this case the speaker 1 writer may view the situation at either a concrete level or a conceptual level.

Fourth, when verbs like kanjiru 'feel' and y6kyijsuru 'request; demand' are

484 to iu koto wa / to iu noni

used, the content of S should be concrete. In this case, S koto is used, as in

VI. [5] a. @ J i ~ d ; < h b l Z k f l W Z U , 3 9 & 6 { 0 l * t L \ i I L ~ % % c

5, (I feel that something bad is happening.) bfibh L e l j t i LcYw L i be3

b. &&b24fEfl%%T& { 0 / * t C \ 3 1 L t % E % L f = , (We demanded that the president apologize to us.)

However, as in [6], with verbs like tsutaenr 'convey; tell' and kiku 'hear; listen' both S to iu koto and S koto can be used because the content of S can be either conceptual or concrete.

7 C [6] a. ?&7FZa)%3 17 G:%t?-ba I t L \ 3 /01 L t %ktLhKiZXf;,

(I told everybody that he would not come to this meeting.)

b. ?&f lZ@%b 9 1:%hb\ I t ~ \ 3 /@I L t % W ~ \ f c , (I heard that he would not come to this meeting.)

(+ koto2 (DBJG: 193-96))

to iu noni 2 L \ 5 U l CC conj.

but; although; in spite of the

- action / state takes place quite fact that - - - _= - - - - - T g [REL. noni] - - - - - -

+ ~ e ~ Sentence

1 Subordinate Clause 1 I

I (It is April, but still chilly (lit. cold on the skin).) I

i t f ixtr a tzangw,

Sinf

hEf: 5 a )

to iu noni 485

mm!mD Sinf k ba i 0 b:

r L * b>b.X%j? 2 bb 5 0 K (although it is a fine day)

%&& k L.3 5 Q t: (although someone is coming)

kk7'f k b> i a) b: (although it is a waste)

gts ba k b.5 a) 1: (although it is dangerous)

(Your teacher kindly loaned a book to you, but you haven't read it?) %<*V VLIr' ~ & b & & E k b > j Dl:, $&b>b:S$& 9 3 LTLI>& ho (Students are said to be poor, but they are driving around in pretty good cars, aren't they?)

486 to iu noni

1. Sinf to iu noni is used to indicate that an action or state expressed in the main clause takes place quite contrary to one's expectation from an action or a state expressed in the subordinate clause (=Sinf to iu noni

clause).

2. lu in Sinf to iu noni in this heading does not have the original meaning of 'say,' because it does not express a quote. But as in (la) below, there are cases in which Sinf to iu noni expresses a quote. Compare (la) with (Ib) which is a non-quote case.

L P < L I L

(1) a. * a a i i t a l i 3 ? - b a h tr~,at:, I r t r m z t i t a b a t

s- a 7 o

(I told my wife that the City Hall is closed, but she says it isn't.)

* i b. 3TWWal3 ~ - c b > h tr\iOK, ? o F % J = A & ~ 3 - c b l

6 0

(Although the City Hall is closed, a lot of people are gathered in front of it.)

All the Sinf to iu noni in KS and Exs can be replaced by Sinf noni without changing the essential meaning, because both of them express the meaning of 'although.'

Sinf to iu noni is used when something quite contrary to what is expected from S is expressed in the main clause, so if the contrast to one's expecta-

to iu noni / to iu no wa - koto da 487

tion is not fully expressed as in [2a], the use of Sinf to iu noni becomes marginal. In [2b] in which ample information is given to make the contrast clear, to iu noni becomes acceptable.

S L * 6 1 b Z

b. q & $ t ~ o , g ~ ~ k ; e & a tarha ~cocz / t : ~ \ j a t z } ts +G+BStb 'J~ , (He is the son of a man of property, and he has money more than he can use, but he does not part with it readily.)

toiunowa-kotoda t L \ j O ) l $ - - L t f Z stl:

mean; the meaning of - is;

I preting, explaining, or defining a I what - means is word, a phrase, or a sentence [REL. to iu koto wa]

+ ~ e ~ Sentences

(Kafishi means to die from overwork.)

Noun

f

(Pasokon means personal computer.)

k b a i O I 2

Noun

/f-Yj-ll.. 3>E1-9 0 Z k E 0

488 to iu no wa - koto da

I Sinf

( 2 ~ 1 5 )

(Sam mo ki kara ochim (lit. even monkeys fall from trees) means that even a skillful person sometimes makes a mistake.)

Z k E 0

Sinf

r%&&;h,%k%~J

(ii) {VP I AP I S}inf 2 ba j 0 G i

r%dJ61 2 b > i 0Gi (What kubi o kiru (lit. to cut one's head off) means is -)

(Ashi ga dem (lit. a foot sticks out) means that an expense exceeds the amount budgeted.)

-

2b> j a) l i

2 2 rz0

Sinf C r i 7

1 asX~dr:i&1Sir;~ac ~:fifaa 2 w j

to iu no wa - koto da 489

wara o mo tsukamu (lit. a drowning person clutches even at a straw) means is -)

(iii) N 0 Z k 72 d.W t

E?% 9 a) 7jf- b a) Z k R (- means an apartment for purchase)

(iv) V / Adj 2 k 72 (the same as the relative clause formation rules)

( % d . % t 8 a)$)? 5 LblZ k tf (- means 'easy to do s.t.')

(liild.7F) 3 tS 2 k tf (- means 'to like s.t. a lot')

(liili3~Fkf-C:) h 8 Z k tf (- means 'to become skillful in st.')

( v ) {VP/APIS]inf k b 2 j Z k l f

%ld.b:#C;f'd.9 % & T ~ & % F L h b l k b l i Z k t f (-means that one sees only details and does not see the whole) -

7 4 ?J- k b l j a)i&kX$&9Tb~8($02 k E 0 (Maikii (lit. my car) means a car owned by an individual.) i S C I I I * i f < f9:i I*v

h $22 b l j 0 ~ & & ~ % & 1 $ t S b l ~ $ 2 @ C : ~ 8 Z k 72, (Uraguchi-nyiigaku (lit. entering school through the back door) means to enter a school without taking an entrance exam.)

(Kuchi ga karui (lit. one's mouth is light) means easily telling others = - -

things one shouldn't.) - - - - - - - - -- - b I 7 Lt 3 1tLrSL.l d.L*

?$$%#&A kba j a > i & b > b r 7 4 7 4 7 % & + j k L T - & b + f ;i & ( k b l j ) Z k t f o (Atama o shiboru (lit. squeeze one's head) means to think hard to get good ideas.)

very small (as in "a very small yard").)

490 to iu no wa - koto da

( H a m yori dango (lit. dumplings rather than blossoms) means that edi- ble dumplings are better than pretty but inedible blossoms; i.e., one should take substance over appearance.)

Although there is no restriction as to what precedes it, to iu no wa is usually preceded by N I Adj(na)stem or {VP 1 AP 1 Slinf. Similarly, any form can precede to iu koto da, but it is normally preceded by {VP 1 AP 1 Sl id . When to iu is not present before koto da, N no or the pre-noun form of V or Adj. must precede.

In X to iu no wa Y to iu koto da, the presence of the second to iu depends on the relationship between X and Y. If Y is the unshortened word of, a definition of, or a synonym for X, to iu is not used (e.g., KS(A) and Ex.(a)).

(1) a. / f Y = ~ ' J t b > j o ) C i ~ f - Y t ) L - J ' J ~ z . - - ~ {cD/*tL\ 5 1 2 t E0 (=KS(A))

b. ~4?5-tbl jo)CkmA$R~Tb>&$ IcD/*t~\jl Z

2 lzo (=Ex.(a))

If Y is an interpretation or explanation of X, to iu should be present (e.g., KS(D) and Ex.(f)).

(2) a. r%b*i~b%%&j tb\io)CikF;'bATb$$l:b2XWtT a z t m j a {tL\j /??@I z trz , (=Ks@))

b. !lB3] tb>j~3b-d:?i;kblh%Df O&<bh6P1? ak$Ib l , WRL r3%RofiQR4 It~lj /??@I z t rzo (=Ex.o)

If Y can be interpreted either way, to iu is optional. For example, in KS(C), if to iu is present, the speaker is explaining the meaning of ashi ga deru. If to iu is not present, the speaker is providing a definition for the phrase under focus.

to iu no wa - koto da 491

3. To request the meaning of a word, a phrase, or a sentence, the following expressions are commonly used.

(3) [Asking the meaning of a word] ? J Y ~ ? k b l j a ) d & f $ ~ f j5>,

(What does karaoke mean?)

(4) [Asking the meaning of a phras:,o; a sentence] r'$B%Ia_I k b l j a ) i & P j b l j P P i f ; T f d l , (What does kubi o kim mean?)

Note that the expression is (5) is not used in this situation.

(5) *?J 4 ;5?a)f Ri&rnT-m0 (lit. What is the meaning of karaoke?)

4. In asking the meaning of X in conversation, X to iu no wa is often contracted to X tte, as in (6).

In informal conversation simply X tte (with rising intonation) is used, as in (7).

(7) A. ?54;S?C&t@3Ttd.. (Do you like karaoke?)

I

B. ? J 4 ; 5 ? 7 7 ? (What's karaoke?)

(Related ~x~ression]

X to iu koto wa Y to iu koto da also means that X means Y. However, this structure is used to provide an interpretation of a fact (or something nearly factual), and is not used to provide a definition, an explanation, or an interpretation of a word, a phrase, or a sentence. Thus, to iu koto wa is acceptable in [I], but not in [2], and to iu no wa is acceptable in [2], but not in [I].

492 to iu no wa - koto da / to iu to

toiuto tE52 phl:

when - mention; if - say that which so. has mentioned causes -; when - say that -; when it

comes to - - - [REL. to ieba]

+ ~ e ~ Sentences

Noun

927925x2

(When you mention San Francisco, I remember those cable cars.)

5 2 , ;&,O?T-JIL?S-%%~)&T~

Sentence, I Sinf

I t I I

Sentence 1 (It sounds impressive when I say that I can speak Japanese, but the fact is that all I can do is exchange simple greetings.)

ammm ( i ) N 2 2 3 2

R d r l *

El@ I: S j I: (when it comes to Nagasaki)

(ii) Sinf I: S j I: V i * %?el 9 7: 2 S j I: (if I say that I've bought a house)

F f i * % S If1) 2 S j 2 , $ T b a 9 % b : 1 & , 0 ~ ~ 7 rlI$~,s,,I/\&d\<&j',',;5 3 , (When someone mentions Paris, the (lit. that) Eiffel Tower is the f ist thing likely to come to everyone's mind.) t*? P" pE6hk Lw', d r < e b b t Frx % &I:z5 2 , +%El%#% L?:Y&%R??#Rb~LtlTo (When it comes to judo, I remember my school days when I used to practice it every day.)

dr

dm I:Si 2 & & K t & x b ;bj&lr, & k L ~ i ; t i j k L ~ % ~ ~ ~ a ) ~ f ~ (Some people ridicule comics (lit. Some people despise you when you mention comics), but comics are interesting in their own way.) t 5 f ib ,?? b f i L Xk $ 1 5

R % + I : s ~ f i g 7CV1 I:%+F i : ~ z ; i & ~ , $ L L . c ~ ~ B ~ ~ ~ ~ S & L L , I / > &w:9 wnf i

(It sounds great when I say that I am a graduate of the University of Tokyo, but I was (in fact) a poor student who didn't study at all.)

+il I % k 3

(el & '~EQ&&~z k ~ i k % % $ b l b l / v ~ ~ s , j~llib~.%llib~%+@ ~ * b k ~ t ~ LTTdr, (It sounds good when he says that he quit his company, but the truth of the matter is that he was fired (lit. was made to quit).)

1. To iu to is used when something mentioned evokes some memory, as in KS(A), Exs.(a) and (b), or when the speaker / writer wants to make a remark which is different from what is expected, as in KS(B) and Exs.(c) - (e). In both cases, the clause which follows X to iu to is a response (an involuntary action or a state of mind) caused by X.

2. To iu to is also used to question the meaning of a word or phrase mentioned by the interlocutor, as in (1).

3 7 m i & 3 T - m ? (Do you like karaoke?)

? I ? $ + - L : {E3 / E L \ % - $ ] L:? (What do you mean by karaoke? (lit. When you mention karaoke, (what do you mean by that?))


To ieba is similar to to iu to. However, to iu to is used in the situations mentioned in Note 1, whereas to ieba is used when the speaker wants to present what has just been mentioned as a new topic. Compare [I] and [Z].

[2] A: $, + ~ ' J ~ ~ ' J > X = I $ > L ; ~ % $ & T ~ ~ & / ~ T T ~ (I have a friend from San Francisco visiting me now.)

to iu to / to iu yori (wa) 495

(Speaking of San Francisco, I heard that Mr. Tanaka is going to be transferred there.)

It should also be noted that to ieba cannot be used to question the meaning of a word or phrase, as in Note 2.

[3] A: 55 5 if 9 ba%f 3 T.?& (=(I) in Note 2)

B: %S$? { k E 5 k / * t B R l % } ? (+ - to ieba (DBJG: 484-85))

to iu yori (wa) 2 6'3 d;. 61 (It) phr.

rather than; more - than - more accurate characterization of S.O. or s.t.

+ ~ e ~ Sentences

/ Topic / Adj(i)inf / 1 Adj (i) 1

(This summer was cold rather than cool.)

(Kara is cautious rather than timid.)

496 to iu yon (wa)

(C)

(Mr. Honda is more of a scholar than an educator.)

I (One should say that sake drinks him rather than he drinks sake.) I

( i ) Adj(i)inf t b l 5 k 3 ( b i ) , ( G L L ) Adj(i/na)

GLbl t b1-j h 9 (bi), (itr LL)%bl (cold rather than cool)

(ii) Adj(na)stem 2 ~1 5 h 3 (12) , (4r L 5) Adj(i / na)

5 ( ) , (4rLS) i+;hb>bl (cuteratherthanpretty)

(iii) N 2bl- j h !I ( t i ) , ( i trL6) N

to iu yon (wa) 497

(He is politely insolent rather than polite.) efi r-*lr> wdt- a C w ) m . v, @iORYb2PPa@kb>j k bC2, 4 p L 3 W - ~ f ? k B j ~ 3 f ? , (We should say that his explanation is insufficient rather than concise.)

gbi, ~ $ i k b > j k b t i , ~ ~ ~ b ~ b > ~ $ k b > j ~ ~ T L f : ~ (I felt that my father was a good friend rather than a father.)

f b W < S r i ' * 4 & 1 2 ~ W k k k b + L b 12, e-9+.X?2fZ0 (He is a businessman rather than a college professor.)

-7A 3 ; i + ~ t d & h ~ - i t ~ , & j i ; i - w a k ~ > j d: 9 12, ~ - ~ ! s ~ s ~ T ~ 6~;3-cb>; f

-it 0

(I'm a teacher, but I am learning (lit. I have the privilege of being allowed to study) rather than teaching.)

& O % ? & ~ ~ ~ @ B % L T ~ > & k b l j k 0 12, 4pL5, %f-?d.L~r/r&, (That mother is pampering her child rather than loving him.)

It C ~7lP,+l ltCL %&k%LTb>& k , %&B LTb>& k b l j 1 b 12, -%mk:%ehH ~ L - C L ~ Z , k ~ > ~ f : B e f ? ,

(When I talk with him I feel that unilaterally I am forced to listen to his talk rather than being engaged in conversation.)

+L@U+,Lf?kbaj k b , 6 ~5f ,%O%.h . '$L~d . l f -C&l:A,T-itif. (It's more of a case of her having invited herself than me having invited her.) -

1. X to iu yori wa Y is used when the speaker 1 writer chooses what he believes to be a more accurate characterization of s.o or s.t. over another.

2. X to iu yon wa Y usually takes a topic as shown in KS and Exs.(a) - (h) but there are cases when it does not take a topic as in Ex.@.

3. X to iu yon wa Y often takes the form of X to iu yo- adverb rnushiro makes the meaning of 'rather' more explicit.

4. The past tense is usually specified once at the end of the sentence, as shown in Ex.@).

498 toka de

toka de 2 fJ'T conj.

for some reason like -; saying an uncertain reason for s.t. something like -; because - or

something like that [REL. kara; node]

+Key Sentence

(Mr. Takagi didn't show up at the party, saying something like he was going to make a business trip to Osaka.)

k %+& < 2 s T (saying something like s.0. is going to Japan) #a:? ~ @ P T I cj Gb3 2 iPT (saying something like the school is boring) -

W C L I:lt f f b W < C n l r i S 6 L h

(a) kAD+'rfflbrfk4a>$52 %PmB < G b ~ 2 f i P k ~ Q & k b ~ ~3 3 t z 0 (My friend Takeda quit college, saying something like the college

- - - - - classes weren't interesting.) T e - -- l:t.<b+Alw 3 A 5 a - (b) < '1 7L\biBXW%t:RRfis;&,& 2 s T , A % P @ ~ J % % Q $ & $ L

7: (Miriam majored in international relations saying something like she was interested in Japan-US relations.)

0 : i S L o a l i ? - E d . &

(c) x 2 7 2 h:&#P;&, 9 7: 2 &T, 7&f?$&Dffi %P%F$m 6 ~~7~~ (The flight departure was five hours late for some reason like there was engine trouble.)

tokade 499

(d) g p t< L hLCW x- &fl$,-82>~ 7': 2 *T , ~ @ k 0 B$&o? 4 % b & ? l -?df)i:G-~ 7':

(The 4th-year Japanese class has been cancelled for some reason like the enrollment was low.)

P7C/uKL if I v 1 7 t v il

(e) i i $ f i i ~ ~ ~ ~ i : k & ~ * ~ : 2 2 > ~ , & B K S ~ Z w : ~ (Tamura was arrested by the police allegedly because he happened to be at the scene of the murder or something like that.) -

1. The particle toka de is used to give an unconfirmed reason for a given action or state. The particle consists of the quotation marker to and the question marker ka and the particle of cause / reason de.

(+ to3 (DBJG: 478-80); ka2 (DBJG. 166-68); de3 (DBJG: 107-09))

2. Since toka de is used to express what the speaker / writer has heard from someone as a reason for an action / state, the subject cannot be the speaker 1 writer himself.

(1) { 7 3 > / * * L / * & * t ~ l i i & g s & & 2 * ~ % f i i : q ? * & b ~ ~ (John / *I / *You will not go see the movie, saying something like he has things to do.)

Toka de and kara /node are crucially different in that the former is used to express an uncertain hearsay reason; whereas the latter two conjunctions for reason / cause have nothing to do with hearsay. Therefore in (1) above kara / - ~4 node can be used regardless of the person (i.e., the first person or the third z- =+ person) of the subject, as shown in [I].

[ l] (73 > /a/ &&t;) biBPfl&& {A3% / D T ) %@i:6*,-8b~o

(cf. (1)) (Because {John has / I have / you have) work to do he / I / you won't go see a movie.)

(+ kara3 (DBJG: 179-81); node (DBJG: 328-31))

500 tokoro

when; then express the idea that when S.O. did [REL. -tam]

+Key Sentence

1 Subordinate Clause 1 Main Clause I

(When I consulted with my teacher, he strongly advised me to go to graduate school.)

@Q f: k Z 5 (when s.0. used (it))

S % r i to 8EEC=%AT&f: k Z 3 , *&%T$I 3&$T < ; k k , (When I asked my boss (lit. department chief), he was glad to do it.) t h l ; ' 3 g o

fjigC:%Lf:k Z 5 , LCf 6 < ~ ~ S W C C ~ L ~ ~ ~ % C I ~ : ~

(When I told one of my friends (about that), he said he would like to think (lit. would like me to let him think) (about it) for a while.)

+AX& I fA

~ ~ L Z T T C : & W ~ : ~ ~ ~ ~ A C G - L I : ~ z 6 , &%:k < &;kf:, (When I published a book of the papers that I had written (lit. till this time), it sold unexpectedly well.) U t D c r i " d. AMJ@ 6;k-c 3 ~ Q ~ I I : 2 z 3, g ~ t d ~ w m a z k&bQ f: , (I started yoga because someone recommended it; then, I realized it had a great effect.)

tokOf0 501

C l j * / u

Z%C99% g TS9f:k Z 6 , % b & & & k : a 9 ~ ' g b W & (I'm surprised that what I said as a joke had unexpected consequences' (lit. that when I said it as a joke, it brought about an unexpected result).)

L Zt S r i A

?o~~$c:B!@D&~!$, g g % & L f : k 2 6 , -~cG:=B L k b l k 0 2 & f l & 9 k, (When I wrote to them saying that I was interested in the job, I got a letter immediately saying they wanted to interview me.)

1. Vinfapast tokoro is used when someone does something intentionally. Thus, the tokoro clause must represent a volitional action. The following sentences are unacceptable. (See Related Expression.)

n e (1) a. *HtJ f%@kkZ6, %i&';.9f:,

(When I woke up, it was already noon.) Ip3ei ttr

b. * 9 * P & ~ 7 2 k Z 6 , k ~ % % L < a 9 f : ~ (When the shower passed, it became very cool.)

2. The main clause after a tokoro clause must represent an event caused by the tokoro action. The sentence in (2) are unacceptable. (See Related Expression.)

t LA L

(2) a. *~&k:f79f:kZ6, ELstJfL\fza (When I went to the library, Tom was there.)

d ? d t t h* b. *%BHbff:k Z 6 , 5'tEmf:->f;.,

(When I opened the window, it was raining outside.)

3. "V tokoro S" cannot represent a non-past event, as in (3). (See Related Expression.)

*tr (3) a. * ~ E K B L Y : ~ Z S , 3 9 k F 2 ~ ~ i ~ 3 . j ~

(If I tell him (about that), he will surely agree.) 17* L

b. *%flR/vi?k Z 6 , @ ~ b ; t b 1 9 $ t g / v ~ ~ ~ < h ~ o (When I ask her (to do it), she always does it happily.)

502 tokoro

V tam (i.e., Vinf-past ra) can be used in place of Vinf .past tokoro, as in [I]. However, V tokom is more formal than V tara and is usually used in formal speech and writing, while V tam is used in both formal and informal lan-

guage.

It is noted that V tara does not have the restrictions listed in Notes 1, 2, and 3. Thus, the following sentences are all acceptable.

(+ - tara (DBJG: 452-57))

tokoro ga 503

tokoro ga 2 L 3 fif conj.

however; but present what in fact happened or [REL. daga; keredo(m0); shikashi; what is in fact the case when sore gal

*Key Sentences

(I wanted to stay in a Japanese-style room and made a reservation at an inn. However, the room I was shown to was a Westem-style one.)

Sentence,

I (You proposed to her, right? What happened?) I

t Z67F, 7?&9rz77<iLrz0

(It didn't work out. (lit. It was no good.))

504 tokoro ga

b ( i ) Slo t L S $ , Szo (SeeKS(A).)

(ii) A: Slo

B: k L 5 j5', Sz, (See KS(B).)

azmm W:L ttn + ~ c r ) $ ~ t i 7 2 11 15 t :~la83;kbla%&eE~~~at:~ 2 2 5 5 , b% - % Q T 9 g & t z t z Q b l i ~ ~ : 3 j k b ~ t : ~ j k T ~ 3 ~ ? z , (My daughter was speaking beautiful English when she was in Amer- ica. However, she forgot it completely within a year (lit. even before one year elapsed) after we came back to Japan.)

~ m j n b . t h r v

~%@b&t:*%a%&Dg;k$&& k 3 cr)T&-3 T & k 0 t z 5$, *L*L b

? c r ) % & i & ~ % ~ ~ ? + T ? ~ % % 9 T b ~ & D ~ ~ & % % @ b a @ 9 k 0 (Because I heard that there was going to be a lecture by a famous professor from Japan, I went (to listen to it). However, his English was so bad that I didn't understand what he was saying at all.)

bCL f r i % ~ i i ~ ~ g i : & $ d ~ ~ i & b l i y a b l k % k b z ~ t z ~ k z h s , Z06,

C d.L?l

%BBEJB!J b:fT9-C&& k%&bi3.&~b~,@-3.~ (Our teacher repeatedly told us that we mustn't be late for his class. However, when I went to his class on time the next day, he was not yet there.)

7211fi+&jkt2bi< r ; ~ & & % i i b j & k s ; h ; k t : ~ t z 3 s , ST& & k 7 % ~ 1 5 5 b i ~ k ' ~ ~ ~ ~ & ~ ~ b i Q ; 5 ~ ~ 1 : , (I was told that if I came to America, there would be a lot of jobs. However, when I came, there were no jobs anywhere because of the depression.)

7% 11 ~ S T ~ ~ D ~ F V ~ ~ & L T & I & , t ~ ~ s , H Z ~ - W C ~ $ I ~ ~ T . L ~ ~ ~ , (In America you push a saw in order to cut; however, in Japan you pull one to cut.)

f &If&

A: C l D ~ \ . - Y l . - , $$bST<h&; lao [malespeech] (You can come to tonight's party, too, can't you?)

tokoro ga 505

B: k Z 3 -h', &b>b: < fTCf Qbr 0 , [female speech] (No, I'm afraid I can't.)

(g) A: %&&I&& L 7 b 1 6 /t IC" L d: 5 ? [female or polite male speech] (She is married, isn't she?)

B: ? i k f b I C " ~ ~ i ? kZ371' , UP-+->^, [female speech]

(She looks like it, doesn't she? But I heard that she's still single.)

1. Tokoro ga always appears in sentence-initial position.

2. In "S1. Tokoro ga Sz," Sz represents something one does not expect from S,, as in KS(A).

3. Tokoro ga is used in response to the addressee's utterance, as in KS(B). In this case, the sentence following tokoro ga is not what the addressee expects to hear.

I. Although the sense of unexpectedness disappears, the conjunctions daga, keredo(mo), and shikashi can replace tokoro ga in "S1. Tokoro ga Sz," as in [I].

[I] El$&o)?l[lbC:%3 0 1 : b ~ k , B , ~ U ~ k @ B 3 k L I : ~ I t E 3 f J f / f;"# / /CfhZS / Lh'Ll , BSkL7':dECi%&f?91:,

(=KS(A)) - = - - - - - - However, daga, keredo(mo), and shikashi cannot replace tokoro ga l 3 -

when "Tokoro ga, S" is a reply to a question, as in [2]. -

Tokoro ga, on the other hand, cannot be used when the situation does not involve unexpectedness, as in [3].

506 tokoro ga

c: ZZD$&L.~, If;*fl//CthZ&/ L.t>L/*&L3fl} 2 +J

kkE! L b l 0

(It's cold here in winter. But it's cool in summer.) (e daga; keredomo (DBJG: 187-88))

11. Sore ga is also used when the speaker is going to provide an unexpected response to a question. In fact, tokoro ga in such situations can be replaced by sore ga, as in [4].

However, unlike tokoro ga, sore ga can be used when the second speaker is not sure what the first speaker expects to hear in the second speaker's response. For example, in [5] sore ga can be used even when B is not sure what A expects, while tokoro ga can be used only when B knows that A expects a good result. (+sore ga)

B: I?h.tf/ tL3tr'I I ? d l . ~ I z L I ? , ((Well, you might expect a good result but 1 Contrary to what you expect) it was no good.)

torno 2% conj. <w>

no matter - may be; even if; at

that is used to express a concession - -est [REL. te mo; tatte]

+Key Sentences

(Since I studied hard I feel confident no matter what problem shows up on the test.)

- r L S r i b:<@G&Ll:i3>1;, &El:

(No matter how busy she was with housekeeping, my mother never uttered a single complaint.)

1 (No matter how healthy you are, you should have a checkup once a year.) 1

Wh-word

A W&ifjsi

Vvol

idr5 t B f i b , t k i b :

AXkRo

(Dl

ZD7"U?r? b t &

(At the latest, this project will be complete in April of next year.)

Wh-word + Vvol 2 b

F Z .c\& Z j 2 b (no matter where s.0. may go)

$ 2 k L 5 2 b (no matter what s.0. may eat)

h 6 5 2 b (no matter what may happen)

Wh-word + Adj(i)stem < / ; 5 . l 9 I 2 b

{ ~ \ ; ~ . G : / ~ ~ A J Q c : I % L { < / ~ S j l 2 % (nomatterhow difficult s.t. may be)

Wh-word + Adj(na)stem Ti3 6 5 2 b

{b\fib:/FAJQG:l & 3 ~ & 5 i k b (nomatterhowmuchs.~. likes s.t.)

Adj(i)stem < 2 b

< 2 b (at the earliest)

6 6 ~ t $ ~ @ & s 1 i t i t ~ 1 3 i t F B t L - c ~ J ~ ~ (My father is always very calm no matter what is impending.) bf;L + b r r

$L~W%OFZC:&~ t b z i % j ~ c & b ~ ~ \ , (I do not care at all where in the world I live.) I/u'.~BL?lt.lr~

Z-XW~LL i 2 6 , %&ti:% 3 L ; & - c ~ ~ ~ > v Q L > , (Even if by any chance you fail you shouldn't give up easily.)

torno 509

LZt T S bvN3W.l I < / $6 5 I 2 6 , #?f-J'~alt ; k G f b ~ b 1 M % t t t l % ~ ~ ~ ~

(No matter how bright you may be, you cannot do a good job unless you make an effort.)

rtva t:Wlspg { < / $6 i I 2 6 , Bsl.*3~t;kci2$~&-ch z 2 G: a h c, (No matter how cheap merchandise may be, if the quality is poor, you will end up throwing away money.)

C*? rl. &.nf+aa r < / s 6 i I 2 6 , E & & L L + z ~ c A ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ , G ~ T E , (Even without enough money we should be able to enjoy life.)

rtvac:W.n.'&s~bjs 5 2 6 , ~@O-??I?F~A;~~L->TE~~, (No matter how much one may like exercise, too much of it is bad.)

z0F&iibja7~m1 < 1;&w < 2 ~ a - a ~ a ; h i t ~ : ~ i ~ + a ~ ~ , (I cannot let you read this letter, no matter how much you want to read it.)

v 3 h l . 2Ld.b. $ v % w L . 3 3 ~ 5 %cab < 2 6--+1=3~~im ffi GQ L - C ~ ~ - ~ T ~ (I make business trips abroad at least three times a year.)

1. The conjunction usually occurs with a Wh-word as shown in KS and Exs. However, there are cases where Wh-word is not used as in KS(D), Exs.(c), (0 and (i). Note that naku / nakar6 in Ex.(f) comes from a negative Adj(i)nai.

2. When tomo is connected with an Adj(i), the form can be either Adj(i)stem ku to mo or Adj(i)stem kar6 to mo, as shown in Formation (ii). But when Adj(i)stem is used with torno as a fmed phrase, as in KS(D) and Ex.(i), only Adj(i)stem ku torno is used. The only other commonly used fixed phrases are hayaku torno 'at the earliest' and tashd torno 'more or less.' All this express quantity or degree and can be used in both spoken and written Japanese.

3. Note that mo of Vvol to mo can be deleted, but mo of te mo cannot. (+ te mo (DBJG: 468-70)) Mo can be also omitted from Adj(i)stem kard tomo and Adj(na)stem de ard tomo.

Vvol tomo, {kar6 / ku] tomo, Adj(na)stem de ar6 tom0 can be replaced by te mo or tatte without changing the meaning. However, tom0 definitely belongs to written Japanese, and te mo belongs to either spoken or written Japanese, and tatte belongs to spoken Japanese. However, the fixed phrases such as osoku tomo 'at the latest' and sukunaku tom0 'at least' are the exceptions.

Adj(i1na)te mo can be replaced by Adj(i)stem {ku / kar6) tomol Adj(na)stem de ar6 tomo, but Vte mo cannot be replaced by Vvol tomo, especially when the verb expresses something controllable. Note that in [2] and [3] below, [2a] and [3a] express something controllable, but [2b] and [3b] express causative passive situations that are beyond human control.

S C 6.L *a 121 a. % L ~ ~ P ~ F + M {SL\TG / * ~ 2 3 261 ~ & L Q $ ~ I Z ,

(I didn't get tired although I walked for four hours.)

b. %Li&O@M I S f i a $ h T 6 /Sf i3$ h& i t61 & ; k j b @ ~ f ~

(I didn't get tired although I was forced to walk for four hours.)

131 a. { & \ " T S / * S P U . ~ ~ G I g b l ~ b l ,

(No matter what I eat, it tastes good.)

b. M e { h d P i ? % h 7 & / ~ d P t l . % h & 5 t : & l ' & k ~ h ~ a 0 (No matter what I am forced to eat, I eat it with pleasure.)

tonaru 511

become that s.0. or s.t. becomes s.t.

+Key Sentence

Noun

I I

(Mr. Yoshida has become the first committee chairman.)

(After the war, (the period of) compulsory education was changed to (lit. became) nine years.)

I -:A V I T S T , ~ I a a ?tbak%bi%@~mhk~kh9r:~ (Their marriage ended in tragedy (lit. became a tragic result).) d.h L J ~ : h t * i S A ti SW mi mi^+ a-mn 2 a 7:. (For lack of evidence, he was found (lit. became) innocent.)

-f-ag$ti%aa,fi3+X2 tb9rZa

(The game was cancelled (lit. became a cancellation) due to rain.)

mmm 1. To naru is similar in meaning to ni naru. To naru, however, is more

formal and is used exclusively in written language.

512 tonaru / tonaruto

(1) grns L ~ ~ R D B A E I L : / EI a7rc, (=Ks)

2. Na-adjectives cannot precede to naru. t L2d.h.

(2) H + w ~ % {E/*L:I a7r;, (The library has become very convenient.)

to naru to 2 ZXZ5 k phr.

when it comes to; if it is true "when it comes to" or "if it is true that -; if it is the case that -; if that" it turns out that -

[REL. to S U ~ U to]

+ ~ e ~ Sentences

(A)

(When it comes to mechanical things, I don't understand anything.)

- - = (B)

= T - - - - - - =

Sinf d.h r - f i

I$@P67:,T< h * L \ 2 Q & lr %&t3-n~~X&$b ~ j j l a b 1 ~

(If it's true that he is not going to help us, we'll have no alternative but to ask someone else.)

( i ) N lr'tsb2

%& 2 b lr (when it comes to movies)

tonamto 513

(ii) Sinf 2 b 2 (Exception: X $ N 2 2 b 2 )

%&Ek b 2 Q a 2 (if it is true that he is coming) *nc1 LFi?%

%E&$%% 2 Q b 2 (if it is the case that she is ill)

% i ~ - r ; c 7 / ~ 2 a b 2 ~ ; 3 " & b = ~ ~ d i . (When it comes to gambling, Tsutomu becomes another person.)

+ ?Y< LP

b%&&ka++yg~raa k $ & w a bl i~;r ; ;k-c{ b o

(When it comes to scientists who can speak Japanese, the number is quite limited.)

&&32aa 2%aboiiaw, (Nothing is easy (lit. There is nothing easy) when it comes to work.)

* L a a* q~t&$i~3tb~l2aa 2 C O ; P U Y ~ ~ I- ~ i g ; i ~ ~ ~ - ~ j t ~ i f ~ ~ ; a 'J'O

(If it turns out that he cannot participate (in this project), we'll'have to reconsider it.)

V kl l fb%+( -A:? ?!%-nihtLf: 2 Q a 2 z oMmti@Z L a bj kLG2-a I; ab1,

(If it is true that the secret (of this plan) has leaked, we must change it.) L l l r . ) I vzr4 t i LL

~ f i $ % w t - k ~ ~ b 2 k k ~ ~ ~ ~ ' a b@bb?f6i0 (If he turns out to be the new president, the management policy will probably be considerably different.)

L'to It?: ' ti...\L z o.tt~tiR& i c:A;ia$, - n w a 2 a a 2 i&hz~f, (This job looks easy, but if (it is the case that) you do it by yourself, it will be quite tough.) -

1. When N precedes to naru to, it means "when it comes to N."

2. S to naru to is used when the speaker 1 writer has just learned that S is true.

To suru to is similar to to naru to in that both express a provisional idea. However, S to sum to is used when S is hypothetical or uncertain, whereas S to naru to is used when the speaker / writer takes S to be true or a reality. Thus, to naru to cannot be used in the hypothetical situation in [I].

v* C xh. [I] + E ~ ~ ~ B & T Z /*t&5t1 PL~~BBEZ-CW;J.,

(Suppose you were to build your own house now, what kind of house would you build?)

On the other hand, to suru to is unacceptable when the situation involves an actual event, as in [2] .

t6ri (ni) %GI (CZ) n.

(in) the same way as; (in) the the idea that S.O. does s.t. or s.t. way; as takes place in the same way as s.t. [REL. yonil

- -

+ ~ e ~ Sentences

(4

Q-x%l LL

(I did it as the manual shows (lit. in the same way as the manual), but it didn't work.)

(Please move your body as I tell you to (lit. in the same way as I tell

Y 0~1.)

(C)

Vinf d .b +%L VSliLd3

(As I expected (lit. thought), he was the first to come.)

(The result was just as I expected, after all.)

# & c ~ J P ~ & . I I

47~3% U) ( G : ) (the way s.0. saw s.t.)

(iii) Demonstrative Adj. 3 U) ( 1:)

Vinf .t +i

9BLf;

2 03 9 (C:) (the same way as this; this way)

3 9 f ? - k 0

z a & & ~ ~ r l ( ~ : ) & G ~ c B ~ $ ~ P G (If you go as this map shows (lit. in the same way as this map), you can get there without fail.)

$iLCLrzrzgkJtLrzB 9 (i=)-v9T'41& 7?bfT-F0 (I'm just doing as I'm told (lit. in the way I'm told).)

z ~ K & L ~ T $ & B ~ ( K ) - I ~ - ~ L C K % ~ : T ~ & A ~ ~ , (If you follow what is (lit. do it in the way) written here, anyone can do it.)

L* < 7% ~ ~ L f z B 9 % e @ E % ? 9 T z a * 9 7 z o (As I expected, no one did their homework.)

. Z E L T ~ ~ ~ ~ B Q ~ ~ + ~ ~ ~ . V a < a9rzo (As I feared, I ran out of paint.) rLVL5 ~ B I L z c3*#%sa L ~ B "I*, (The content is the same as I explained to you the other day.)

Z ~ L C L $ L $ ~ ~ T W ~ ~ B ~ c37y-f 2T*o (This is the same design as the one I have thought about.)

A: z t~t$&& 9 a**, (Do you know what language this is?)

B: 77F7%T*o (It's Arabic.)

A: bib>, % O ~ O T ~ , (That's right (lit. the same as you said).)

1 . X tori means either that someone does something in the same way as X (e.g., KS(A) and (B)) [manner], or that something agrees with X (e.g., KS(C) and (D)) [concordance]. In the first case, the particle ni may follow tori, but in the second case, no particle follows, as in (1).

ten (ni) 51 7

2. Tori is sometimes followed by the object marker o. This is the same as t6ri no koto o 'things which are the same way as.'

(2) ,R9Tb>&%bJ (OlL t ) * % b > T T s b > o (Please write what you are thinking (lit. things which are the same way as you are thinking).)

3. N with the suffix -don' is more commonly used than N no ten.

b. z k t ~ & % ~ u (=3203 r) ) O ~ ~ T T , (This is a scheduled activity (lit. an activity which is the same as we scheduled).)


In some contexts, yoni, the adverb form of y6da, also expresses the idea "in such a way." However, X yoni basically means that the way someone does something or something takes place is like X, while X tori means that the way someone does something or something takes place is the same as X. Thus, in contexts where the way is practically the same as X, y6ni and t 6 i are almost interchangeable; otherwise, they are not. In [I], for example, the y6ni sentences and the t 6 i sentences mean practically the same thing, except that the tori sentences stress "exactness."

b. 3%.LIz {&.jCZ/Pb)I ?%b@%3BT9TZttd~9fzo (=Ex.(d))

In [2], on the other hand, t6ri is not acceptable.

[2] a. gKilr9l: {&3K/*%b~]~$$@b\ . (lit. Today is as warm as if spring had come.) + A L; IlLCL 4th

b. %&kCltB$AO { & 3 E / * % b ) l B$.ZBBf, (She speaks Japanese like a Japanese.)

(+y6ni2 (DBJG: 554-56))

assumes s.t.

+Key Sentences

(A)

assume that; regard - as; let; suppose (REL. ni sum; to naru to]

(We assume that the temperature is constant.)

(Assuming that we can drive 500 miles a day, how many days will it take to get there?)

(0

Vinf past

1 (Suppose the greenhouse effect continued on like this.)

(ii) Sinfenonpast t -if 6 P 1 f! L L I B I P A ~ ' $ E ~ ; ~ L ~ ~ ~ ~ - ~ ~ z ~ t (% 1 9 k g & . ) (If we assume that

Mr. Yarnada cannot come, (we are at a bit of a loss.))

b?$+&( t T ; k l f ( b ~ 9 r l ; j 9 I : r ; b a b ~ I ? 5 3 . ) (Assuming that we go to Japan, (I wonder what would be the best time.))

(iii) Sinf .past 2 T 6

%'.(XP~ % 1; 9 I: 2 L d; 5 (Suppose you received Y1,000,000.)

$I 2 B El &$I? 2 Sht1.7': t 3- & (Let's suppose that you were told you only had 100 days left to live.) -

< i $ T w : i fr L

(a) T, w.t&El2%$RT 3 a % 0 t 3- & 0

(Now let's assume that we can ignore air resistance.) P&+W c r r v :i + b T S

(b) &?+~&&j-if& 20 1 5 afi%liFkmb~?P1;*-P&& t*a0 (Let's assume such behavior by men towards women is regarded as a sexual harassment.)

L L r i r 7 (c) H + O L ~ ; ~ V P & ~ . , J \ %i2/~+t~tiaw t $hao

(In the West the Japanese so-called 'I' novels are not regarded as novels.)

(d) Ri73 11 fie$? a$#t-if&z tt:&&g$&a~.a~ (I don't feel uneasy regarding America as my second home country.) 07 L * i L * i + h L*iB*il: +the :'

(e) M +~~+~,&&&{&ii%+~t-ifa~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 'TI - - - -

(We let the units of the 9-week intensive Japanese course in summer count for 6 units.)

(f) $&ld$3.5% t-ifa, (Let the interest rate be 3.5 % anually.)

dl : i r k

(g) ~&3idc~o-a-a~~a"~e1:r& t-ifa 2 , H + Z Y - L \ % J P ~ ~ - C G ~ &;a?&$% Lt~hba, (If we assume that the Japanese economy keeps going down as it is now, the Japanese language boom may eventually come to an end.)

(h) H*&$? E%&a@jr: 2 T ~ L C ~ , %%i, qii 9, &tX$sm@ 2%L&7?5io (If we assume that Japan is a country of groupism, then Europe and the States can be said to be countries of individualism.)

(i) 2 % ~ - 1. Q- F I L B F ~ ~ T ~ L C ~ , L D % ~ L \ < 5 [:a 9 IT$?, (Assuming that the exchange rate is one dollar to 100 yen, how much will this house amount to?)

(j) X + Y = 20 T, X $ I 8 7?2T;kC%, Y 13. 12 K Q Q , (If we assume that X = 8 in X + Y = 20, Y will be 12.)

(I have no objection to regarding Kazuo as our adopted son.)

(Suppose that continental China became a completely capitalized society. How long do you think it would take for the country to become an economic giant.)

(m) ==-~-PD&&&&&Q 100 k L k j , (Let New York's price index be 100.)

1. The common meaning for all the uses of sun! in KS and Exs is the. speaker's assumption about something. Vinfapast to suru is a hypotheti-

- - - - cal assumption. Excepting the cases where to sun! is used in the sense T I = - - of 'regard - as -,' practically all the uses of to suru can take both non- -

past and past tenses.

The choice of the past tense over the non-past tense serves to indicate a greater degree of hypothesis, because the past tense expresses s.t. as if a

I given situation already existed.The similar contrast that is found in basic grammar is - hd ga ii as in (2).

(2) -$c {47< / E 9 k l %@WL

(You should /had better go there right away.)

2. In terms of the choice of particles there are three patterns for the N (da / dearu) to sum structure: that is, N1 {ga / o / wa} NZ (da / deam) to sum.

The most basic one is the ga-version, i.e., (3b) and it means 'Let's assume that (not something else but) the temperature is constant.' In the o-version, i.e., (3c), the original subject of (3b) has been changed to a direct object o. The o-version translates into English as 'Let's assume the temperature to be constant' in which the original subject has changed to the direct object, just as in the Japanese version. In (3a) 'the temperature' is presented as the topic of the sentence. The similar particle choice is observed in the omou construction.

(As for the movie, I believe that it is interesting.)

(I believe that (not something else but) the movie is inter- - - - - - esting.) = T E - - - - - - - - - -

c. QO@meEtBb>k,R5 (I believe the movie to be interesting.)

Note also that in (3) the copula da can be dropped in (3a) and (3c), but not in (3b).

I. Compare N to sum in [la] and [2a] and N ni sum in [lb] and [2b].

b. i E f 2 - 2 E 3 - 5 , (We will make the temperature constant.)

8/rV+< h < C*3 [2] a. - 1.'JbCZ E k t P 3 2 3 - 6 .

(Let 1 dollar be Y360.)

b. -1.'~l.cEBk-tP3CcbB, (We will make 1 dollar Y360.)

The choice of the particle ni indicates that the speaker causes the change, whereas the choice of the particle to indicates that the speaker simply assumes a certain state of the matter. So if the speaker cannot make an assumption about something, the use of to is ungrammatical, as shown in [3] and [4].

Z)JP A T

[3] ikQ* (E /*21 3-5, (We make ice into water.) ? lt3=+

[41 I E E W ~ ~ ~ S J L B ? % E . ~ C C / * & I ~ 5 , (The wizard will change a frog into a prince.)

11. To sureba /sum to can be contrasted with to nareba / naru to, with difference of meaning. The former expresses an assumption, but the latter expresses a reality, as shown in [5] and [6] below:

b. -El G:XB?.~'JLB%T~ & 2 (ah[$/ Q b 2 1 , 4 W R T S33T7h.a (If we can drive 500 miles per day, how many days will it take to get there?)

the Japanese language boom may eventually come to an end.)

(+ to naru to)

to have a sensory or psychological j feel -; look - { experience i + ~ e ~ Sentence

I 1 Sound Symbolism 1 1 I I

(That person flares up at the slightest provocation.)

Sound Symbolism 2 $- b

~ b CJ lr f b (s.o. feels s.t. slippery)

la 9 t f b (s.o. feels relieved)

(a) W O % ~ O A G ~ ~ ~ ~ ' F ~ n 1) t: LTLIZ,, (He has goggling eyes.) *h *L

(b) 4iIil2EPrfb9 2 LTLlb, (My older sister has slender legs.)

I b

(c) $h ~ % & k k $ b ~ ~ 2 LTblT , $f ,$$f3$%~b~o

(It is nice and dry today.)

td.L Z v V l : ti 3 ~ i L r ~ O L E A B R E R - T ~ N T , ~ L Q t ~ 7 : ~ (I was taken aback when I saw my old girlfriend at Tokyo station.)

*L+W L* Y s ; c d ~ & ~ ; ) ~ T ~ 4 ~ ~ ~ 6 h l z O G : , tt6 7 2 LTbllz, (John was scolded by his teacher when he came in late, but he didn't show any sense of wrong doing.) I : I t L r L l t L ~$$~O8,%$%71:dc v d; < & ~ : o T E ~ t L?:, (I felt relieved because I did better in a Japanese test than I expected.) X % L ? .X * I*Lkb>

SLEWWCLEWS h&, +Q t ~ f i , (The department chief looked offended when he was opposed by his subordinate.) t S d . %Lb~t,F,7Tb~f:H$sO8,%~T~ L&97?OTEi7 t Lfzo (The Japanese test which I thought would be difficult turned out to be easy, and I felt relieved.)

T $ ~ a , f i i r f ; % ~ L G L ~ T , iri 7 t ~-c~\am&3-T-if. (On my days off I like to do nothing and to be completely laid back.)

Sound-symbolical word + to sum is used to mean 'to look -' or 'to feel -.' The sound-symbolical word (i.e., a phono-mime, pheno-mime and psycho- mime) expresses sensory experience as in Exs.(a) - (c) or psychological experience as in KS and Exs.(d) - (i). The following is an inexhaustive list of such sound-symbolical words that take to sum.

Cb: T 7 2 -if& (to become limp) -if$>-> 2 -if& (to feel very refreshed) L 9 lv 2 -if b (to feel despondent) Qlv 2 -if b (to look standoffish) 3 < 7 t -if b (to feel shocked) 3 L 7 2 -if& (to be startled) e7 2 9-6 (to stay still) 196 u) 2 -if& (to be moved to tears) F 3 7 2 -if b (to be startled) < 6 7 2 -if& (to feel dizzy) ? < 7 2 -if b (to shiver with cold) T 5 7 2 Tb (to feel refreshed)

Unlike the ones listed above, most of the sound symbolical words are based on reduplication, that is, they take the form of X-X as in:

3 6 3 6 ((shine) sparklingly) Z 6 Z 6 ((small objects) roll)

to sutw2 / totan (ni) 525

Ilk I l l : ((large amount of liquid) drips) ah b ah b (slimy) F < F < ((cut) a heavy, thick object) ;3.% ;3.% ((freeze) hard) L 2 L 2 ((it rains) quietly) -if b -if b ((slide) smoothly) < & < b ((turn) round and round) Z + Z + ((escape) secretly)

But all the sound symbolical words with reduplication cannot normally fit into the to sun! pattern.

b,%~:*, em3 ( 1 ) 42 i;f% 5 I:, -El ~ ~ 3 % ~ ~ ~ i P L - C b ~ l &

(Today all day long it was nice and warm like spring.)

(2) &a)%%ht;f€i15'6%6% L T L . ~ ~ , (That woman's eyes are sparkling.)

(3) b 5-if~El$~+~a k a i 2 , b < b < tB, (I get excited when I think that I can go to Japan pretty soon.)

(+surul (DBJG: 428-33); Characteristics of Japanese Grammar 8 (DBJG: 50-56))

totan (ni) 3% (CZ) n. / adv.

the moment; just as; as soon as; idea that 's.t. occurred the moment

[REL. to d6ji nil

*Key Sentences

(A)

Vinf. past

(The moment I saw my teacher, I remembered that there was a homework assignment.)

1 (The moment I opened the door, I smelled cuny) I

g9 fz&# (b:) (the moment s.0. sat down)

(ii) Vinf.past 6, &%K

I: 1% Lf L& (I,) ? o ~ * ~ q g e ~ f z % % ( b : ) & & b : & b ~ f z < 2 9 j z o

(I wanted to see my family the moment I saw that Japanese photo-

graph.)

totan (ni) 527

k l i C * i c/, S

(d) 2 :J*2 1- %&L&AI%, %%I:% +0~4;ifl&kf:, (The moment I put the plug in, all the lights went out in the house.)

I*il:*i (el +D+ ~ L % & A I ? ~ , ~~t:R&G+& LI:,

(As soon as I drank the milk, my stomach started to ache.)

(0 %*91:k,R91:o ?0&%(K), (I thought I was saved; then (lit. at that moment), my strength was gone and I lost consciousness.)

amw 1. In "V1 totan (ni) - V2," V2 must represent an uncontrollable action,

although when the subject of V2 is the third person, a controllable verb is acceptable. Compare KS(A) to (1). .

(1) a. *%Lli%&o)B%BI:iS$%, Zqkfl9 ?:, (I stood up the moment I saw my teacher.)

b. $+i&%&0B%BI:%%, Z 6 W 9 I:o (Yoko stood up the moment she saw her teacher.)

2. The demonstrative adjective sono 'that' can precede totan, as in Ex.(f). The demonstrative adjectives kono and ano cannot be used before totan.

3. The particle ni is optional when totan is modified by a verb or by sono 'that.'

so elated Expression] - -

To dCji ni expresses an idea similar to totan (ni). For example, KS(A) and (B) can be rephrased as in [I] without changing the meaning of the discourse except that to d6ji ni focuses on simultaneous action and totan (ni) on sud- denness.

528 totan (ni) / toto

TO d6ji ni, however, does not have the restriction described in Note 1, as seen in [2].

[2] ?JJ;tfk&D@?? {IZQ t AeE / *JiZk%3, I Zt;k7F9 r:, (I stood up when (lit. at the same time as) I saw my teacher.)

To doji ni can also express concurrent states, while totan (ni) is used only for actions, as in [3].

[31 &g9ts &< c: IRR5tArei~: / *RRk%G(cz)l %&o%hkz 2a0 (A crowd can be seen in the distance and, at the same time, (sounds of) drums can be heard.)

It should also be noted that to d6ji ni can be preceded by nouns and adjectives while totan (ni) occurs only with verbs and the demonstrative sono 'that.'

(+to dciji ni)

tat6 I? 5 I? 5 adv.

finally; at (long) last; eventu- the eventual arrival of an expected ally; in the end; after all

[REL. yatto; tsui nil

+Key Sentence

I I

(It's been threatening to rain since the morning and finally it started to rain. (lit. The rain which threatened to fall from the morning finally started to fall.))

Wcit r, L T Cwi '

(a) %c&E%D,$, ~ ~ & & t b b l T f : C f L Q&b$bf, k 5 k j#&,LG:tb ~ - c L 3 9 7 ? ~ (My younger brother didn't take his doctor's advice and kept smoking until he finally got lung cancer.)

1: I Z L r *Lev (b) IS ~*ZSD%&i(r'gbG:%&~&7f:~lb, +?0$&ii25kiEl$%$

%b1b:?'s9TL%9f:, (Because his Japanese instructor was so strict the student eventually came to hate the Japanese language.)

f %< b&PV ?/r ' d.L

(c) + ? D & Y D B ~ ~ % ~ ~ M & M ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ c ~ ~ & ~ ~ : D T , k i k i % b bbt, TL39f:o (I wasn't able to solve the mathematical problem after spending many hours on it, so I finally gave up.)

(d) ~)bC&3kDB%ff?&f?&&&L, k 5 k 5 HfLT L 3 9 f & (Bill's relationship with his wife gradually deteriorated and they eventually separated.)

d w L c till5 I 2 i Sw *

(e) Z D ~ ? k T @ < D % k i k i 4 E l i ( r ' ~ & k h 9 f : , (At long last this is the last day I work at this company.) c*3r taL

(f) +54F%&~Tblf:8&Fk 3 k 5 % % 2 3 k , L ~ ~ 2 7 f : ~ (The cat we had kept for 15 years finally died of old age.)

If < L h b l L

(g) k i k i % + % f c ~ & b ~ ~ ~ 3 9 f : ~ (At long last I finished writing a Ph.D. dissertation.) - - - - - - - - - MLllC lt-,LL

z - T - - - - - (h) % ~ s D % @ D ; f k i k i ~ 9 T & f : ~

- - - - (Our wedding day has finally come.)

1. The adverb t6t6 is used to express that an expected situation has come about after an extended period of time. The resulted situation is often negative in nature, but not always, as shown in Exs.(g) and (h).

2. The main verb that is used with toto often takes Vte shimau, an auxil-

iary verb that indicates completion of something about which the speaker is emotive. (+ shimau (DBJG: 403-06))

I. Toto is crucially different from yatto in that the former often indicates a negative situation that came about spontaneously, but the latter indicates a positive situation that has been realized with the greatest efforts. So, every toto in the KS and Exs. cannot be replaced by yatto, except Exs.(g) and (h).

However, if the final verb is a verb that expresses s.t. positive that has resulted by human efforts, then yatto can be used but not toto. Note that the final verbs in [2a] and [Zb] are non-volitional verbs. If the verbs are volitional as in [2af] and [2bf], both yatto and t6to become acceptable. In this case yatto and tot6 indicate difficulty in the process and the sense of accomplishment, respectively.

[2] a. %?H Bd'gkT {97 L: / *L: 3 L: 3 1 %YDB.'ll$@fV 7zo (I was able to solve a mathematical problem eventually after working on it for three hours.)

sL T? &h l tL?

b. $ $ L T L ~ ~ % ~ ~ D ~ $ E T { T ~ L : / ? ? ~ : 3 231 $ 3 fzo (I finally found a book I'd been looking for at a secondhand bookstore in Kanda.)

a'. 3@Bk%%kT IT->:, / L: 3 L: 3 ) RYOBYEB@~~~~L (I solved the problem eventually after working hard at it for three hours.)

(I finally found a book I had been looking for at a secondhand bookstore in Kanda.)

As explained in Note 1 above, Wt6 tends to occur with a negative statement, so for example in [3a] the choice of t6to indicates the speaker / writer's dislike of the winter, whereas, the choice of yatto indicates his liking of the winter. In [3b] the choice of tot6 indicates the speaker 1 writer's unhappiness about the man's quitting the job, whereas the choice of yaffo indicates his happiness about the guy's quitting the job.

[31 a. FS { t i t i / ~ = t ) .e9rw:, (The winter finally came.)

b. ?a)%'iiWk~ I t 3 t i / T ? t ) &&7':,

(The man quit the company in the end.)

Note also that yaffo cannot be used with a negative predicate, at'fol-, lows.

[4] a. 2:XStvdi I t 3 2 3 / * T ~ t : l 1f-74-b:%3-&tv T LJ:, (Smith didn't show up at the party after all.)

b. ;rs < ~f:&%di { t i t i / * T 7 t l R9j5'?J 3@tvTLI:, (The purse I lost was not found after all.)

11. Another similar adverb tsui ni can replace tot6 and yaffo, when the main verb is affirmative, but when it is negative, it can replace only t6t6.

h56 [6] a. 3-r'J-di ( 7 L \ t Z / t i t i / * T 7 t 1 1f--7i--K%

t x ; r s j 5 x 9 7 L

(Cathy didn't show up at the party after all.)

532 t6t6 / to torno ni

Tsui ni focuses on the final moment, whereas t6t6 focuses on the process that leads to the final moment, but in actual use they are virtually interchangeable.

a phrase which is used to express the idea that A and B share a common property or do the same thing together, that two things take place at the same time, or that s.0. or s.t.

as well as; with, along with, at the same time; when, as; while [REL. ni shitagatte; ni tomonatte; ni tsurete; to d6ji nni; to issho ni; to narande; to onajiku]

+ ~ e ~ Sentences

(Steinbeck, as well as Hemingway, is a writer representative of Ameri- can writers.)

I I I b t L L r < l l P i l t i t 3 1 ait 1 ruolslag I tm: / COY-FI:~ILC,

I (I took part in the demonstration with my office colleagues.) 1

I Subordinate Clause I 1

(As I'm recovering from my illness, my appetite is coming back.)

Z F r i b

%k;trr

(He was a philosopher as well as a scientist.)

Vinf . nonpast WG.<

~ B t 8

(D)

N k#l: * 3 f i CLCV

111 EB%& 2 $$kc (as well as Mr. Yamada; with Mr. Yamada) k*, L 1 <

8 % 2 # G: (at the same time as one's retirement) ?it? -.L+

%lED@lk 2 #I: (with the climate change; as the climate changes)

Vinf . nonpast 2 # b: g& ,w.xu3TI@$ & 2 # C: (as business recovers)

{N I Adj(na)stem} T 85 % 2 St;- C:

k&& 6 2 #b: (as well as being a doctor) I b . B b T 1 kg~i~t~ T & 6 2 &I.: (as well as being economical)

Adj(i)inf .nonpast 2 # C: e r i n hd.

@Tki%?b> 2 Sttb: (as well as being interesting)

Noun

$ 2

2%~: L <.I< h w & ~ e f : ~

2%~: T *<La + $ + g i ~ h & ~ f : ~

If.$ L') I < e l * ~ 3 j J i i 6 @ k#b?g@!aL2~lb?-%$7?~ (Atomic energy, as well as petroleum, is an important energy source.) Z I P L ~ d k # b = . ' i s . Y b&flhu1'&91:, (A jet flew off with a roaring sound.)

*w $ * 5 1%. l?L*W &&pi! & C ~ ~ B # I k#b:kFf& (The samurai class died with the feudal system.) L * i t L D t V t *+ $ $ % ~ # I L % L L ~ ~ 27 kflh& QB.;,I:, (Severe inflation hit people when the war ended (lit. with the end of the

war).) L 7 p I r 5 1 7 P

%Aa>B@k#b:% % tflTS9 T 3 k , (As business is recovering (lit. With the recovery of business), the unemployment rate is coming down.)

g Q k & k # l : g & < a9T3k0 (As I get older, I am losing my hearing.) 3 2 5 . t7 7 Z 7 S n$;sr~+t:~t?&~~1+zfl~&~:M~;;s~b:a9~~~~r;~ (As the investigation progressed, one new fact after another was revealed.) S L I f i P < Lw5 4 L . 3 2 5 f,T

2 E Q @ 8 - S a k#I:i&a>B S&$SkLTciGL;7'bb\, (While you review grammar, you must not forget to study kanji.)

k i pICe7 *L 915 % % o ~ ; ~ . I ~ . ? - $ u H E ~ ~ Q & at& k # b : k ~ b ~ r ; i . ~ b ? - % Q ~ -3-z k d & k T & a o (It is urgent that we improve current energy utilization technology while looking for a new energy source.)

r ~ h k l t L e 7 ~ 6 d.< * b T r i

?@%%tiBLB9T&& k#kC:f @ @ T & 9 k0 (The discovery was revolutionary as well as constructive.)

am The meaning of to torno ni changes depending on the sentence pattern and context.

to tomo ni 535

When A and B share the common property C in "A wa B to tomo ni C," to tomo ni means 'as well as' (e.g., KS(A) and Ex.(a)).

When A and B are the actors of the action C in "A wa B to tom0 ni C," to tomo ni means 'with ; along with' (e.g., KS(B), Exs.(b) and

(~1).

When to tomo ni is preceded by a noun representing an event or action, to tom0 ni means either 'at the same time as ; when' or 'as; with' depending on the event or action represented by the noun (e.g., Exs.(d) and (e)).

When to tomo ni is preceded by a verb, to torno ni means 'as ; while' (e.g., KS(C) and Exs.(f) - (i)).

When to tom0 ni is preceded by N I Adj(na)stem de am, to tomo ni means 'as well as' (e.g., KS(D) and Ex.(j)).

When to tomo ni means 'as well as' [(I) in Note], it can be rephrased as to onajiku or to narande.

[I] X5'47/';.r3C&-< 7731.4 {t#CZ/ t W C < / 2 % ~ TI 7 2 '1 3 C%&~%?ZO-A~?~ (=KS(A))

When to tomo ni means 'with ; along with' [(2) in Note], it can be rephrased as to issho ni.

(=KS(B)) - = .

Note, however, that to issho ni is more colloquial than to tomo ni. - - =

When to tom0 ni means 'as' [(3) and (4) in Note], it can be rephrased as ni tsurete, ni tomonatte, or ni shitagatte.

L. btr 131 E a m a r ME / C Z ~ ~ T / E ~ T ~ T C ? ~ ? ~ T I ~m

7'FF'7'F7 T 3 k0 (=Ex.(e))

141 %%PH@?6 I t # E / K C 9 7 / CZ7hT / 6#9T} & %% h it T 3 f: (=KS(C))

(+ ni shitagattelshitagai; ni tsureteltsure)

536 to wa kagiranai

to wa kagiranai 2 lb?R 5 & L \ phr.

"not necessarily" not always; not necessarily

1 (Frail people do not necessarily die young.) 1

(Expensive things are not always / necessarily better than inexpensive ones.)

(It is not necessarily the case that people are good at Japanese because they have lived in Japan a long time.)

to wa kagiranai 537

@)

Sinf

(You will not necessarily become good at Japanese even if you go to Japan.)

I Sinf

2 CiPEI;Gb>,

Sconc

E l

I

Scond

El$ZWk%t:?26

I I

(You will not (lit. cannot) necessarily be happy if you have money.)

< a 6 2 l;f. FE CJ G L.> (so. will not necessarily get well)

@) E l * ~ a > % E ! $ ~ ~ f l b > 9 & L b 1 2 lAPECJab>o (The Japanese used by Japanese people is not always correct.)

538 to wa kagiranai / tsumari

%p-?<z97:% 2 g 9 T ? & p z ~ b l 2 i i ~ E b a b > ~ (It is not necessarily correct just because the teacher said so.) <to d ~ & ~ ~ f i b b k g ~ ~ ~ < a h ~ : M F E ~ ~ w ~ (You do not necessarily get better because you take medicine.) hf;t Ch,*b% *L IZ5

gwd: < T %A&C:E%T~ t: i m b a ~ > ~ (You do not necessarily succeed in your life even if you are smart.) C=I ) *< L= F r i %LbF&9T%* %Lab>2iiPEbabao (It is not necessarily true that you won't lose your job even if you have ability.)

x+ T V d ~ L $ 2 5 .FC E b l z ~ ~ % C : ~ T i f a ~ ~ ~ b ~ ~ ~ l : a a 2 iiFEb able (It is not necessarily true that children become bad if they grow up in a bad family environment.) L *!-.

E!%97Fl: < 3 ~ . & & i f b l b @ & F & f 2 CiRb a b > ,

(It is not necessarily true that you can write a good paper if you have a lot of time.)

S to wa kagiranai literally means that (cases) are not limited to S. Although the idea of "necessarily" or "always" is included in this phrase, the adverbs kanarazushimo 'necessarily' or itsumo 'always' can also be used (e.g., KS(B) and Exs.(b) - (d)).

tsumari 9% 6J adv.

that is (to say); namely; in rize or rephrase what has been short; to sum up; in other mentioned 1 stated in the preced- words; after all; that means

[ REL. kekkyoku; sunawachi; y~suru nil

+Key Sentences

tion has started.)

(My mother's younger brother, that is to say, my uncle, has recently divorced.)

NP f i 2 L I f i i Stit:

$LOBO%,

( i ) Slo (S ~ . . . ) 9 b ! J , Sno .h &PCblo 9 2 4 , %2eAT-Fo (I don't have money. In other words, I'm poor.)

9 3 4 ,

(ii) NP, 9 5 9 , NINP iOh f YB

@04$03-R, 9 3 17, % L o b > t: z (The child of my mother's older sister, my cousin, that is.)

Noun

kk

Irl%h/r$% Llk0 L * = % k i t L L L .& ICh.

(a) 79 1) i)l C:-4%7-AT& %-FbAT-if, 9 3 9 , % & % - E t : b > i Z 2 T-FLO (I'm going without my family to work for the company in America for one year. In other words, I'm becoming a tanshin-funin worker.)

% W $ L 0 Z L

7WiZ%&L7L

(You feel good after exercise, right? That means, stress is eliminated by exercise.)

hb .t L

B: t j Ria, babaYn ' i r3 bl.k,F,,i I f i f , 7.$$if,i &ia;i, (Well, I think it's a fine project, but you know how the budget is.)

A. 9 3 9 , t t ) j f f a b > k b > j Z k T f i a , (In short, we cannot do it, right?)

1: l%L ZZh* (dl ~~~~mitParr&~u>&Ucr2a&~, s&aame*c:

j+a9-cw0 -3 v , x ~ $ % k b > , i z k r z , (Japanese fathers leave home while their children are still asleep and come home after they have gone to sleep. This is, in short, an absence of fathers.)

(e) A: f$g, % 7 & b l K & - 9 ~ & , $ 3 O ~ L T < f L a b l h T T l o (I go to see her, but she doesn't talk much to me, you know.)

B: t m , 9 3 !I , Eoz 2;3 '&baatvrz~~ (That means, she doesn't like you.)

(The destruction of nature by industrialization, that is to say, environmental destruction, is a problem of mankind.)

&it trtn 5 b 1 L*i - - = = - (g) %LoBoMo@, 9 3 17 , %LOb12 JW'J J 3 d . I ; % 3 t 0 T . - = (The daughter of my younger sister, my cousin, that is, is coming from -

Bangkok next week.)

(h) = a * ~ ~ 7 z d a e k b l 9 ~ & i i ~ & Z k , 9 3 17, ~ ~ ~ I J O ~ ~ Z W Z q f ? 7 T & & & 0 (To discriminate against a woman simply because she is a woman, in short, sexual discrimination, exists no matter where you go.)

t f i b.5

(i) 9 3 !I, %&E< ?2bakb>5 Z k f Z l o (Nobody is to blame, after all.)

tsumari 541

1. The adverb tsumari is used when the speaker / writer wants to summarize or rephrase s.t. that has been mentioned / stated in the preceding discourse.

2. Tsumari is often used in tsumari - to iu koto da as in KS(A), Exs.(a) - (d) and (i).

3. Tsumari can be used to rephrase the preceding noun phrase as in KS(B) and Exs.(f), (g) and (h).

(Related ~x~ressions]

I. Tsumari can be replaced by sunawachi 'namely' in all the examples except Exs.(c), (e) and (i) where tsumari is used to summarize what the conversational partner has said.

(=Ex.(e)) = ST;

11. Tsurnari can be replaced by another similar adverb y6suru ni in TI. Tsumari S2," but not in "NP, tsumari N / NP."

542 tsurnari / tsutsu

m. Tsurnari can also be replaced by kekkyoku only when it means 'after all.' For example, tsurnari in [3] means 'this means that -,' so it cannot be replaced by kekkyoku; however, tsurnari in [4] means 'after all'; therefore it can be replaced by kekkyoku.

[4] a. {Tz?b)/eE}, % ! i h % < Q ~ ~ k b ~ 5 2 k 7 f l o (=Ex.(i)) (After all, nobody is to blame.)

b. (3% 6) /%El %%B& LIZ < tsblAlZ6 5 (After all, you don't want to give money, do you?)

~ S U ~ S U 33 aux. /conj. <w>

-ing; while; although an action in progress; (2) a con- (REL. iru; nagam] junction which is used to present

+Key Sentences

1 (A typhoon is approaching Kyushu.)

! (A)

- - 1 (She died believing that her husband was innocent.)

i

('3

quit.)

Vrnasu 99

t vh i C * i L * i emm~c: -

ti l E L ~ C J 9 (while thinking)

(a) Y j r , ~ l i ~ $ ~ $ ~ ~ ~ v ~ & ~ 9 ~ ; t i a o (The new headquarters building is drawing to completion.)

(b) 7? 11 2 V Y 7@h%v&&99&ao (The Olympic facilities are being completed.)

Vrnasu +?.$A

L 9 ha,

544 tsutsu

(c) ;~)y!i.f;g$+ ? I P X Q ) & ~ Q # @ L ~ ~ & & ~ (This university is considering moving its campus now.)

(d) ~ L I $ $ % & < & k%& k!$-$>b 99, 9 b ~ 8 7 ~ l i - c L L ~ i , (Although I know that eating sweets makes me gain more weight, I unintentionally reach out for them.) b.5

(e) m > z k t : k n . q 9 9 , ~ $ i : ? ? % ~ b ~ ~ ~ ~ 9 k

(Knowing that it was a bad thing, I told my friend a lie.) Iia ~ L S L

(f) a < a~a&-n.e~~;kiiba~fe~.1t:,~ba99, YEI e T -ivek-c L a 9 7z0 (Although I was thinking that I had to write the paper soon, I watched TV today, too.) b i L $ 3 I323 V L wt

(g) ~ L ~ . ~ ; X O & + % % b 9 9 % Ri:3,b~7Zo (I humed to the hospital hoping that my father was all right.) d.h 2*. - C XI* d'<*=

(h) j ~ i a t @ a ~ ~ m q ~ ; 5 ' 2 ~ ~ ~ ~ t: B Y # L ~ ~ Z Q ) & Q & ~ I : ~ (He died while insisting until the last moment that his theory was correct.)

1. Tsutsu aru always expresses an action in progress (e.g., KS(A) and Exs.(a) - (c)).

2. V1 tsutsu V2 expresses concurrent actions by the same person (e.g., KS(B), (C) and Exs.(d) - (h)). Tsutsu cannot be used when concurrent - - =

~ = . - 1 T actions are performed by different individuals, as in (1). . - . - . - - - - = 1: IPL -

(1) , b -a$ - P S Y L P B { R T L ~ ~ ~ ~ / * s z ~ I , + L ~ ~ E I ; $ ; ~ Q %%L 7: ,,

(I studied Japanese while my roommate watched TV.) (6 aida (ni ) (DB JG: 67-7 1))

3. Tsutsu is not used to describe such everyday actions as those in (2) and

(3).

(2) a. ??$LC&$, $~*%%;439(8~,

(I'm eating my dinner.)

tsutsu 545

b. ??74 7di+, &BcZ%&B fJ31f 77&Zi0 (Dave is calling his friend now.)

(3) a. ? ? $ L F ~ , ~ V - - I L ~ & A T T Y L C ~ W , I : . (I watched TV while drinking beer.)

b. ??&%bi33777 . f~3 11 -4 B&eTb\b, (Taro is eating ice cream while walking.)

4. The auxiliary verb iru cannot precede tsutsu, as in (4).

O k Z

c. :,w.Pbs'i+,fir;.it&Pe I L / * L ~ L \ I 77, -8 6 % ,p n B ~ ; h ; f b b \ ~ =

(Even though she does (lit. is doing) that much work every day, she doesn't complain a bit.)

I. The auxiliary verb iru also expresses an action in progress. However, iru cannot be used with punctual verbs and movement verbs to express an action in progress, as in [I]. In this case, tsutsu is used, as in [2].

[I] a. $ & ~ & F & L \ T L \ Q , (The (stage) curtain is up (lit. open). / *The (stage) curtain is opening.) Q L X L ' JLkG ( E **

b. % ~ b i h 5 3 B O B l b c ! M ~ 7 ~ \ ~ ~ (The refugees are back in their own country. /*The refugees are returning to their own country.)

[2] a. %&~%$&ild77i+,b0 (The (stage) curtain is going up.)

b. %El2 $%~D~CZ!Jfl~177i+,Q0 (The refugees are returning to their country.)

(+inr2 (DBJG: 155-57))

II. Nagara also expresses concurrent actions by one person. Thus, nagara and tsutsu in this use are interchangeable, as in [3].

Note, however, that nagara can be preceded by adjectives and nouns to express the concurrent states of one entity, while tsutsu cannot, as in [4]. (Note that de ari in [4b] is the continuative form of the copula de am.)

pa!.. a% [41 a. Y k Ci&%jJi.2!$~\ { a h $ % / *771 a-n.ts-n.b'b1e~JQ-j-

a 0

(Although Jim doesn't have much experience, he does a pretty good job.)

+ k b i x L e b. @ ~ ~ Z ~ ) & & ~ ) W . E E % T & ~ I {& f r '% / *77l ~ ~ 9 % ; k

f 5 2 L-Cb>&o (Despite the fact that he is the person responsible for this accident, he is trying to avoid his responsibility.)

Note also that nagara can be preceded by Vneg nai and Vte i while tsutsu cannot, as in [5].

C e i K L

[51 a. ~ ~ t i S & ~ ~ h ~ ~ ~ t \ /*771 + D > S - % + ~ CO

% L@f& (Even though I don't understand English, I could fully enjoy the show.)

(d nagara(mo) (this volume; DBJG: 269-70))

(no) ue de 547

(no) ue de (0) L P comp. prt.

upon -; after - express a preparatory action for a [REL. te kara]

+Key Sentences

1 (I will reply upon careful consideration.) 1 k <

Vinf . past

>7?L3T0

I (I would like to draw a conclusion after discussion.) I

Noun - ( i ) Vinf.past kT

1

&/v??k?l" (upon reading) I f / u S * i

@f% L ?zkT (upon conducting research)

(ii) NokT L

k!&a)k'~; (after investigation)

%&o~T (after discussion)

(a) k < ~ % Q ~ L ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ T & ~ I : ~ ; Y ~ T L ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ (Why don't we decide after discussing the matter?)

548 (no) ue de

LSl *m

(b) $ 3 4 ~ L k l T , & % O ~ L S 9 3 ; ~ E L L ~ ' ~ I s ~ L ~ ; P ? ~ 1; L7'sb>,

(We have to prove the correctness of the theory after conducting an experiment.) C ItLJLdr< L a i L hLJ/r f i v b <

(c) EIACZYOX: X ~ ~ % ~ # L I : _ ~ T , B ~ P * o w H Q . ~ ~ & ~ , LL:~ (I decided the topic of my M.A. thesis after consulting with Japanese literature Professor Smith.)

b,3hL+L:5 Sb,

(d) T i 2 2 b & & & @ L T , --+BL72RLl:kT, &i&~:&& !I a L 7: , (I decided to get married after meeting her through an arranged match and dating her for one year.)

(el H$oF&L~ < 9 < ~-bq T:~T, ~ * + w $ ~ f : ~ (I went to Japan to study, bowing that life is expensive there.) e = ~ - I ~ L dig 3 f 2

(f) +#Cbb>ACQ$&LIfkT, f g m O L S - 1- ~&31l77':, (I finished writing my term paper after having read about 10 books.)

(g) %%OkT, E & Q % & ~ T ~ (After an interview we will decide whether or not to approve the adoption.) & k l 3 r i

(h) -A~~W&O_~T&&& LIL, (The two got divorced after reaching an agreement.)

1. Vinf-past ue de is used to express an idea that someone will do something rather important (quite often decision-making) after they have

- done something as a preparatory action. The image is that the action j u : = : =

expressed in the main clause is on top of the accompanying action, as -- - - shown in the following diagram.

Preparatory Action L<d;ib. f %@%.fa

(no) ue de 549

2. The verbs of the main and preparatory actions are non-passive, volitional verbs.

d.h * f i b

(1) a. @ b i % i ~ ~ d k ~ { % % 7 ~ f fc / *7YH7fi13 & I kT, %!!& k%%LI& (He married her after he found a new job / a new job was found.)

Fb>%h. eh. 22 *w 0 b. ~ ~ M P Q B ~ B B L ~ : ~ T , I h&r= / * ~ A E I ,

(He killed himself / died after he had sorted out all of his assets.)

Compare the following four sentences in which main and preparatory actions are stated in active or passive predicates.

(2) a. ??Za)BdlBbih < # 3 € P h k k T , %%75'XPh6<3 f', (For this problem a conclusion should be drawn after a careful investigation has been conducted.) [passive-passive]

b. ?Za)lL7Bbih < B B L k k T , %Ld'kbtlPh6<3E0 (For this problem a conclusion should be drawn after we have conducted a careful investigation.) [active-passive]

c. *Za)Bw7Bbik < W P P h k k T , % L Q X b < 3 72, (For this problem a conclusion should be drawn after a careful investigation has been conducted.) [passive-active]

d. ZDBw7Bbi h < a P L k k T , %&Q X T d 3 2, (For this problem we should draw a conclusion after we have made a careful investigation. [active-active]

3. N in N no ue de as exemplified by KS(B), Exs.(g) and (h) is typically a noun of investigation, interview, discussion and the like. And the noun is usually a Sino-Japanese noun that takes (0) sum.

Vte kara is close in meaning to Vinf .past ue de, in that both express two actions in sequence. In fact, all the KS and Exs. can be rephrased using Vte kara, as long as the verbs are volitional. See Note 2.

550 (no) ue de

However, there is a crucial difference between the two constructions: Vte kara is used solely to indicate time sequence but Vinf .past ue de is used to indicate a preparation for a relatively important action. Therefore, there are cases of Vte kara which cannot be rephrased by Vinf .past ue de as in [2]. In these examples, Vte kara part lacks the sense of prerequisite. That is why the use of Vinf.past ue de is impossible.

[21 a. '13 - ' / ~ ~ t v t ; t P : j - " P . - i ~ 7 - ~ & ~ { T ~ Y % / *~=LTI &aO (Mr. Jones always goes to bed after taking a shower.)

. 4 {TfiaG / *tzkT] g&~:fi-;, j:,

(After eating her supper, Yukiko went to a movie.) b t ~ f i B t*i ah

c. %L ~ i 5 ' r & B & g ITfi>% / * t~kTl b i + +l:ts6, (It's already been 10 years since we bought this house.)

If Vte kara indicates a preparation, then, the rephrasing is alright as in [3]. TL b

[31 a. FZSQ L I T ~ ~ > G / ~ L T I K!3~%ia j z , (I visited with my friend after calling him.)

l(t7 A T b t b r i L S b. %Ebf&T%?EJ O T X Q B 3 W (Tfia5 / kkT1 % K g < ,

(He always goes to bed after looking at the following day's schedule.)

(+ karaZ (DBJG: 177-78))

ue (ni) +(I:) c o d

as well; in addition; besides; additional, emphatic statement furthermore; moreover; not

only - but also [REL. - bakari de (wa) naku - (mo); bakari ka - (sae); dake de (wa) naku - mo; sono ue]

(Besides the fact that this movie has an interesting storyline, the cast is good.)

(B)

1 Topic I I I I

(Not only did he find me a job, he even lent me some money.)

Topic aotr ( E m

(She is fluent in French because she majored in French and, in addition, she lived in Paris for a while.)

- 7 9 ;/xs-h'

Noun r & b &

SBEl a k(K) , \ ' I ) 1:Lbfr; <&/v~bV:$r;,

7 9 ; /2$573~4949f~ ,

552 ue (ni)

S l ( C : ) (the same as the relative clause connection rules)

%Ksr /v l~%src :&%sk~ f : k (~ : )~~z t :X - f :~ (Not only was Mr. Yoshioka divorced by his wife, he also (lit. even) lost his job.) h*L t L +LWQ 2 --Cw&k(b:)&b:&%$ a b a o ) T , h @ G d $ k $ f l R 3 j i l '

b a k a o

(Because I am not only old but also have no special skills, it is hard to find a job.)

( 6 3 i L r i ~ a > $ l A & l $ f l ~ ~ b ~ k ( G : ) ~ ~ i t r f b ~ b ~ o ) T , bc < &kL-Cba&,

(This car sells well because (besides the fact that) it seldom needs repairs (lit. seldom has trouble) and furthermore it gets good mileage.)

%071+- E & o a ~ ( i = ) L I ~ f : < +hi&,& OT. .d#s r ~ & % , g - c h b ? ~ ~ % f l t c b ~ ,

(Besides being small, my apartment has a lot of furniture, so there is no space for guests to sleep when they come.)

%LO 7 1 f - 1. iA$&b:g$~7'sk(t:)&gflgba~ (My apartment is convenient for commuting to work and, furthermore, the rent is inexpensive.) f: WrCACk3 h L 3.e L I Z 3-1. *(CW * A P ~

H+%&ii&kZflk%Ck(b:)%&O@@JQ 1 < R&ji l 'b , 2 T $x &7Fi&,&. (Ms. Tanaka is very popular because she is good not only at teaching but also at taking care of her students.)

ti I h A b r * I t

%&kt% P- P$ET%~ 9 f:%, % % % o ) L ( b : ) 8 G ~ @ = -Cklf:,

(When he was caught for speeding, he had no driver's license (i.e., he was not licensed) and, moreover, he was drunk.) -

Ni after ue is optional.

(Related Expression]

Ue (ni) can be rephrased using bakari de (wa) naku - (mo) or dake de (wa) naku - (mo), as in [I].

(+ dake de (wa) naku - (mo) (DBJG: 97-100))

can; possible; -able possibility [REL. koto ga dekim; rareru]

*Key Sentences

(I think its possible for the Japanese language to become an international language in the 21st century.)

(a) @ O % & I ~ ~ ~ T T 4 j+ao (The fluctuation of stocks can happen any time.)

(b) 132 tv rof l~ tk+E~j+a~

(The majority of cancers are preventable.)

(c) ~ b c z # ~ @ ~ ~ n a ~ $ ~ % c k ~ ; k ~ b ~ a ~ (The number of vocabulary items one can memorize at one time is limited.)

(d) ~ a % ~ a z 2 k z L 9 T & 2 % & & ~ j + a ~ (By doing exercise one can maintain one's health.)

I: hL+L (e) EI & s O $ & C ~ I ? ~ ~ I : ~ ~ ~ $ B M ~ T $ U " ~ ~ &

(One can learn the basics of Japanese in roughly two years.)

(f) B*O&g&.$*ii t m i EL wztsac ~1~~~3-53c :d j oj+a. (It is quite possible that the Japanese economy will go into a slump.)

1. The auxiliary verb unrleru is used primarily in written Japanese, but it can be used in formal speech as well, as in:

(1) + T 2%ZT?Ats*?4fl~~ II Ei6tstvT,Rbl3-&iLTLI~

ho - - - - . - . - . - (We never thought that such an incident could occur on cam- ' u p - - - pus.) -

2. The basic conjugation pattern is as follows.

The auxiliary verb uruleru can be replaced either by Vinf .nonpast koto ga dekiru or by rareru, except when the verb is totally non-controllable, such as okiru 'to take place' or aru 'to exist,' as in Exs.(a) and (f).

Since the basic meaning of uruleru is the existence of possibility (not ability), it cannot be used in a sentence that expresses pure ability as shown in P I .

(ekoto ga dekiru (DBJG: 200-01); rareru2 (DBJG: 370-73))

556 Vmasu

Vmasu v.

and; -ing

which means "V and . . ." (REL. v t e ]

*Key Sentences

(A)

Vmasu 7Y-25 - & % L i

y s 7 i i b % ~ Bzh, % i a - ? r - s m m p m ~ ~ ~ t : ,

(John was born in Japan and studied at a Japanese school until he was ten.) 1

1 (My father works for a bank and my mother has a boutique near my house.)

(Everybody contributed some money and bought a present for Kyoko's new baby.)

~ ~ i i @ Q k 3 , V ~ T & T E < % & ~ * ~ (As for shrimp, you take their shells off and fry them lightly in salad oil.)

b . 3 L w i + L L i H$.Tii-B r~7$j+b&&h:x~, &'g5 9 k 5 ~ b > f i $ $ $ b > - C b > a

-Fo

(In Japan we've been in the rainy season for a week (lit. since a week ago) and had gloomy days every day.)

Vmasu 557

r t= L*i)hL I hL

(d) % % O X + H + ~ & L , ~ ~ ~ f - ~ 4 - e ~ 3 ~ ~ ~ (Commemorating this school's fiftieth anniversary, we are going to have a celebration party.) ? t i b L br L4 b L -%LC L

(e) E %63E%C:2 13, k % t 3 # F ~ k t : 2 3 t & (My first son became a doctor and my second, a lawyer.)

w . a 9 (f) % ~ 9 $ ~ O # a > % ~ < ~ 3 ? % b , *P&~%&L?':,

(The man pulled the strap in front of the cart and the woman pushed it from behind.)

The te-forms of verbs (Vte) are also used to mean 'V and -.' The difference between Vmasu and Vte is as follows.

Basically, in "Vlte - V2)' there is a close relationship between the action in V1 and that in V2. No such relationship exists between V1 and V2 in "Vlmasu - V2." Usage restrictions differ depending on the subjects of V1 and V2.

A. When-the subjects of V1 and V2 are the same:

A-1. Vte

In general, "Vlte - VT is used when the two actions are closely related and the sequence is important. More specifically, Vte is used in situations like those in [I] - [3].

[I] When one action (V2) cannot take place until another action (V1) takes place, as in (a) and (b):

bkL

a. %.C3%$7/f- b". I&TT /*fi3) &b>&?? L a b f k ~ C f a 1; - a b ' , - - - G -

(I have to go to the department store to do some shopping - - today.)

b. $a$?? G T / * J U ~ 3 $ ~ 5 $ & @ t : b a ~ (I'd like to decide whether to buy it or not after I see the real thing.)

558 Vrnasu

[2] When V1 represents the cause of Vz (a special case of [1]), as in (a) and (b):

*5f ib

a. $,I2 [ G S T ~ T /???l%BbbTS? @ % % L T L 3 - k 0 (He damaged his health by overworking.)

b. %/v%IW,ak$% { A 7 /???%I :st:&$ & L ~ Z , (Seeing my face, the baby suddenly began to cry.)

[3] When V1 represents a means or manner of doing V2, as in (a) and (b) :

WClj TLL* a. ~ F I ~ ~ E I ~ S E F C : { G ~ T / ? ? ? S ~ J I tg+fi<o

(Kyoko goes to school by bicycle (lit. by riding a bicycle) every

day.)

b. %LI~T?$% ICbdt)7 /???Ltbt)l ? o & ~ B L?L (I did the work with gloves on.)

A-2. Vrnasu

In general, "Vlrnasu. . . V2)' is used when two actions or states are not directly related. More specifically, Vrnasu is used when the times of two independent actions or states overlap, as in [4] and [5].

[4] Overlapping actions

a. %&I& k < IBB / *@L\TI, k < %go (Yukio works hard and plays a lot.)

b. ~/vi+s~;t~aXi~;+i-c: iik /*wL\-cI, %LAX, (Everybody was surprised and saddened by the news.)

[5] Overlapping states LL.F3&

& $ ~ & P ~ ? Y P % % B {%&/*RAT), %%%B k ( 9 - T b > 6 0

(Jiro likes classical music and knows many performers, too.)

%,.,2?&% {$L /*9LTI, %$%!i+, (We love peace and hate war.)

Vrnasu 559

A-3. Additional information before Vz and acceptability of Vlmasu

When the action of V1 precedes that of Vz, Vte is preferred. However, when additional information precedes Vz, Vrnasu is acceptable even when the action of V1 occurs before that of Vz (e.g., KS(A) and Exs.(a) - (c)). Com- pare (a) and (b) in [6] and [7].

[6] a. rk? t&%B I c ~ \ T / * @ d l , 0k!7&3-ifo

(As for shrimp, you take their shells off and fry them.)

[61 a. z k ~ t ; f E A ~ {&L\T / * W I e &ea, (You eat this after grilling it over charcoal. (lit. This, you grill it over charcoal and eat it.))

b. ZkLtiZAT I B L \ ~ / B S I , L b . i & Q { & V ~ / * i $ c t l e h~3-Fo (You eat this with soy sauce after grilling it over charcoal. (lit. This, you grill it over charcoal, dip it into soy sauce, and eat it.))

The acceptability of Vlmasu in this situation may be due to the fact that when additional information occurs before V2, the focus shifts from the relationship between the two verbs to the additional information before Vz.

A-4. Stylistic use of Vrnasu

In sentences involving a series of verbs, Vrnasu is often used in situations where either form can occur. This choice is stylistic and avoids the overuse of the Vte form. For example, in [8], VI-V5 can be te-form verbs. However, because V1, V3 and V5 must be te-forms (See [I]), the Vmasu form would

7: (Today I'm planning to go to the department store first to do some

560 Vmasu

shopping, then, to stop by the bank to open a new account, and on my way back, to meet a friend of mine at a coffee shop to return her book.)

In conversation, however, such stylistic control is difficult and, therefore, te- forms often occur for every verb. This is the reason why in some situations the use of Vte sounds colloquial and the use of Vmasu sounds formal.

A-5. Vte l Vmasu and controllability

In "Vlte - Vz," because the action in V 1 is closely related to the action of V2, both verbs must be either controllable or non-controllable, as in [9] and [lo]. This is not the case with Vmasu.

k f

[9] a. %Li;t7JWt=&97, Yj ' r - ' Ja)Z kBWBk, [Both controllable]

(I met Bob and asked him about Jane.)

b. $ L l ; t l : z E l : : { & ~ \ / ? & ~ 7 1 , Yr- ' /a )Z k %?@$t;, [Non-controllable and controllable]

(I saw Bob accidentally and asked him about Jane.)

[lo] a. x 3 li$$XSZ9%~3 7 , %& 3 h fi, moth non-controllable] (The pickpocket was found by a detective and was arrested.)

t L L 1 t t3

b. x 1) t2BJPcc I R ~ ~ P V l ? H 7 - h , 3 7 1 , %S;frhbRU:Rilk, [Non-controllable and controllable]

(The pickpocket was found by a detective, and he (= pickpocket) jumped off the train.)

B. When the subjects of V 1 and V z are different:

When two different subjects are involved in "Vlte - V2," the action of V 1 - has not necessarily been completed before that of V2, as in [ll]. = V l - = - - [ l l ] ~ * P T ? ? & ~ ~ T , +i%;frsv7 yet49 7:0

(Tsutomu baked a pizza and Toshiko fvted a salad.)

(+ -te (DB JG: 464-67))

Vmasu as a Noun 561

Vmasu as a Noun n.

+ ~ e y Sentences

I (Because he is still young, his thoughts are shallow.) 1

-

~$ti%&Wb,

I (It is relatively easy to speak Japanese, but reading and writing are hard.) I

(It is better not to borrow or lend money.)

Vmasu (=N) d%d'

* R

(We went to Tokyo Disneyland but it took more than five hours to get there and back.)

(el X E t i h t ; & ~ t ~ ~ ~ ~ (Life is a series of wins and losses.)

$$&

562 Vmasu as a Noun

Qam 1. The Vmasu of practically all the verbs can be used as a noun, except

Sino-Japanese sum-verbs. Some of the verb stems (Vmasu) are treated like real nouns and listed as such in dictionaries, taking the topic marker wa, the subject marker ga, the direct object marker o, etc. It is strongly suggested that the non-native speaker / writer check each use of Vrnasu as a noun in the dictionary.

(1) G:kjbx 'smell' 4% ih 13 'replacement' d%d' k 'thought' & 'leave-taking'

*b % v 'street' ,R L.1 'feeling I love' ;tT? d.L W 6 'upbringing' b C 'feeling' ~ f r r ~ o r 3 'talk' 3k 'hope'

3 9 'rule / regulation' % 3 'continuation / sequel'

2 9 'beginning' Rk 'holiday I rest'

&b v 'en8 & 'answer'

i h 9 'change' 'encounter'

2. Some verb stems (Vmasu) can be used in a compound of the Vrnasu Vrnasu form as exemplified by KS(B) and Exs.(c) - (e). In this case, the two Vmasu show contrastive meaning. More examples follow:

(2) V ? 0 'ups and downs'

& 3 'comings and goings'

-? 9 2 13 'give and take'

& LA& 'taking in and out 1 depositing and withdrawing'

& 3 'sleeping and waking up / living'

& 3 %k 'up and down' (lit, floating and sinking)

Vmasu as a N O U ~ 563

3. Some Vmasu cannot be used as a noun in isolation, but can be used as

such in a compound.

(3) &h "l 'an erudite person'

?QS $ $3 'slow walking'

X& 'dying in vain'

Zfi 'the viewing of cherry blossoms'

affirms or negates the proposition represented by the preceding verbal and other related elements

+Key Sentences

(A)

[emphatic] {do 1 does l did) V; will V, {am 1 are l is 1 was l were} Adj. I N ; (not) V I Adj. I N [REL. koto wa]

( I am going (there) but I cannot help you, all right?)

( I am tired but I don't want to take a break yet.)

Vmasu

g3

(C)

Vmasu

_= (That guy would not understand even if you explained it to him.)

15r, at %bFT"na+t,~.

(Those pants are cheap but they are a little too old-fashioned.)

(This book is not expensive at all when you consider its content.)

amm

L CA { j- (75') / L 2 b \ 1 (s.o. will tell (but) I will not tell)

&<T GA ( b ' b (75') / b > f b b > l (s.o. is eating (but) / is not eating)

3 ( 12 {$I b (75') / 2 b \ I (s.t. is interesting (but) / is not interesting)

(iv) {Adj(na)stem 1 N} T GA {& (d') / 2 b'l

I: I iL r (b) & i i ~ ~ ~ ~ & & c i - ~ a d ' , 3-w L ~ W ,

(He can read Japanese but cannot speak it.)

(c) @%caer ~ i : & K a 9 T ~ i b 1 6 ~ , 8 ~ i h b r ~ b r a ,

(She is lying in bed but her eyes are open.) ' LL (LCL

(d) & % Q ~ c s T G ~ ~ F ~ ~ , %a k ~ e i ~ m ~ ~ (I will take the exam (and see what will happen), but I have no confidence that I will pass it.)

(e) % & b i m ~ ~ ~ - c h ~ $ ~ a ~ a ~ 1 ~ (He does not listen, no matter what we tell him.)

(f) m&%Gi&< ci&ad', +;kf?lfo&&~ci&a~ (This vase is expensive but it is valuable to that extent.)

(g) zoK&eid: <g;i;kePE~ < c ~ ~ L ~ c ~ T T ; ' , (If you think carefully, this problem should not be difficult.)

a3 La5

(h) &o%eiE%-mi&9tzi3~, SZaz k B ~ t<o~g i : a9 fz~

(He was smart but he was fired because he did something illegal.) 6 ItLCL

(i) @G&H$ATb;f&4;tr', & 3 r) H $ S ? ? 3 + ? ~ b ~ o

(He is Japanese but cannot speak Japanese well.)

1. Affirmative forms such as Vmasu wa sum, Adj(i)stem ku wa am, and {Adj(na)stem l N) de wa am often appear with the conjunction ga in contrastive sentences. (e wal (DBJG: 516-19))

2. Adj(na)stem de wa nai and N de wa nai are, in fact, the ordinary negative forms of Adj(na) and N + Copula and do not express any special emphasis.

3. When auxiliaries occur with Vte, wa follows Vte, as in Formation (ii).

When auxiliaries occur with Vmasu, however, wa follows the auxiliaries, as in (1).

b. &%+? 72 + %%?? TI$%& (P) (looks like it's about to fall down)

c. L.t.4119-Tb -- L.t.411tTCt.fb(fl) (talk too much)

4. In casual conversation sound changes may occur in Vmasu wa shinai, as in (2).

(2) a. Gr. 1 verbs: - (C)V wa shinai + - (C) ya shinai

(C: consonant; V: vowel)

Exs. $7 'i F L at\ (iki wa shinai - ikya shinab

6 ? L & L \ (kai wa shinai -. kaya shinab

b. Gr. 2 verbs and irregular verbs: (C)V wa shinai + - (C)Vya shinai

2%

Exs. B? L & L \ (mi wa shinai -- miya shinai)

&d? L t \ (tabe wa shinai + tabeya shinai) ? L & t (shi wa shinai - shiya shinai)

%? L &t\ (ki wa shinai + kiya shinao

Sentences with the emphatic particle wa can be rephrased using the structure X koto wa X, as in [I]; however, X koto wa X is more emphatic than wa.

This structure is usually not used for negative sentences. (+ koto wa (DBJG: 206-08))

568 wa iu made mo naku

wa iu made mo naku C2B 3 2 T6 & < adv. phl: <w>

not to speak of; let alone; not to the meaning of 'not to speak of mention; to say nothing of

[REL. - bakari de (wa) naku - (mo); wa iu ni oyobazu; wa mochiron]

+Key Sentence

(The duty of the presidency requires physical strength, not to mention brains.)

- I:lf/r t i D t l i td.

(a) El$.tiki=&CiSi 2T& < , %&Rxc:&~~~ (In Japan houses are very expensive, not to mention land.)

e w ~ < S ~ i b x < * b > i i r?a I$-cn. +c (b) L a>j?$CkR gl*J@iigi 3 T & f 2 <, i%R&&8C:@;k~b~6~

(This university excels in facilities, to say nothing educational pro-

grams.) dafi R V C - L a i 5 9

(c) %,@biTEidiSi bT&h < , %*?&?&$$B ~ - c b ~ b ~ (He is working even on weekends and holidays, not to speak of week- - - = - - [IPg days.)

- = - - - = w L A < L a C Le C n i I:< Id , * t B I : < = (d) 'j~1177~i%&&%%~~~, +hliSj~t~&h<, &&.%A& &<fbk',

(Julian is a vegetarian, so he doesn't eat fish or chicken, let alone beef.)

wa iu made mo naku 569

aceb. ~16a 0 * f r * * (e) .?bof&car~+tiSi d T B G < , WE$,, ~;-16i%P;ih1;8b>,

(That student doesn't know even hiragana and katakana, let alone kanji.)

Qm The adverbial phrase X wa iu made mo naku is a continuative form of - wa iu made mo nai, which means 'it is needless to say X; it goes without saying X' as in:

P < L i fib.'

(1) ~ W A ~ Z 2 i t m * T * ~ L \ ~

(It is needless to say that reading books is very important.)

(2) X"d~:t$3Ea7~6aowz5 BT&&L\, (It goes without saying that there are ups and downs in life.)


Both - bakari de (wa) naku - (mo) 'not only -,' wa mochiron 'of course -' and wa iu ni oyobazu 'to say nothing of -' can replace wa iu made mo naku.

The only difference is that X wa iu made mo naku is used primarily in written Japanese, whereas - bakari de (wa) naku - (mo) and wa mochiron can be used in both spoken and written Japanese. wa iu ni oyobazu is not used in casual speech.

570 wake da

wake da blf fz phl:

a phrase which presents a fact or truth known to the hearer as an introduction to a following statement, or which gives emphasis to a fact or truth which the hearer

+ K ~ Y Sentences

as you know; the fact is that -; the truth of the matter is that - [REL. no da]

(As you know, we lost our leader with Prof. Fukuda's death. From now on we have to advance this group by ourselves.)

(War is accompanied by great sacrifice, as you know, and we have to avoid it at any cost.)

wakeda 571

{ET / 3 L f: 1 ih C f f . (LO. will talk 1 talked, as you know)

I

kt" {$$I> / BiP 3 k I ih C f 7. (s.t. is 1 was expensive, as you know)

(ii) Adj(na)stem I 2 / f? 9 7: 1 ih C f f?

fz0 Sentence?

l.1 e L f h = si~wo~tr~aart~?& ~ t : k - i : ~ \ f =

/ BiPf? -> 7':) ih C f 72 (st. is I was quiet, as you know)

(Today, even children know that the earth is round, but the truth of the matter is that before Columbus everybody thought that it was flat.)

ihcf

dlfi **I:&

@ a B E { T & b / f ? ~ f : ( o r T & 3 7 : ) ] b b f R (s.t.is1washis responsibility, as you know)

:h t"b l Z i L r 3

(a) F @ G ~ F ~ + E I O % g i i ~ ? L > ? ~ & ~ z G Q T L ~ ~ ~ : ~ ~ L + T T ~ , z ; k i P r ; B 2 g i ; f % b f ~ L 1 < 9 9 , VTT, (Unfortunately, the negotiation this time, as you know, ended up with a result like this, but we are planning to keep negotiating from now on,

(We have incorporated a lot of technology into our everyday life, as

572 wake da

you know, but whether or not all of it has brought us happiness is ques- tionable.)

rim- It!.. 1 ~ 5 (c) %LiA@%a)x<=L?-5?2%.Wf%LTb'&;hlfTTdf, Za).WfR

j3.bb'6b'6%&'Z kfl53j3.O b T o (I've been doing research on animal communication, as you know, and various interesting facts have become known from this research.)

(As you know, whatever you do, whether or not you have built a firm foundation for that is a key to your progress, and in fact, you can say the same thing about foreign language study.) h* lri e XL t s - 2 1 x

(e) %A%iA$53~i;f b a)%S;habl$, BLd. i f b k L ~ b l & @ ~ ~ ~ ? ' & % q B LTblbbCflF?, (Babies, themselves, do not talk, but the truth of the matter is that they are learning language when they are spoken to.)

(f) & * i A + x > f ~ - 9 % % O I i ? b h a k I : % r Z 6 i = Z ~ - C ~ b 5 1 f c ih!..ll?ti

k t r b , +i5>1;7-+m~i;f:~'~~=-9a ~ - w ~ - w ~ ; . ; h i ~ r ~ , (We would be in trouble immediately if computers were taken away from us now, but the fact is that we were getting by without them a decade ago.)

1. In casual conversation wake, an informal form of wake da, is used quite frequently to give slight emphasis to a fact when the speaker does not expect the hearer to know about it. (1) presents an example.

2. Wake da, as introduced here, should not be confused with the use in which two propositions X and Y have the relationship "given X, one is

wake da 573

logically led to Y," as in (2). In this use, wake da is interpreted as "it means that -," "you mean that -," "that's why," "no wonder," "that is," "in other words," etc.

5w LwJ)br, L w j d l L I: I f L _,_ (2) a. Teacher: % L ~ ~ % ~ - % B B ~ B $ ~ - . I T $ ~ ? ( = X ) ,

(I'll be in Japan for a week beginning next week.) c * s r 3

Student: C T , %%biE %PaL\ (=Y) blf Tb& (So, you mean there will be no classes next week?)

b. ~3t73$XS/viiB7P7G:++Bb~I~/v1Z(=X) ? - i f Z o 8$ ZP+*& (=Y) blt E , (I heard that Mr. Jones was in Japan for ten years. That's why he speaks Japanese well.)

c. ~ ~ - ' / ; C S / v i i E l $ E ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ( = Y ) b l f f ; C o El$C:+$ B b > l : / v f (=X) ?-5 E , (No wonder Mr. Jones speaks Japanese well. He was in Japan for ten years, I heard.)

(+ wake da (DBJG: 531-34))

In some situations no da also conveys the idea "the fact is that -." For example, KS(A) and (C) could be rephrased as [I] and [2], respectively, only [I] does not convey as strongly the speaker's expectation that the proposition represented by the preceding sentence is known to the hearer and [2] does not give as much emphasis to the fact represented by the preceding sentence.

574 wake da / wake de wa nai

Wake de cannot be rephrased as no de, however, because no de conveys a sense of reason or cause. [3], for example, does not mean the same thing as KS(B).

[31 %ttBti;kS h%%B#i(OT, %.btiliiSk LT& Z;k%BCfhCf;k~f h bhkl, (Because war is accompanied by great sacrifice, we have to avoid it at any cost.)

On the other hand, wake da cannot be used to provide or ask for an explanation of, or a reason for, information shared by the speaker and the hearer, as in [4] and [S].

L*< 7 3 .

[4] @ h 0 / f - ? 4 - K t & f i l f E k - & / W o %Aj(lZIz<2/Wi&)b { A / @ / *blf I T b , (I can't come to today's party. I have a lot of homework.)

[S] booking at someone doing something]

A: liilB LTblb {A /*bCf I T T & (What are you doing?)

B: B$i%%%A %LTblb Ih / *blf 1 T b , (I'm studying Japanese.)

(c3 no da (DB JG: 325-28))

wakedewanai hCtTCdaL\ ohr. - - - = - Z W S - = - - -- _= It does not mean that -; I don't

what is implied in the previous or mean that -; It is not that -; It is not true that -; It is not the case that

wake de wa nai 575

+Key Sentences

(It is very difficult to solve this problem. But that does not mean that it is impossible (to solve).)

(I don't mean to oppose your idea, but I wonder if things will go well using that approach.)

Sentence

jj', *L *&*

0

I I

(Obtaining a good result is not enough. (lit. It is not that it is all right if just the result is good.))

Vinf

E%-$Q ;t3bfTl&Qb>

576 wake de wa nai

{ & f i & / % f i ~ I : l ( k b \ j ) b C f T i i ? x b > (Itdoesnotmeanthat s.0. understands / understood s.t.)

%. {.,*bl / Efi7 I:] ( 2 b l i ) ;h Cf T l 2 8 b l (It does not mean that s.t. is /was bad.)

(ii) Adj(na)stem {8/I?gI:l b l f T b i 8 b l

I& $ 8 / R €I I5 -> I: I ;h Gf T l i 8 b l (It does not mean that s.t. is /was no good.)

(iii) Adj(na)stem I (I?) / 2-3 7:) k b l 3 bCf T b i 8 b l

{ R € I ( I ? ) / I ~ T I : I k b l j b C f T l i 8 b 1 (1tdoesnotmeanthats.t. is / was no good.)

Ll l iW

%%I? 7 I: b Cf T 63.8 b l (It does not mean that s.t. was a failure.)

{%%(I?) / I?- I:] k b1-j bGf T b i 8 b l (It does not mean that s.t. is /was a failure.)

ammm h f i L 8 ~ l 3 L L ( k c

(a) maws W: < 3 L ~ ~ G L V F , & ~ C ~ L ~ ~ C ~ T C ~ ; ~ S I / ~ ~ (I do not eat much these days, but it doesn't mean that I have no appetite.)

K 2AAaLW.. (b) 201 , 3 4 $ B P b l T b > ; t h b 1 ; 5 ' , iC 7 2 ; P k b l j i h G f T 1 i 8 b l 0

(I haven't written a book for the last few years, but it doesn't mean that - = - - w s I am in a slump.)

= = - - - - - PL r i< (c) 2 0 7 ' 0 Y ~ 3 ~ C ~ ~ & + E ~ I : ~ $ $ & P ~ L & Z ~ C : ~ ~ I Z ~ L & L ,

to* tr e T ~ T L T ~ I : : k c ~ < m ~ t = a a ; h ~ f ~ c i a ~ , (It's been decided that this project is going to be stopped because of a

wake de wa nai 577

lack of funds. However, it doesn't mean that what we have done up to now is going to be a total waste.)

I: Il!.. : C/ueLlitr P < 1; ~~~s$&&ab>l:S~-r%&gg*ab>;hcf~~&ab>~ (Although I say that I cannot speak Japanese, it doesn't mean that I cannot speak it at all.)

l tb.61<

80Si i $ $ % d > b C b ~ b i f T i b f i b > $ , 0 1 1 1 0 i ~ ~ t @ l t & t b f . 3 7 F b W l:,g,i (I don't mean that I don't understand what you are saying, but I think you'd better give up this plan after all.)

~g.&iiaj5.'ab>;bef~t;t.a~.~7~, h 3 17 5%]%i;t: L h b > % $ b 1 b > T L A

i (I don't mean that there is no hope, but you'd better not expect too much.)

Ot $ 6 & 0 A $ M l / > f ? k b a 5 ; b C f T i i Q b > t v T f $, $$~&LL:L>~: i i , ~ , b \ 3 - @ LJ 0

(I don't mean that I don't like him, but I do not want to many him.)

Z b k L k i k f . l f LTb1k b-?kLTb>b> k b > j bGfTC&hb>, (Doing only what you are told to do is just not enough.)

Vri I:!.. A: ~ 0 % h e & & < @d~btsb>/vT-$-d..

(Can't this patient be saved (lit. at all)?)

B: b l 0 , -? 3 bl j bcf TI&& 0 3*/v, (No, it is not that he can't be saved.) -

1. Wake de wa nai, the negative form of wake da, denies what is implied either in the previous statement (e.g., KS(A) and Exs.(a) - (d)) or in the following statement (e.g., KS(B) and Exs.(e) - (g)). In either case, wake de wa nai sentences and the previous (or following) sentences are often

= connected by conjunctions like ga and shikashi. - 'WI - - - - - - - -- - -- - --

(+ wake da (this volume; DBJG: 531-34))

2. In some situations the ideas whose implications are denied by wake de

578 wake de wa nai / wake ga nai

wa nai are not stated (e.g., KS(C) and Ex.(h)). For example, KS(C) denies an implication of (I), the idea which is not stated in KS(C).

(1) $ER,Fblb>Z 2 ii%Fo (It is important that the result is good.)

There is no reason why -; It is ence of a reason to believe that impossible (for -) to -; cannot s.0. does s.t. or is in some state, or [REL. ham ga nail that s.t. takes place; or which negates a possibility of s.o.'s doing s.t. or being in some state,

+Key Sentences

1 (There is no reason why you cannot do such an easy job.) I

1 (It is impossible to be able to master Japanese that quickly.) I

wake ga nai 5 79

( i ) {V I Adj(i)}inf .nonpast bCf @?2bl

$dl & b Gf 73% bl (It is impossible to understand) B b L h @Q b'b bf PQL' (It is impossible for s.t. to be interesting)

(ii) {Adj(na)}stem $ b Cf P G b'

3 hbl$ ;h Cf 73% b1 (It is impossible for s.t. to be clean)

(iii) NT&&bCfd'&?bl * L Q W

%!&Ti% & bCf Pabl (It is impossible for S.O. to be a teacher)

f-/Vaz 2 tt L-CblblbIfm2blo (No one is allowed to do that kind of thing. (lit. There is no reason why it is all right to do such a thing.))

Dt k h : f-tvaz 2 B ~ ~ - c A P ~ ~ : ; ~ c ~ P ~ ~ ~ , (There is no reason for people to be pleased if you say such a thing to them.)

@hvtvarrrblz 2 Qgi bCfP$b>, (There is no reason for her to say such a terrible thing. I It is impossible for her to say such a terrible thing.)

f i . , t r i X

@Lih/V$K&9 ~ba-Ck ~kGbif;ir'$bl, (Being that drunk, he cannot be all right.)

ha)g~gPz A,$ C&;hbf fl$b'o

(Things at that shop cannot be this cheap.) C 73% _ _

W C ~ ~ ~ ~ ) F I + A L L ~ ~ % ~ : b l & ; h ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ l o (It is impossible for her to be in such a place at this time (of the day).)

- f,'=:- *9 ZL?*V

- - - - - - - - -- @3F~a)?&a)$ $ &T&&;kCfPhb~,

- -- - (It is impossible for him to be a graduate of this school.)

580 wake ga nai

Qm Wake ga nai basically negates either (a) the existence of a reason to believe that someone will do / does something, will be / i s in some state, or something will happen / happens, or (b) a possibility of someone's future / present action or state, or a future / present event. Thus, sentences before wake ga nai are always nonpast. However, wake ga nai can indirectly negate the existence of a reason to believe that someone did something or was in some state, or that something happened, or negate the possibility of a past action or state by presenting the negation in a statement about a common belief, a habitual action or state, or one's ability. For example, KS(B) can be used in a context as in (1).

(1) A: F Y - I ~ X P ~ ~ T H ~ S ~ T X P - L ~ : F ~ ~ : L , (I heard that Charles mastered Japanese in a year.)

B: W ~ E S j, E~*:~~+/~QCZB< T X P - & % Z , ~ C ~ # ~ ~ \ , (=KS(BN

(You are kidding! It is impossible to be able to master Japanese that quickly.)

e elated ~xpressionl

However, hazu ga nai can be used with past sentences and it negates the possibility of a past action, state, or event, as in [2] . (See Note.)

[2] a. %Ekis.+/tQZ29Lf. {lt%/???;blfI #&L\, (It is impossible for her to have done such a thing.)

YPI i . t t L l

b. %E~@b&fiTtZ ICtT/???;bCfl #*L\, (It is impossible for him to have been an excellent student.)

wake ni wa ikanai 581

cannot; cannot but -; cannot that one cannot do s.t. due to an help -ing; have no (other) external circumstance choice but to -

[REL. koto ga dekiru; -nakereba naranai; rarenail

+ ~ e ~ Sentences

(A)

Vinf .aff. nonpast

(There will be final examinations next week, so I cannot fool around . this weekend.)

(Since it is the wedding of my close friend I have no other choice but to attend it.)

#&&&&,~ b,

( i >

(ii)

Vinf . neg . nonpast L*l hl

ktl RL&t \ bCf KCtLld.;rsLr.

582 wake ni wa ikanai

ii dl bb) Vtd!

(a) . r t v a & Q t s % ? ? B < bbf bZbibl?i 3%L, (I have no reason to receive such an expensive gift.)

(b) P O L j jb~b~~jj~+Lfh~&G:&fi~6bb~t:Cib~?i a-t?tv, (A young person like me cannot attend such a meeting.)

(f) . r i - L l i & \ % i ~ s O ~ , gtbbf bZbib\ 3 3 % t v , (This is a secret, so I cannot talk about it.)

1 . Wake ni wa ikanai is used to express the meaning that one cannot do s.t. because of an external circumstance. So, the phrase cannot be used to indicate a simple fact of incompetence. For example, (la) presents a simple case incompetence, whereas (lb) presents a case in which one cannot play the piano owing to some circumstance (e.g. a baby is asleep). Actually (lb) presupposes that the speaker can play the piano.

(1) a. % t i ~7 / &~CTQL\ . (I cannot play the piano.)

b. # t i V 7 / B%< bCf ? ~ i t L ~ ~ ~ * L \ , (I cannot play the piano (owing to some circumstance).)

wake ni wa ikanai 583

2. -nai wake ni wa ikanai is used to express the meaning that 's.o. has no other choice but s.t.,' as shown in KS(B), Exs.(g) and (h).

3. There is no affirmative counterpart of wake ni wa ikanai. I r i T I

(2) 4 EI ~ i r / ~ r / ~ % k r ~ ~ c ; , F - x w x s . a / * t i - t b ; b ~ t ~ ~ \ < l o

(It's a fine day, so we can play tennis.)


Regular expressions of potential, (i.e., rareru and koto ga dekiru) can replace wake ni wa ikanai as shown in [I].

[I] a. *;%LCi%%S&d'bj @ b , 393% t2 {PK&L\ / PSZ 2 It X%&L\Io (cf. KS(A))

b. Z;kiPbB@iL2Gf;kCf2 9 3+?h.@b, % B {l%@be n / E G Z L : M X ~ % ~ A I . (cf. EX.^)

c. 37?.tt.$;sfR-;,Tbb&DT, {%;kb+?iL / % & Z kCitt)% 3 +?A), (cf. Ex.(e))

But rareru and koto ga dekiru cannot replace wake ni wa ikanai unless an external circumustance which blocks s.0. from doing s.t. exists, as noted in Note 1.

(+rareru2 (DBJG: 370-73); koto ga dekiru (DBJG: 200-01))

-nai wake ni wa ikanai can be rephrased by -nakereba naranai, but notice that the latter expresses obligation, responsibility and necessity, whereas the former expresses the idea of 'to have no other choice but to do s.t.'

[2] a. %JZD%BSi?@b, XRL &Cf htB& 5 &LL (cf. KS(B))

yard '235 v. (Gr. 1)

place or to do I eat I drink s.t.

+Key Sentences

send; give; do; play; operate; eat; drink [REL. sum1

1 (Poor families cannot send their children to college.)

I (I intend to give a bike to my younger brother.)

I (Won't you play tennis this afternoon?) I

Noun(cigarette/alcoholic drink)

(El

*Ll 9 1 %kt-? I k (dt z ?? 99-c'Jlb LIZo

k h h L h i z&msa,

1 (I was smoking up until last month.)

6 ( i ) s.0. 75' S.O. B place I:-? b

(The role played by Toshiro Mifune is a male with a strong sense of justice.)

-?zl

btL t,t : bW:<

$L?F,B,T B%H I: 9 b (I will send my son to a foreign country.)

( i i ) S.O. ;5' S.O. I: s.t. B -? b

Noun(ro1e)

%

b%jk l:!.,3~5 @75'#I: A $2 9 b . (I will give my younger sister a doll.)

+kw i?L Skz

c ~ E & ~ ~ , ~ ~ ~ ~ w R ,

t b f S .-LC L

&%?FAlrt- B 9 6, (My friend is (lit. doing) a lawyer.)

upiLFLbr<

(a) ,B~B%Egc: -?~-c , - ! f & B & ~ ~ & l - @ l ~ , (I sent my son to the post office and had him buy stamps.)

(b) ~ ~ ~ : z a , ; i s ~ - ? ~ - c ~ , (Give this food to the cat, OK?)

(c) %%B-? !I b LIZ&, (Did you do your homework?)

(d) + ~ X B 9 6 ? & 0 (Shall we play chess?)

586 yam1

(el % E ~ ~ x ~ $ G P o a*, (We will have (lit. do) a class reunion next month.)

(f) G L 9 ~3;kh;5>c; , % G : ( & & ~ ) J P ~ - C L . ~ - C % L ~ ~ (I'm coming in a bit late, so please start eating without me.)

(g) m d i h r z t f t $ 9 o a*&, (I neither drink nor smoke.)

(h) + L I ~ % % ~ L ; & ~ ~ % B J P ~ T L > ~ * , (I have been learning flower arrangement since last year.)

( i ) B c A ~ : ' P L . & ~ > ~ L . > ~ G % ~ B Q P a LIZ, (When I was a kid I suffered from various diseases.)

(j) S E ~ Y T X & & G P ~ T L > ~ ~ (My friend is running a jazz cafe.) -

1. The meaning of the transitive verb yaru depends on the structure in which it is used and on the meaning of .the direct object noun.

Structure

a) s.0. ga s.0. o N(p1ace) ni yam

b) s.0. ga s.0. ni N o yaru

c) s.0. ga N(sports / game) o yam

d) s.0. ga N(occupation) o yam

e) s.0. ga N(ro1e) o yam

f ) s.0. ga N(food / alcoholic drink /

cigarette) o yaru

g) s.0. ga N(work / task) o yaru

h) s.0. ga N(event) o yaru

i ) s.0. ga N(hobby / subject) o yam

j ) s.0. ga N(il1ness) o yam

k) S.O. ga N(store / company) o yam

Meanings

'send' 'give' 'play'

'work as' 'play a role'

'eat / drink / smoke'

'do'

'hold' 'learn' 'suffer from'

'run'

Examples

Note that the structures for c through k are identical. The only crucial difference among them is the meaning of 'yam' depending on the meaning of the direct object nouns.

(+ agerul; a g e d @B JG: 63-67))

2. Yam has the meaning of 'drink,' 'eat,' and 'smoke' but the usage is very much restricted, as shown in (1).

(You shouldn't smoke here.)

c. ~ ~ # $ C ~ ; S L > P Y Z - X Q ~ ~ $ {&m~%b/*Fbl%b), (Every morning I drink one cup of orange juice.)

Besides KS(F), Exs.(f) and (g), there are only a few expressions which can be used correctly.

(2) a. Y8 i~ 2 -++'(I 11 3 k>O (Won't you drink with me tonight?)

b. p i ~ ~ a > h i t Q F 7 7 7 ; ~ t \ , (Please help yourself to the dishes.)

I. Yam can be replaced by sum in the cases of c, d, e, g, h and j of the chart in Note 1. That is, sum lacks the meanings of 'send,' 'give,' 'learn' and 'eat 1 drink / smoke.' When yaru can be replaced by sum, the difference between yaru and sum is a matter of style: the former is more informal and colloquial.

[I] a. ?%, Y-X Q L %l?A.t~>~ (cf. KS(C))

II. Suru can be replaced by yaru only when it means 'play,' 'work as,' 'eat 1 drink / smoke.' That is, yam lacks the meanings of 'make,' 'wear,' 'have,' 'feel,' and 'cost.'

(e sum1 - sum4 (DBJG: 428-37))

yard 9 b am. v. (Gr. 1)

an auxiliary verb which expresses (knowing that it will cause s.0. the idea that s.0. does s.t. undesir- trouble / difficulty) able to s.0. else when he / she [REL. kureru; morau] knows his / her action will cause

+Key Sentence

1 (I teased Tadashi.) 1

ba C &T 1P Q ((I) will bully LO.)

? + CLbL.ti C (a) I ~ - A % - ~ S ~ E Q ~ ~ B K L ~ ~ ~ O T , % ~ J Q ~ ~ T T - Y : ~

(Because my roommate never cleans our room, I complained (to her about it).)

(b) % j j t ; ~ = & ~ r ) ~ ; ~ t & 7 j : O ~ , !I 9l iTT7f : , (I was so mad at him that I shouted at him.)

(c) %$o&c~ T & & ? c " F ' ~ k O (I had drinks at my company's expense.)

l l i Uf, k' LS.

(d) % ~ & ~ L Y ~ ' - A C ~ $ ! I L T f j 7 2 6 % %iLfx-b~&T?L, -ER7 TT3T??5baa (mom a wife to her husband] Hiroshi always plays video games (lit. EYE TV games) and doesn't study at all. Will you talk to him (lit. tell him off) about it (lit. once)?)

*: *?

(el g i z ~ B ~ ~ G - $ ~ ~ I ; $ L @ L T F ; ~ ~ (If he doesn't listen, threaten him a little.)

1. Yam is one of the "giving" auxiliary verbs meaning 'do s.t. for KO.'

However, it is also used when A does something undesirable to B knowing that A's deed will cause B difficulty. For example, KS states that the speaker teased Tadashi, with the implication that he knew that it would make trouble for Tadashi. Compare KS with (I), which is a neutral statement and conveys no such implication.

(1) $L122%fi'%fi'7ko (I teased Tadashi.)

(+aged (DBJG: 65-67))

2. The subject of Vte yam is the first person in declarative sentences and the second person in interrogative sentences, commands, requests, or suggestions. (2) is ungrammatical unless the speaker / writer is totally empathetic with Taro.

I. The auxiliary verb kurem, which usually means 'do s.t. for me,' is also used when an action causes difficulty, as in [I]. Here, kurem expresses strong feelings of unhappiness, anger, etc., on the side of the person who is affected by the action.

[I] a. ' S r l I - d ~ k i L T e G - b ~ Z k % L 7 < f i k 0 (Jerry did a temble thing to me.)

b. 1 < 6 % % ~~VJ%!-T- < hfL ;h& [female speech] (You really disgraced me!)

Note that in the above sentences the verb phrases tondemonai koto o sum 'to do a temble thing' and haji o kakasem 'to disgrace' represent

yam2 / yatto 591

undesirable actions. If a verb phrase does not represent an undesirable action, kureru means 'do s.t. for me' as in [2].

(e kurenr2 (DBJG: 216-19) ; rarerul (DBJG. 364-69))

11. The "receiving" verb morau (not the auxiliary verb morau) can also be used when the sentence object is something undesirable, as in [3].

[3] a. T Y F ~ & % ? ? & % T ~ : , ! (I got a cold from Ted.)

$32-5 LllhA. L Zt b. % R C ~ k Z ~ . t t . ~ B & % 7 7 k d 7 t z 0

(I got an awful assignment from my boss (lit. section chief).)

(emoraul (DBJG: 261-63))

yatto 'C37 2 adv.

finally; at last; barely able has been finally achieved [ REL. kardjite; nantoka; tdto; or will be eventually achieved ydyaku)

+Key Sentences

I I

(I finally finished writing my Japanese history term paper.)

- - - - - - - - - - - - - = Y E - - = = - - - -

I (This street is so narrow that one car can barely go through.) I

I (My Japanese language ability is barely enough to make greetings.) 1

t 7 k L

$LO ~ * & l ~ T l ~ & b ~ ~ 9 %

/ (At long last, I could buy a house.) 1

( i ) 9 7 2 V i n f

9 7 2 132 & / 2 % 7: I (I am / was finally able to meet him.)

Vinf - nonpast

db

(ii) 9 7 2 Vinf

9 7 2 { % h & / % h 7 ~ 1 (can/couldbarelyride)

(iii) Vinf. nonpast 0 $9 9 2 { 7: / 7? 7 7: I b,

? 5 B 5 0 $9 7 2 { 7? / 7: 7 7: I (s.o. can / could barely say so)

0 $ 9 - 2 Tj-o

yatto 593

I i L t L 6.e +plDEbl&$$!$ih9 T , 99 2@;3'b>%Kfb9 jz, (The long winter that lasted for half a year has ended and finally the warm spring is here.)

b a $ i a L + A -;L d t i

Et$T-+rdEt$%?m % L f : b , ?9 k , H$%$&X 1 3 Kfb 9 ?zo (After I studied Japanese for a year in Japan, I finally reached the point where I could make myself understood in Japanese.)

~ ~ ? i i i ~ b l s ~ ~ b ~ k X s & ~ ~ b l j : ~ , -P- 2 $ % ~ f z ~ 3 j? kL (The couple have been together for a very long time, but it seems that they finally got married.)

w s k s 2 z i E b l 8 d ~ ~ 1 ? 9 1 z % ~ k ' i ~ : ? 9 k 6 b f 5 3 E o (It seems that finally I can travel abroad which was a dream I cherished for a long time.)

Lb lf l f L t L L 1

Zf ib&3T%9T9 ? 9 k , - k % % D % @ d P - L a - P o (I ran to the station from my house, and I just caught the 7:30 train.) + ?< k E L l i b ,

Z E P ~ A P J P T k & & . ~ j .L i a X ~ ~ l 7 , q - 1. G Z A ~ 7 ~ : ~ (We moved into a small apartment which can barely accommodate a family of four.)

% i i i % % & ~ b l & ~ ~ , Z D ~ ih ?I 2% n Yr f .F jDj j r?~ 2 T r f . (My father is suffering from pain in the lower back, and he can barely walk around the house.)

6. LI P L br e r i 99 2 D z 2 T , ~ * , l , D d k b : % b % (With the greatest effort, we reached the top of Mt. Fuji.)

1. The adverb yatto can be used with Vinf when s.t. desirable has been - - finally achieved, as exemplified by KS(A) and Exs.(a) - (d). If s.t. neg-

- - ative has been brought about the adverb cannot be used. - - - - - - -

(1) a. @ I ~ & + B ~ % O $ # B & G ~ T L ~ ~ : ; ~ ' , ( * ~ 3 2 / 2 5 2 5 / -X\CZI ~ L T ~ a 9r:, (He was receiving treatment for cancer for four years, but he finally died.)

fi&

b. @b Ik%k?$*%$>b~$>9f:;5', {*T3 2 / 2 3 2 5 / 3

L\CZl ~ L T L L -a?:, (They have been unhappily married for some time, but finally they got divorced.)

2. The adverb can also mean 'barely' as in KS(B), (C), Exs.(e), (f) and (g).

3. Yatto no koto de is a set phrase that emphasizes the time and efforts it takes for s.t. positive to come about, as exemplified by KS(D) and Ex.@). The English translations are 'at long last,' 'with the greatest effort,' 'with the greatest trouble.'

I. Yatto and y6yaku are very close in that both of them indicate eventual completion of something positive; the only difference is that y6yaku sounds more formal and is usually written.

(From the bottom of my heart I would like to congratulate you on your graduation today after long diligent study.)

11. Yatto can be replaced by adverbs nantoka and karojite as shown in [2] . Both nantoka and kaajite mean that s.t. positive has been luckily accomplished in spite of difficulty. But the latter implies that almost insurmountable difficulty has been cleared.

However, when yatto indicates that it is a matter of a long wait before

yatto / -y# 595

s.t. desirable is realized, it cannot be replaced either by karojite or by nantoka as shown in [3].

. t L* b. T&KQ3-C, IT'=& /*h>53L"Tl*Wt7Yl &%%;3.'

*5

HL>J&

(Ten o'clock came round and finally the office opened.)

111. Tsui ni is another adverb which indicates that either s.t. desirable or undesirable has finally come about or will come about after a relatively long process. It can replace yatto in KS(A), Exs.(b) and (c). If the result is a natural one as in Ex.(a) yatto is preferable to tsui ni. Also, if the focus is placed more on current difficulty rather than on a long process as in KS(B), (C), Exs.(f) and (g), the replacement is impossible. (See Note 1.)

- - - - - . - . - .

a 1 the way to; a 1 the way of Y - . - - -

means a way (of doing s.t.) -

-ing; the way (s.0. does s.t.) - -

[REL. -kata]

+Key Sentences

(A)

Vrnasu

(There is no way to correct this composition.)

(B)

NP I Adj(na)stem Vrnasu

(There is no way to save (him) with this grade.)

Vrnasu

(We cannot fix it now that it is broken to this extent.)

(There is no way to defend ourselves if all of them attack us at the same time.)

Vrnasu b; i - 3 1 5 (a way to write)

z~L.I~,K;s::~;~ L j SQL~,

(There is no other way to think (about it).) 1: I%& : E~$z;s'&/UGG:?$L.~ ~5 L L 5 & Q L ~ , (There is no hope to do with such poor Japanese. (lit. There is no way even to do if his Japanese is that poor.))

2

~~+~FSWQL.~ /VCT (=a>~ii)&&DS+?d: j SQL~ ,

(There is no way to have him work if he cannot read kanji.) *<*I, hh

ZX/GG:~LW$ < -~~i&;i L j S Q L ~ ~

(There is no way to teach if there are this many students.)

?/"Qh3%%StL?:b%;iL jSQbao (I cannot answer if you ask (lit. I am asked) that way.) b L L h+L *LG:%9-C& b 9 T & L L j S Q b l 0 (There is no point apologizing to me (lit. even if you apologize to me).)

GZ*l:Jr 0 L 5 GiQbaOE6 5 dlo (Isn't there any other way to do it, I wonder?)

f i c % b Q b W c i @ ~ L j ~~%b~ /U? ; ' L . (It's because your way of searching (for it) is wrong that you cannot find it.)

T * A V L L

% % L j G:L~-C6iZa>~$&i iBf t & t ; k & . (Depending on how you read it, this letter can be taken as a suicide note.)

amm 1. Vmasu-y6 is most commonly used with ga nai 'there is no way to V,

cannot V.'

2. Although Vmasu-y6 can be used in affirmative sentences (e.g., Exs.(h) - and (i)), it is most commonly used in negative sentences. = - - - - - - Y -

- - - -

3. Vrnaswy6 often appears with conditional clauses ending in -te wa, -tam, or -te mo, as in KS(B) - (D) and Exs.(b) - (f).

Vmasu-kata also means 'a I the way to V; a I the way of V-ing.' However, Vmasu-kata cannot be used with ga nai to mean 'there is no way to V; cannot V,' as in [I].

Unlike Vmasu-kata, Vmasu-y6 cannot be used to mean 'how to V,' as in [2].

4L b. gSo@ Bo L {Z / *A 3 1 fl&&b @b>,

(I don't know how to study kanji.)

It is also noted that Vmasu-kata is used to mean 'way' either in terms of method or manner, as in [2] and [3], while Vmaswy6 is usually used to mean 'method.'

d . 0 t t If.*

[3] a. ~LCi@?xo)%L { % / ? ? d r i I ;j'&?rE,, (I like the way she talks.) d.h H b L h

b. ~BJ~ESIL&< 12 / ? ? d ; i ~ etao (He eats in a funny fashion.)

(+ -kata (DBJG: 183-84))

probably; likely; must be; the writer's conjecture about some should; ought; naturally potentiality or his certainty about a [REL. dar6; deshd] given state of affairs

*Key Sentences

(A)

(Even the first year students of Japanese (probably) can read a of this level.)

I I I

(If you walk around without wearing an overcoat on such a cold day, it is a matter of course that you will catch a cold.

I I

(It is probably 1 must be easy to solve this political problem.)

600 -yo2 - ( i ) Vvol (V: non-controllable verb)

&lf dr j (so. (probably) can write s.t.)

&$ dr 5 (so. (probably) can do s.t.)

(ii) (Noun + Prt) Vvol (V non-controllable verb)

& & A 3 (it is natural that one wakes up) b

B $ 7 5 9 6 5 (so. probably understands Japanese)

(iii) Adj(na)stem T & 6 5 +" @&T& 6 5 (s.t. is probably 1 must be convenient)

~ 0 ~ ~ 7 ~ l : . = , k ~ - r i a k ~ s k ~ 6 ~ ? ~ ~ 9 ~ & , , d . ~ ; i b;kh 5 . (Regarding this problem, all sorts of political solutions can (probably) be considered.)

~ O r " 7 / ' / - f b f ? ~ f : l ; ~ # l : & & l f d r io (Even a child should be able to play this piano sonata.)

l i i : < L r 5WLe1 3 L L i l? ZO%SPGi% %O&9B dTC:Wlf A 5 (We should be able to write this report by next Friday.)

t ZtrLLL.1 &Ob7--~:%Lbf, fU2~759dr <A;idr?. (If you go up that tower, you should be able to see the entire city.) ^iw d.Ll b1 +bWL a%v -v b

%YH&O@ST, l&%O~~!JGdk&&%dr 5 (With the improvement of US.-Russia relations, it is likely that world peace can be maintained.)

W X / ~ ~ ~ : U . Y L ~ Z ~ . ~ ~ S ~ L I : ~ , b & t . 5. (If you are treated as badly as that you naturally get mad.)

~ ~ L ~ Z I ~ G G T < G T & $ L ~ c ~ , % ~ c : B Q ~ j.

(If you work as crazy as that, you will naturally get ill.)

O t Ohh (h) ZD%!I Tc&D--A$~ C&&T&?J 3.

(In this neighborhood it is probably I must be dangerous to walk alone at night.)

1. The auxiliary verb -yo is used to express either the writer's conjecture that s.t. can be done or his belief that s.t, should happen. The structure - N + Prt + Vvol, always expresses certainty, as shown in KS(B), Exs.(f) and (g). Adverbs such as sazo 'surely' and kitto 'certainly' also indicate conjecture with a feeling of certainty. Otherwise, the auxiliary verb is subject to either interpretation.

2. The auxiliary verb -yo is primarily used in written Japanese.

3. The Adj(na) version of -yd is Adj(na)stem + deard. For the Adj(i) version, see kar6of this volume.

4. The negative versions of -y6 are Vinf-nonpast rnai (V: a non-controllable verb), Adj(17stem + ku arumai, Adj(na)stem + de wa arurnai, respectively.

L t . l b < Q b >

(1) a. Z A G % Lb\;SC@t;t/J\ $%kb=.t253d~a%~\~ (An elementary school child might not comprehend such a difficult passage.)

b. @o%&tiEi8 < &JB%L\O (His lecture might not be interesting.)

+vL< L + 0 3

c. % ~ o E I @ ~ & ~ ~ ; ~ R ? T c ~ & ~ 6 % L \ ~ (Economic recovery might not be impossible.)

(+ mai)


Dar6, the informal, spoken I written form of deshd, is a contracted form of deard and can replace all the uses of the -yo without changing the meaning. Deshd, the formal spoken version of dare also can replace all the uses of -r6.

(+ daM (DBJG: 100-02))

[I] a. Ea)$?ba)A@Q 6 El;$;~a>-~&T%~@'IZJ If53 3 / T L a 3 1, (cf. KS(A))

C. Ea)@&&Bo7IQ#$&~ZJO~i@B (f.3 3 / T L A 3 I , (cf. KS(C))

yori 1) adv.

parative of an adjective or an adverb to mean 'more - than now

*Key Sentences

more - (than now; than s.t. at present; than otherwise) [REL. motto]

1 (We are always trying to offer better services.)

1 Topic 1 Scond 1 Adv.

(We can teach foreign languages more effectively if we utilize new technology.)

(C)

Sinf * Adj. sh d.hb $ 2 5 w<+?L

+&$&=h~-T@2?+?a gfl (It is more educational to have children think for themselves.)

*Adj(na) and N + Cop. must be in the prenominal forms. - ( i ) kV Adj.

k I1 %L$h b l (more interesting)

(ii) k b Adv. *k+<

k 4 iE@K (more accurately)

f % r 5 ? r l S h ( + . ) 3 d . W i 9 99 %%& k b&\, dc 13kBSfa>E?$&EtOR%fl%< E53. (The development of faster and larger (lit. of a larger capacity) storage devices will continue from now on, too.)

Fk b%<, k I18<, k ?I%s <I fl&fl#$O+7 b-Eo ("Lighter, thinner, and smaller" is our company's motto.) if& L r < L if%+?.

E&a@i k, k b$U%k09C=fbao (Using original colors would make it more stimulating.) T h b d'b'*&

%BH%%Bd0M-if;ktf, k b&&%a)z-f - K ~ a > y - - izxfl?Ei% &%a 0 - - -

= - . - . - (If we utilize telephone lines, we can offer this service to users in a

- Y ! - larger region.)

- -

L * ? $ * i g b g x v%?&w5io

(A centralized system would probably be more efficient.)

@) ,<x-&&-$&Afll ~ ~ $ & J T ~ ~

(Commuting to work by bus is more economical.) - 1. The adverb yon was derived from the particle yon 'than.' Yon

Adj. IAdv. expresses the idea 'more Adj. IAdv. than now or than otherwise' and is used to make a general comparison rather than a comparison between two specific entities. For example, KS(A), (B), and (C) are equivalent to (I), (2), and (3), respectively.

bh*

(1) ~ L B I ~ L ~ Q IJ a w - FXO>BHG:WT~~~-$~ (We are always trying to offer better services than (we do) now.)

(2) fiHZ3Gi% LLlE%iB$UHtkLlf, f 3 LtbL\&I)WR09G:&k 6Zkf l f f i%60 (If we utilize new technology, we can teach foreign languages more effectively (lit. than not doing so).)

(3) 3HBK $%T%;i S+?&Afl, f 3 Ltbc\kI1&BBW?, (To have children think for themselves is more educational (lit. than not doing so).)

(+yoril (DBJG: 564-67))

2. If X (no) hd ga is present, as in KS(C), the sentence is comparative without yori. In this case, yon is used for emphasis.

(+ - ha ga -yon (DBJG: 140-44))

Motto also expresses the concept of 'more.' However, motto is more colloquial than yori. Thus, the combination of motto and yoi, the literal version of ii 'good,' is awkward, as in [I].

yon' 605

On the other hand, motto can be used when a specific item of comparison kore l are l sore yori 'than this I that I that' is known from the situation or context, whereas yori is unacceptable in this situation, as in [2].

121 a. {%->t / * ~ v I %3t>a,iih~ a-ervjl., (Do you have a bigger one (than this)?)

b. &a)&&i (672 /*kc)} msb~k,E,9-?rbl?:a)If71f, $g g#f& p0

(I thought that that movie would be more interesting (than that), but it was disappointing.)

Note also that when X h6 ga 'X is (more)' is present, motto implies 'much more,' while yori is simply for emphasis. (See Note 2.) Compare [3a] and

Vbl.

[31 a. 1fXTBBfb3tr'% 7 t%Wb!~T.f~ (Commuting to work by bus is much more economical.)

606 zaru o enai

cannot help -ing; cannot (help) no other choice but to do s.t. but; have no choice but to -;

have to [REL. -nai wake ni (wa) ikanai; -nakereba naranai; shika nai ]

+ ~ e y Sentence

(It was a textbook so I had no choice but to buy it, although it was expensive.)

&< F b Q A Q b > (so. cannot help eating s.t.)

&$ 6 4 (s.o. cannot help going there)

Exception:

+S'6 B%Qb> (s.0. cannot help doing s.t.)

L*'ld.L L f ; P

(a) i%-ticjif, EI~FOW~E~:@;~FQQ~+QL>, (If you go to Japan you cannot help but adapt yourself to Japanese customs.)

(b) 'Z%JK&~K?~Z 5 k+$;ht~t~i f , QI+Q~/>~ (If a subordinate is told by his superior to go out drinking he cannot help going with him.)

It.& to3 2 V (c) ~ & f ? l f O X ~ ~ ~ ~ E S & ~ b ~ 6 0 f ~ ~ b , i w % & Q ~ U & L <

zaru o enai 607

fib 2 2 i- ~ - l b - & F a % q w - b ~ k E i 3 ~ (Because this many people have been murdered by guns, I feel that we cannot help but control possession of guns more strictly.)

L X L h < -k+ (d) Y ~ ; / & $ T . B * & P ~ ~ ; * ~ ; % + + T , = *I< TA,ebl ~ R ~ R L ; ~ & ~ L ~ K G - ,

7?072;511;, 3 + 0 X $ k S b F & %q*GbL (Since John was able to speak Japanese fluently and read newspapers with ease in one year we cannot help calling him a genius of language learning.)

1. Vneg zaru o enai is used in written Japanese to express an idea of 'cannot help -ing.'

2. The irregular verb sum changes to se before zaru o enai, as shown in Formation and Exs.(c) and (e).

3. Just like its English counterpart, the verb that can be used in Vneg zaru o enai has to be a volitional verb, so a non-volitional verb such as wakaru 'understand,' dekiru 'can,' tsukareru 'get tired,' komaru 'get into trouble,' mieru 'can see' and every potential form cannot be used with Vneg zaru o enai.

I. Vneg zaru o enai can be replaced by Vneg nakereba naranai when the latter means 'have to do s.t. because there is no other choice.'

608 zaru o enai

When Vneg nakereba naranai is used in a context where one has to do s.t. because she has an obligation to do it, it cannot be replaced by Vneg zaru o enai, as shown in [2]. In [2] the writer had made a promise with S.O. to go see a movie and as a result of that had to leave home right away. In such a case Vneg zaru o enai cannot replace Vneg nakereba naranai.

But if the same predicate is used in a situation where there is no choice but to leave a place right away, Vneg zaru o enai can replace Vneg nakereba naranai, as shown in [3].

L+ Z r i [3] Tt~*bD%%i?71:0~, tC t t l $ l f {&lfhldl&%&fi>~~

f< / g6%fs&fi'7f:l0 (Because it was the president's order, I had to leave right away.)

The crucial difference between the two structures is: Vneg zaru o enai is used to express only a no-choice situation but Vneg nakereba naranai is used to express either a no-choice situation or an obligation situation.

(+ - nakereba naranai (DBJG: 274-76))

11. Vneg zaru o enai can be also replaced by Vneg wake ni (wa) ikanai and V shika nai as shown in [4].

Vneg wake ni (wa) ikanai can be used in both no-choice and obligation situations, and implies the speaker's unwillingness to do s.t. indicated

zaru o enai / zo 609

by the verb, whereas both Vneg zaru o enai and V shika nai are used only in a no-choice situation. So in an obligation situation as in [2] above, Vneg wake ni (wa) ikanai can be used but not V shika nai.

20 +? prt. <s>

phasizes a male speaker's emotion about s.t. in his monologue or his strong desire to draw S.O. else's attention

* ~ e y Sentences

I tell you; I'm telling you; you know [REL. YO]

1 (Hey, my purse has gone somewhere!)

dj;k,

(B)

S L I ~ ~ X L \ ~ ~ C = ~ J E ~ B

(If you don't hurry, you'll be late for the bus, you know.)

{V 1 Adj(i))inf Q

Q, (Hey, S.O. is going to eat it.)

Sinf eb . a.

B M ~ Z L L I ~ ~ T L Z ~ ~ Q,

&<?:Yo (Hey, s.0. ate it.)

3 f:T0 (It was yucky.)

ITL 3 Z % f ? T 0 (S.O. is healthy.)

Z % f ? 7 f:?, (S.O. was healthy.)

(a) 44 caitjo+k s- r- -nl&ha e, (Wow! I can date that girl today.) -L i r t i ia 8.S hZ

(b) m?eo & ~ o @ $ a o @ i : k ~ & (Strange indeed! My wife's face looks like a cat's face.)

b L 1 L r i L r i l E ( 3 L (c) T ~ Z - ? * ~ % D ? ~ Y & % & h7-cJ?aeo

(By God, this time I will get the Education Ministry's Scholarship.) 1: ifh. :

(d) .?E l~E l&Z+D~&ba i 3 7f:?-"o

(Thank God, today's Japanese exam went well!) P tr

(e) +El ii%b>eh, $ - I $ - ??4~&7 f : % # b > b > ~ ~

(It's cold today, so you'd better go out with an overcoat on.) Sh

(f) Z o ? - + , &<iFbb>iFbl;, %-nlh~t;.riQ, (If you don't eat this cake, I will.)

uD.S (g) $$t$&>gg - j " " j & ~ ~ z b , ~ ~ Q L . > Q ,

(If you make the same mistake again, I'm not going to forgive you.)

(h) %b>, zo!& % < iFbb>T0 (Hey, this sake isn't hot enough!)

( i ) +%& ~ c & a amEt"i~?--c~ (It's rude of you to come here without any advance notice. Do you know that?)

- 1. The sentence-final particle zo is used only by male speakers in informal

speech to express either the speaker's strong feeling about something in a monologue or a strong desire to draw the hearer's attention to something.

2. KS(A) and Exs.(a) - (d) are examples of a monologue in which the male speaker is expressing his emotion such as dismay (KS(A)), joy (Ex.(a)), surprise (Ex.@)), determination (Ex.(c)), etc. KS(B) and Exs. (e) - (i), on the other hand, are examples of other-directed speech in which the speaker wants to draw the hearer's attention to something assumed to be unknown to the hearer. For example, in KS(B), a father can be the speaker who wants to draw his wife's or children's attention to the fact that the bus's scheduled time for departure is drawing near.

3. The particle zo is used in informal speech only. When it is used to draw s.o.'s attention to s.t., the addressee has to be either the male speaker's equal or inferior. So, for example, a male child cannot use zo to his parents.

There are four differences between the sentence-final particles zo and yo. First, the latter cannot be used in a monologue but the former can, as shown in [I] below.

[I] a. *hi%, % & W ~ Z + - ? ~ Q T La 37?.k0 (cf. KS(A))

b. *+HC;lrhD327-bd"X%bkO (cf.Ex.(a))

c. *@I?&, kEDafid"bD&3KR;ibo (cf. Ex.(b))

In other words, yo is always other-directed, but zo can be used either self- directed or other-directed way. Therefore, in all the other-directed examples zo can be replaced by yo.

[2] a. %A%blkltXG:;i9i!I BkLbkO (cf. KS(B))

The choice of yo in the above sentences sounds much less persuasive and informal than the choice of zo. Note that the sentences of [I] are all unacceptable as self-directed sentences (i.e., monologues) but acceptable if they are other-directed sentences. The second difference between the two sentence-final particles is that yo can be used by both male and female speakers but zo is used only by male speakers. The third difference is shown in [3] below. In the sentence-final combination of yo ne (assertion + confirmation) yo cannot be replaced by zo.

*m*L K 1% *v t [3] a. @h!3*a)&&b&f L ~ L ~ & ; ~ ~ I : {ah / * ? % I ] ,

(Japanese politics has undergone tremendous change, hasn't it?) 1: IiLCL * l j ,LTb,

b. B$.AcWW~~I:.~& { H a / * ? % I , (Japanese people are concerned about how they appear to the world, aren't they?)

The fourth and the last difference stems from the fact that zo can be used only with informal forms as indicated in Formation. In contrast, the particle yo can be used either with informal or formal forms.

141 a. z ~ ) % c & L B ~ L T F I A /*TI, (This book is interesting, you know.

b. H+AT-T ra / *TI, (He is a Japanese, you know.)

c. &s&z&ga 2 , W k i c t s r7 a* ra /*TI, (If you drink too much sake, you'll get ill, you know.)

(+yo (DBJG: 543-47))

Appendixes

APPENDIX 1 61 5

Appendix 1 Katakana Word Transcription Rules

Katakana words, or borrowed words spelled in katakana, make up a significant portion of Japanese vocabulary. When the original foreign words are used as Japanese words, certain phonological rules apply to them, usually yielding somewhat different pronunciations from the original.

The following is a list of correspondences between English vowels and Japanese vowels to show how a particular English vowel is perceived by a native Japanese. English is used here, because the majority of borrowed words are now coming from English. Phonetic symbols are given in brackets.

English [ae] (cat, salmon) [A] (cut, come), and [a] (suppose, ahead) + Japanese [a] English vowels [a:] (father, calm), [a:r] (service, fur), and [ar] (doctor, better) + Japanese [a:] English [i] (sit, busy) + Japanese [i] English [i:] (beat, chief) + Japanese [i:] English [u] (book, put) + Japanese [u] English [u:] (soup, rule) + Japanese [u:] English [el (get, friend) + Japanese [el English [3] (hot, yacht) + Japanese [o] English [ z ] (all, chalk) + Japanese [o:]

The following rules can be used to interpret unfamiliar katakana words or to transcribe foreign words in katakana.

Rule 1: Both [s] and [el (the sound for th) are represented by 3f 2 K -k Y.

Exs. service + +f - PX

seat -+ 2 - 1- switch + 2 4 r -f s e x + s r 3 X

socks + 2 r 3 X

6 1 6 APPENDIX l

thankyou++f'J3=- think tank + 2 ;/ 3 b 'J 3 theory + 2 f 1) -

Rule 2: Both [z] and [a] (the voiced version of [el) are represented by -tf* P;C-t?i ' .

Exs. Zambia + 'f' 2 F 7 zigzag + 'J 73 7 zoom + A - A zero + 2 0

zone 4 2.- 2

Rule 3: Both [r] and [l] are represented by 4 '1 IL L n

Exs. rice + Z .I' X

radio 4 f 5J f lamp+ f 2 7 rule + k -& list+ Z X 1.

Rule 4: [tfl (church, cheese) and [d3] (judge, gesture) are represented by -f and 9, respectively.

Exs. cheese + - ;C

kitchen + 3 r 2 2 judge+ 5J-v 72 exchange + r .:, 3 X .f r 22

Rule 5: [ti] and [dil are represented by -f / ? 4 or 7 1 7 4 , respectively.

Exs. party I\" - - f 4 - ticket + 2 9 Y b

Rule 6: [tu] is represented by 7

APPENDIX 1 61 7

Exs. tool + l;r - )l t w o - + z -

Note: Some Japanese can now pronounce [tu].

Rule 7: [tJ] (church, cello) and [d3] (soldier, gesture) / [3] (measure, decision) are represented by .f ?. -f = .f r .f 3 and Y ? Y=L Y )'-z Y 3 , respectively.

Exs. Chinatown + 4 t 9 3'/

chewing gum + -f - 4 I' 'J.& chocolate + Q 3 J - b

j u m b o j e t + c r I ' $ Y ~ Y b juice + = - X

Johnson + I' Y 7

Rule 8: Word-final consonants or two or more consonants in succession are pronounced and written with a vowel placed after each consonant.

8-1: The vowel [o] is added to a word-final [t] or [dl.

Exs. b a t + ~ t r & post + $2 - b test+ F X J

note + / -1 pound + S 7 .

poolside + 7- IN Polaroidi $7 n4' shade-, >=-I

(Exception: salad + Yr 7')

8-2: The vowel [u] comes after [p], [b], [f], [v], [k], [g ] , [s], [z], [el, Its], [ll and [ml.

Exs. grape+ 7 J - ; P

Bob + $2 knife + t 4 2

61 8 APPENDIX 1

The vowel [i] comes after [k].

cake-, 9-3 (*?-9) steak* X T - 3 (*XY-3) strike + X 1.5 4 5 'workers' strike' (cf. X b 4 4 3 'strike in baseball')

8-3: The vowel [i] comes after [tS] and [d3].

Exs. speech -t X V - f coach + 2 --f judge+ Y-v 72 page + 4- - 7

Rule 9: Long vowels and diphthongs are represented by the lengthening marker -.

Exs. [a:r] girl + e l l .

skirt + X k 1. curtain + k Y 7 service+3f{V/ Y 4 )X

[i:] queen + 3 4 - 7 P e t e r + c P - beef + e 7

cheese -, - f X

[u:] group + 3fk7 coupon + 3 $ 2

rule + k l L

APPENDIX 1 61 9

[ei] paper + -1 f - image + 4 2 9 inflation + 4 2 7 L 9 3 2

date -, 7- b

[D:] chalk + .f s - 3 story + X L ' ) - hall * e ) b

ball +

[xrl form -, 7 f - k sports + X ;f;"- 9

cord + x F pork + ;f;"- 3

[ou] boat 4 & b show + note -+ / b coat 4 i-

Note: The diphthong [ail can be represented not by the lengthening marker by Japanese [ail as in:

spy + XI\".l wine + ' 7 2 pie + ,\".I

Rule 10: If the original English word has a word structure of [. . . Short Vowel + Consonant . . .I, then 9 is inserted before the consonant, The original consonants are [p, t , d, k, s, tJ, d3, J, tsl at a word-final position and [p, t , k, s, tJ, S] at a word-medial position.

620 APPENDIX 1

10.2: [. ..Short Vowel+ t / d . . .]

Exs. motto [m@oul+ =€ r 1. - bat [ b g ] + IT r 1% pet [pe l + 4 r 1.

(Exception: butter p g a r ] + 17 9 -)

bed [bed] + F thoroughbred [ea:rabrecJ] + .tf 4 1 L 1= deadball [dedbzl] - + 7 r F S- )l.

10.3: [. . . Short Vowel + k . . .] Exs. slacks [slcks] + X 4 r 3 x

black [ b l s ] + 7 4 r 3 kick [kg] + 4 r 3 cracker [krckar] - + 3 5 r j5 -

(Exception: necktie [nektai] + ri. 3 9 4 ) -

10.4: [. . . Short Vowel + s . . .]

Exs. message [ m ~ i d g ] -, % r + - Y essay [cei] -, r r -k - kiss [kis] - + 4( r )X

(Exception: dress [dres] - + F L X )

10.5: [. . . Short Vowel + tJ/ d3. . .]

Exs. watch [ w g ] + 3 % 7 f switch [swi&J] + X 4 r f kitchen [kitsin] - + 4 r f 7

judge [j&] + Y -T r Y college [ k a l a ] 75 L 7 9 badge p a ] + 17 r Y

10.6: [. . . Short Vowel + J . . .] Exs. cash [ k g ] + 4 f Y > s.

fishburger [fiJa:rgar] + 7 4 > s. JT- 55"-

APPENDIX 1 621

rush hour [rdauar] + 3 r 'J 3 7 '1 - pressure [preJar] - + Y L .;r 2 T -

10.7: [. . . Short Vowel + ts . . .] Exs. cats [kaets] + + T r

guts [&j] + f f s 7

Notes 1. If the original English word has a word structure of [. . . Long Vowel 1 Diphthong + Consonant . . .I, the consonant is not represented by the small 7 in Japa- nese as shown by:

speech [spi:tS] + X E - F beach [bi:tS] + F- F peak [pi:k] + P - 3 jeep [d3i:p] + P - Y concert [kansart] + 2 79- 1. rate [reit] + L - I- coach [koutJI + 3 - F out [autl + 7 3 1. date [deit] + 7- I-

(+Rule 9)

2. . If a given word has a word structure of [. . . Short Vowel + Consonant + Short Vowel + Consonant], not the word-medial consonant but the word-final consonant is represented by 7 as shown by:

rocket [rakit] + 9 Y 1. , pocket [pakit] + $3- Y 1. , racket [raekit] + 3 3- Y I- , ticket [tikit] + F3- r 1. , topic [tap&]+ b F r 3, classic [klaesik] + 3 3 'J Y 3

Rule 11: The nasal sounds, [m], [n] or [g], in [. . . Vowel + Nasal + Con- sonant) . . .] and [. . . Vowel + Nasal] are represented by 7 . If the nasal sound in [. . . Vowel + Nasal] is [g], it is represented not by r but by r 7.

Exs. pink [pi&] + E=/ 3 pin [pin] + f=/ tent [tent] + ?=/ I-

622 APPENDIX 1

campus [ k m a s l + 4 ??I cx companion [ k a x p w ~ j z ] -, Z I ~ I C r $2 lamp [laemp] + 72 7"

(Exceptions: Hong Kong [ha~jkagl-, %' 3;.

ping-pong [ph- par^] + $2

Note: If [m] occurs word-finally, [m] is represented not by 'J

but by 4 as in:

cream [kri:m] + 3 11 -A dream [dri:m] + I.' 1) -5 game [geim] + Y -A

Rule 12: There are a set of new spellings which attempt to transcribe the original sound more faithfully.

Note: The katakana word in parentheses represents the older transcription.

12-1: [fae], [fail, [fi], [fe], [ f ~ ] , [foul by 7 7 , 7 7 4 , 7 4 , 7

r , 7 s , 7 ;s -, respectively.

Exs. fight [fait] -, 77 4 1. fashion [faeJan] + 7 -r 9 3 'J

feet [fi:t] + 71' - F fianc6 [fi:a:nsei] -, 7.1 7 2 -k feminism [f emanizm] + 71 < ;f 4 festival [festaval] 4 7 X X 4 19% folk dance [fouk d a m ] -+ 7 - 3 3 'J %

forum [fxrarnl* 7+ - 7 4

12-2: [val, [vail, [vil, be1 and [voul by Y 7 , Y 7 4 , Y 4 , Y r and Y + -, respectively.

Exs. vacation [vakeisan] + -?-98 'J (199-93 2)

violin [vaialin]+=4$7f) 'J (19.1;51) 2 )

APPENDIX 1 623

violet [vaialitl + 4 ;3- L r 1. (1T4 f L .:, 1.) victory [viktari] + fi 9 F 1) - (I?? 1.1) -) Venus [vi:nas] + -;FX (Y- f x ) Venice [venis] + Yr .I X (4 L % ) vocal [voukal] +- Y - 3 )IL ($- 3 IL)

12-3: [wi], [we] and [wo] by 3 4 , 3 L and 3 %

Exs. w i t [ w i t ] - + D r 1. ( 3 4 7 F) wink [ w i r ~ k l + 3 1 " / 3 ( 3 4 29) Western [westarn] + 3 Z 9 '/ (3x29 2) waitress [weitres] + 2.1 1. LX ( 3 r - 1. Lx) water [wztar] +3-5'- ( 3 % -9 - )

12-4: [qui], [quel and [quo] by 9 4 , 9 r and 3%

12-5: [ti], [di], [du]and[tsa]by T I ' , P-f, 7i'~ and 7 7 .

Exs. tea [ti:] + - disco [diskou] + 71' 2 2

duet [d(j)u:et] + 1. r 1. pizza [pi:t sa] + V Y

Rule 13: The correspondences between the Japanese palatalized sounds and their English counterparts are as follows:

English Japanese (palatalized sounds) +-T

+3.

>-T

>i'J

> s f r f l

Examples

cash [kaeS]+ - r 2 i ' ~ cute [kju:t] + - - 1. chandelier uaendalia] + = 'J 7 11 7 shoot uu:t] + - 1. shop LJhp] + ',3 r 7" challenge [tJaelindg] + L 'J P tube [tju:b] + - I

624 APPENDIX 1

[tsd 3 choice [tJ3is] + -f 4 X

[nju] =a New York [n ju : j~k] -t - 3 - 9 [ g ~ l +-'+ gap [gaepl -t r 7 [dgael Y T jam [d3iem] -t a [dgu] Y z juice [d3u:s] -+ - 2

[d30u] Y 3 joke [dsouk] -t ')'s - 3.

In addition to the pronunciation-based rules give above, there are spelling- based rules.

Rule 14: English [a] Japanese [a], if [a] is spelled a.

Exs. opera [apara] -t ;5 4-7 banana [baniena] 4 I\'?-+ parade [pareid] -t L_\" 1/ - F.'

Rule 15: English [a] + Japanese [il, if [a] is spelled i.

Exs. identity [aidentati] -t 7 4 7 2 B F 4 personality [pa:rsanielati] -t I T - '/ ?-'l F 4

stamina [staemana] + X 9 5 ?

Rule 16: English [a], [dl or [de] -t Japanese [el, if [a] is spelled e or de.

Exs. [ga:rdn] + %-z> camera [kaemara] -t 7~ 2 S model [madl] -t rZ)I/

Rule 17: English [a] -t Japanese [o], if [a] is spelled o.

Exs. lemon [leman] -t L? 2 inflation [infleiJan] -t 4 7 7 L -2 7 communication [kamju:nakeiJan] -t 2 < 3 =? - - 2 3 2

Rule 18: English spellings -age, -ate and -wer are spelled [e:] - 9, [e:] - b and 7 -, respectively.

Exs. image -t 4 %

percentage -, I f - -k 2 7-=Y

chocolate -t 4 3 3 L d private + 7 4 4 43

APPENDIX 1 625

tower + 9z- shower -+ > ?%-

626 APPENDIX 2

Appendix 2 Compound Verbs

A compound verb is a verb that consists of two verbs creating a specific meaning not always predictable from the meanings of each element. The compound verb has only one accentual peak and no other elements can enter between the two verbs. The compound verb is either Vte + V as in 4- 'to buy s.t. for s.o.,' 'to buy s.t. on an experimental basis,' k@iG& 'to buy s.t. in advance,' or Vrnasu + V. In this segment only the latter will be exemplified and explained.

The Vmasu to which another verb is affixed acquires additional meaning such as 'to start to do s.t.,' 'to finish doing s.t.,' 'to continue to do s.t.,' etc. On one hand there are some compound verbs that are so productive (i.e., they can be almost freely produced according to the pattern) that they are not listed in a dictionary. For example, Vrnasu + hajirneru 'to begin to do s.t.,' Vrnasu + sugiru 'to do s.t. too much' are not listed in a dictionary. On the other hand, there are other verb compounds that are so unproductive that they are listed in a dictionary. For example, tori-kaeru 'to exchange,' kaki-naosu 'to rewrite,' etc.

The following are a list of frequently used compound verbs with the pattern of V1 (= Vmasu) + Vz. For each compound verb given below the basic meaning is given in brackets and the conjugation type is given in parentheses, followed by English glosses (which are omitted when there is no close equivalent). The symbols v.i. and v.t. stand for an intransitive verb and a transitive verb, respectively. Generally speaking, the entire compound verb is an intransitive verb, if V1 is intransitive, and a transitive verb if VI is transitive.

h

,A a 3 - v.i. / v.t. [to do s.t. mutually] (Gr. 1) do s.t. together; do s.t. with each other 26: IPAti t b C 3

a. ~ ~ f + 7 7 < ;k&x, %L&+->T < ; k & h f l $ % ~ ~ ~ l ? , (A person who will rejoice with you and grieve with you is a true friend.) a? P 3 v b,

b. I h b b j \ S ts t t C%b1f+7Tbako (The two were arguing with each other over a trifle.)

APPENDIX 2 627

- t & k 3 c. Z O & ~ T . b ~ $ % 2 ~ ~ ~ 7 5 ' d c < ~ ~ & ~ .

(In this family the parents and the children frequently talk with each other.)

d. % % b i % z ~ & L B ~ T , 71f- 1- 94% b ~ b \ & , (We jointly contribute money to rent an apartment.) c I e r : i Z I

e. 9 3 k 7 F 2 ~ 0 4 ; / . f ~ & 3 f 3 7 7 b 3 & ~ (A man and a woman are embracing on a bench in the park.)

10

--+$a v.i. [an action takes place upward] (Gr. 1) - up

Note: V1 is an intransitive verb and is almost limited to a movement verb.

*t: hb,3*<

a. W I ~ & M - = T , ~ ~ ~ $ & ~ L?:, (The man stood up and shook hands with the visitor.)

b. % ~ k i r ; t ? b ~ ~ ~ t ~ % - h " ; : / v 7 ' f ~ & C ~ A V M J ~ ~ ~ C ~ (When I accidentally stamped on its tail, the cat jumped up.)

c. % ~ c i % 3 O E E 9 i b c f k # 3 t Z O

(I ran up the stairs of the temple.) .t5 C w i If

d. 8.3 ~blf:275'%\C:@;kk$?k~ (The cloudy sky suddenly cleared up.)

10

--I333 6 v.i. [to get tired of doing s.t.1 (Gr. 2) get tired of - Note: VI is almost limited to taberu 'eat,' miru 'see' and kiku 'hear.'

a. &'$$ L~$<T~~~ ' :oG: , .fLbi&<l$?&L\, (I've been eating sushi every day, but I am not tired of eating it.)

b. ~ ~ ' 7 4 ' ~ ~ 2 6 i & s i r l ~ k . l . (I'm tired of drinking this wine.)

Dt l f*L c. & O ~ a > % i i b 1 ~ B ~ C ~ ? D T , $ 3 3 l d t ~ ,

(His talk is always the same, so I am tired of listening to it.)

d. ~ 0 ~ ~ ; 5 ~ i ? $ & i l f i ~ : 0 ~ . , fimst;d;. (I saw this video many times, so I got tired of watching it.)

h

--tlf Q v.t. [to cause an action to take place upward or to finish up st.]

(Gr. 2)

Note: VI has to be a transitive verb.

a. t k a * t v , t O % Q & ~ ~ _ ~ C ~ T % L ~ * X , ~ ~ (Excuse me, but could you kindly lift this box, please?) *9 st5 5 L X L

b. ~ % ~ ~ ~ ~ ? 9 < % 3 + C f k , (At long last I finished up writing the senior thesis.)

Note: If the connected verb is a verb that indicates s.t. that directly involves a person, -ageru implies politeness, as shown below.

QLQL,

c. %!kQl%k;$#t&%dbrj%LlAf T% ") L?:, (I have known your name for a long time.)

h

-&;he5 v.i. / v.t. [to bring two things/persons together] (GI. 2)

Note: When VI is a v.t., it means 'to put things/persons together' and if it is a v.i., it means 'for two things/persons to be accidentally brought together.'

a. ?Z" k ~ a ? % + k r% k w ? ~ S + Q $ N ~ + W E Q 2 , rbeq~ k b > ? g 2 i : a a 0 (If you put the Chinese characters k 'woman' and 3 'child' together, you get the character %f 'like.') b k L

b. $Ldi%- 1. < -ILL- 3-Y)L 1. k1ft-fQ&?&;b+?7, & < ~ b a

a t o

(I mix oatmeal, yogurt and banana together and eat it.) irocl L S y $9 e + L

c. k U & k k ~ a u o > ~ ~ J & ~ & 3 9 9 + ? f c ~ (I met her at a coffee shop in front of the station.)

* * L f ; B L * O d. $L B - A I ; ~ ? ~ L%%OD E- c&gefi,

(The two of us happened to be together at the lobby of the same airport.)

e. $LB~&@&H CKX I:% v + i - b e t z O (We happened to ride the same bus together.)

APPENDIX 2 629

- ~ h 8 v.i. I v.t. [to get s.t. into some place] (Gr. 2) in; into

a. c7 / 9 ~ C : ~ v A h . a o ; 3 . ' ~ & ~ 3 ~ &

(It was hard to carry the piano into the house.) L%i L i T L b IfhZJ

b. Z Z ~ ~ 4 $ f i ~ ~ ~ % ~ % ~ 3 ~ h 7 ~ ~ k ~ ~ (Please write in here the address and the telephone number.)

rj + T O

c. ~7;&;3.'WPC 2a>%3 1: 9,g !I A h 6 i k T E . (The subway is expected to extend into this area, too.) hW E ' 7% 1: I IL 4 V S '

d. ~?k&4tb:~$kk~i$&bb~4kl6ts&%&!I ~ h ~ , (During the Meiji era Japan adopted all sorts of things from the West.)

c 3 i i h?L t L r < e. ~ ~ ~ b ; f % ~ ~ d ~ % % h 3 h h & f i ~ ~ f z ~

(The president didn't accept my resignation.)

ti<

-%a v.t. [to send or send off after doing s.t.1 (Gr. 1) send; - off

Note: V, is very much limited. lilt T %*

a. f3~%$lk%$?i%7f~~ (I sent a letter to my mother.)

b. ggg.&-p&g7fLO (I saw my friend off at the airport.) +?LlTi

c. %fjl:bk+o%b%!i~)'d~dj. (I will write them to that effect.)

-&% 6 v.i. [s.t./s.o. falls down in a certain manner] (Gr. 2) T h C r i 9 * i ( f

a. ~ > ~ ~ J - P ~ > x # ~ ~ c ~ ~ c : ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ T & I : ~ (The concrete ceiling suddenly collapsed on us.)

b. I~~(+TY,T-- F .n'&f~%t:, (The department store burned down in a fire.) t l l 11wf;'h

c. ~ W E R ~ ~ G Y : X B t~ (My grandmother fell down the stairway.)

630 APPENDIX 2

d. *gT.zd'$&j & 13 ~ ~ f i ,

(The books slipped off the bookshelves because of the earthquake.)

H

- R 1) 75 v.i. [to descend in a certain manner] (Gr. 1) down

Note: V, is very much limited.

a. @ ~ L ~ B , & I Y R ~ ) fi, (I ran down the mountain.)

b. *#Oi$, E*r;kv@w-, (At the time of the earthquake I jumped out of the window.)

H

-7736 v.t. [to lower s.t.1s.o. in a certain manner] (Gr. 1) - down

a. $ d : % t z & ~ ~ 1 3 7 ; 3 L ~ L ~ (I pulled down the cat that had climbed up the tree.)

b. ~ ~ i L ~ - f ~ K @ f $ % $ J 6 7 ; 6 L k 0 (The policemen struck down demonstrators with their clubs.) ihhL b ~ i hTik t:h _z

c. %LOZiL it! & = f i 7 ; 3 i t f i b - x 9 ~ ~ G ~ (My house stands at a place that overlooks a lake.)

d. ~O%&~%t:b~%d'&37;3 L T ? ~ & ~ (A cold wind blows down from the mountain.)

Note: The following example has the specific meaning of 'to write a new novel or play.'

L r i * ? + dle5 e. / J \ % R C ~ % L I / ~ / I \ % B $ ~ T ; ~ L ~ ; ,

(The novelist wrote a new novel.) H B

--&.b6 / 8 x 7 5 v.t. [a process of doing s.t. comes to its end] (Gr. 1) finish

Note: - owaru can be replaced without changing the meaning by using - oeru.

It< L hLJL

a, @kt.a*???92&3 l & . b = f i / S X k l , (I finally finished writing my doctoral dissertation.)

APPENDIX 2 631

*A $ -.k> t7

b. PlLXi--1.0 ~%k&t:W~l ??&k 1@;h7f=/%A.kl0 (I finished reading Tolstoy's War and Peace.)

c. &%??A {@;h?k / @ % k l 8, % ? k ~ ? ? & ? ? ~ b ~ k ~ (When I finished watching the movie it was already past midnight.)

Note: -R;i & cannot be used in spoken Japanese.

d. 2 D%%, % ? Zk {%;h=k / *B%kl? (Have you finished reading this newspaper?)

-%it. v.t. [to do s.t. again (and again)] (Gr. 1) - again; -back

Note: -kaesu is used with a controllable action verb. fn).L k +'*% L t i * = 2 * e P Ez/vf .&60/~\ w%~~~YELT,-+.~~,

(I reread Soseki's novels that I had read a long time ago.)

b. %&?.&??&3~$~;31;k3-? b:i .s~i?a)~, h ;hT~&?l?ELt=, (Someone was about to take away my valuable articles, so I hastily retrieved them.) OC

c. E r j h k ~ r j , Et.r)YELk, (Someone hit me, so I hit him back.)

Note: In the following example the VI has lost its original meaning of 'to reel threads' using a weaving machine. Hti HO

e. h a a ~ m e z t: a?$&ehr7~it., (He repeats the same thing again and again.)

d.

-#!% b v.i. I v.t. [to replace s.t.1s.o. by s.t.1s.o. else] (Gr. 2) change; re-

Note: -kaeru means replacement of s.t. by s.t. else but -naosu means redoing of the same thing. For example, ki-kaerulki-gaeru means to put on different clothing, but ki-naosu means to put on the same clothing again, so that it is worn properly.

632 APPENDIX 2

a. & Q j z i f f i 9 PVO'~+SE~>OT, &Q*A.T b 9 j z 0 (The TV set which I just bought didn't work well, so I had it exchanged.)

b, t, -6"

b. 7 7 7 - @ @ t 7 3 f & l 2 9 I:a)T, & ? i @ i t ~ & j z , (The position of the sofa was strange, so we changed the position.)

c. %Qa>*eX;k*%tLo (I replaced the books on the shelves.)

*tor +L

d. $ $ % T J R L L I P % ~ : % ? @ R ~ ~ ~ (At Shinjuku we transferred to the JR Yamanote Line.)

e. gzii 3 ; k L \ ? g ~ f $ & A . f ~ , (She changed into a beautiful dress.)

-fia;tr>bl v.i. [an event is about to take place] (Gr. 1) begin to -; be about to -; almost -

Notes: 1. The verb is usually a v.i. 2. The verb has to be a non-volitional, punctual verb. 3. - kakaru can be replaced by - kakeru without substantial

change in meaning. For example, shini-kakatta means 'faced death' and shini-kaketa means 'was half dead.'

(+ - kakerul) 4% hd. t S

a. Xii$$L\@C:, $ ~ 8 ~ ~ ; k f ~ ' ~ T t : + j 72, (I heard that my father almost drowned in the ocean when he was

young.)

b. r7id4?ifia;h>->tL;t)', (The door began to open, but it closed again.)

C. & ~ k ~ = f i > f i a ~ t-o (I almost died in a car accident.)

d. ~ 0 X K 7 8 ? S & ; h ~ f i ~ 3 f L 0 (The moon was about to come out over the forest.) W 9 k i LT L Zi: S L l i LT

e. AID C=%~M~BGB&ID t : i ~ & & f i ~ f i a T ~ w z , (The work I started on Monday was almost finished on Friday.)

APPENDIX 2 633

-fi>fi".a2 v.i. [a directed movement works on s.t. / s.o.1 (Gr. 1) at; on $52: I?<

a. % g & l ~ k > f z b , ~ $ # c : % v fiafi3373 tzo (When I was walking along the street, a man came to hit me.)

b. % + c & % ~ K 6 ~ ~ f i f i a f i > ~ r ~ ~

(Hanako leaned on Taro's shoulder.)

c. $;3f+#b:&~fi>fia3tz~ (A dog jumped at a child.)

- - iW B 1 v.i. / v.t. [an action or a state is about to take place] (Gr. 2) begin to; be about to; almost -

a. r&&mtr$c:, &E&$ tz, (When I {was about to /just started to) eat my meal, the earthquake occurred.)

b. 2&k>e~:, ~ T ~ C S M ~ j E, (I was told that my father almost drowned in the ocean when he was young.)

TA $ c. f i > [ f tz$, 3 l :x5 ,C:a9k0

(It started to rain, but it became fine again.)

d. &kfi5~fk Y-ILOX r 7'df?-7',LQ)yb:&3 rzo (There was a glass of beer that someone didn't finish drinking.)

e. ~ n ~ i $ 3 f i > h ' ~ t t L $ , ~ T : F ! A ~ ~ - c L b g k 0 (The door began to open, but it closed again.)

f. ~&??&3fi4tl;; /vT-W, 3&&~-Cb~b+?/v, (I started to write my senior thesis, but I haven't finished it yet.)

- - f i > [ f a2 v.i. [a communicative action directed toward s.o.1 (Gr. 2) at; to P A L * d'b t b

a. %ST, b Z j f l ~ i : @ ~ ~ b l f z & ~ f l & C : ~ k > f i > [ f f z ~

(A beautiful lady sitting opposite me in the train smiled 'at me.) I: l t ~ ~ h . h I: 1% Z

b. f$iiEI$hl:%j 2 ~ l $ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ f i > l f b Z 2 k : L T b > 6 ~ (He always addresses Japanese people in Japanese when he meets them.)

634 APPENDIX 2

c. xg '#j&i$j&&fj < ~ G z i $ U l l h > ~ f 7L\f& (The presidential candidate was speaking to passers-by.)

- b 5 v.i. / v.t. [to do s.t. completely] (Gr. 1) CL 1 - v , b

a. ~ I L X b , f0r&t.1f~qn1dkm7r:, (I read Tolstoy's War and Peace completely.)

b. TEO+%2Z&T&b>3 7 7 L 3 9 7& (I have used up my entire budget for this month.)

"A?;. % c. Z W . . i f 0 i%rBm?bh%d;310

(Can you memorize this many kanji?)

d. ~ $ ~ b i 2 5 ? 4 1 k ? 5 ~ ' / Q % b d ~ t ~ , (She finished running the 25-mile marathon.)

< r, - J k 4 6 v.t. [to compare thingslpersons in a certain manner] (Gr. 2)

- and compare

a. b a 6 b r 6 a L X b 4 7 T . j ~ ~ - 3 4 ~ ~ $ 4 t 4 f c , (Visiting various restaurants I ate and compared cumed rice.)

b. F $ O ~ - ) L 2 & & J k 4 7 & 7 : ~ (I drank beer from all around the world to compare them.)

c. +Bw-+aXs 3 % ~ < %LWT;?\~ , (The child compared the size of the cakes with her eyes and took the larger one.)

(I have read various papers and compared them, but after all the New York Times is the best.)

I t

- A t v.t. [to cancel or negate s.t. in a certain manner] (Gr. 1) cancel; deny

APPENDIX 2 635

(Mr. Yamada strongly denied his involvement with the scandal.) I3 Z A L r

c. %fTl2dcJTl.af:kif.~ %k!t $ A % L k o (The pedestrian rubbed out with his foot the cigarette he was smoking.)

- v.i. 1 v.t. [an action takes place deep in s.t.Is.o.1 (Gr. 1) into; deeply St: R B

a. b 1; ar/a~.nfma:X v u.T&~L:~ (A male stranger came into the room.) S O ? + W

b. D+EI ~ i ~ 9 / ; 4 1 1 t & w ~ ~ a I:, (Yesterday I was completely down in bed because I had a cold.) t b f i r , LAHt

c. &Bk&B< 2 t 8 $ L U . E 0 (I was deep in conversation with my friend until late at night.) b t ~ t ~ BL% e &,+Arh

d. +L mh- t ;~ak~f~%~=.R rl am, (We got into the 7 a.m. bullet train.)

e. + @ j ~ r + ~ 2 7 4 - % & A ~ A E ~ (The child swallowed the candy.)

B

-7;tf b v.t. [to lower s.t. in a certain manner] down; lower - a. $ $ I & Y ~ 4 'J F B ~ I 37;tfk,

(My wife pulled down the blind.)

b. ~ ~ $ & ~ ~ & $ ~ ~ 5 1 3 7 ; ~ f ~ , (The Bank of Japan lowered the interest rate.) IT&:< t L,*?

c. R E I S $ B& V 7;tf k , (The plaintiff withdrew the case.)

-8 d v.t. [to leave s.t. half done] (Gr. 1) half - Note: V1 is very much limited.

a. F - I L % & ~ P L f c ~ r ; ~ . n f ~ - - ~ ' ~ k ~ ~ b ~ f : < ~ t v h b . (On the table are many glasses of beer only half drunk.)

IIL V 6

b. g b & A ~ LTZZRBRG=&I/~T&T L a 31:~

(I fell asleep with a half-read book on my lap.)

63 6 APPENDIX 2

Note: It sounds more natural to say nomi-sashi no biru no koppu, yomi-sashi no hon in (a) and (b), respectively.

-&66 (eDBJG: 423-25) t

-K'b v.t. [to let s.t. negative happen] (Gr. 1) overlook -; let pass by - b6L $ w 6(LIP3 1 +id'

a. $LI~/J\S ~ ~ o ) B ~ ~ ~ ~ G ; ~ : B ~ z ~ ~ (I overlook small grammatical errors.) I t t ' T L L *

b. a m x ~ ~ ~ ~ -c %&/u~r(ar:o~, 9 3 B Z L ~ L , (The first train was so crowded that I let it pass by.)

TI., Ilmi t r

c. & - c m o Y ~ & - c b a r : ~ , b%oe g R & ~ V B Z L T ~a 9 r:,, (I was tired and was sleeping in the bus and ended up by passing my bus stop.)

d. ~ & C ~ S B Z L - C ~a I:, (I overslept this morning.)

it - v.i. / v.t. [to go on doing s.t. or to proceed in a certain manner] (Gr. 1) keep on -ing; progress

1% S b L J

a. F O ) $ I ~ ~ S L . ~ O ) T , PX,PX.%~&JAEA.E, (It was interesting, so I kept on reading it at a fast pace.) I vd% 1iLI:h. t f*L trd.

b. ~ B I ~ A B ~ L . ~ ~ J ~ ~ ~ I C , ~ Y P B & ~ ~ A . E , (The policeman dashed through the forest in pursuit of the culprit.) dbh L t i * ? ItLbih. t l V r i S

c. q ~ i ; ~ . / ~ \ ~ ~ + ~ ~ ~ ; b ~ a - r - & s z ~ r a r ~ e , nm:a9-cLa9 r: (After he had progressed half way through writing his novel, he fell ill.)

t i

-%a6 v.t. [to go on doing s.t.1 keep on -ing

Note: V1 is very much limited.

APPENDIX 2 637

LBT'Jl9 7'L

(To complete this undersea tunnel they kept on digging down till they reached a depth of 300 meters.)

r) h L b< C I t L 1 ~ 3 c. Z ~ ~ % 0 # & d j r T @ F % ~ & L Z L B - C ' J ~ < 9% )1 tZo

(I intend to continue my research using this theoretical frame- work.)

e: --%a 5 v.i. 1 v.t. [to fail to do s.t. or to come near doing s.t.1 (Gr. 1)

fail - 1 0 5 v a

a. E ~ F E I I L , ~ % L L - C , ~ ~ - - T ~ - C : & S ~ E Q L \ L \ ~ L ~ ; ~ (I failed to go to the party, because I was busy last night.)

b. & ~ L - C ~ ~ ~ $ D ~ ~ ~ L & Q ~ E & ~ ~ Z , (I overslept and failed to catch the regular train.)

1 c. = ~ - ~ - - ? ~ - ~ I L I T ) J ; / S ~ - - b 2 H ? i f j j & 7 k O

(I failed to listen to the New York Philharmonic Orchestra's concert.)

Note: In the following example - sokonau has a meaning of 'almost.' d. ffiirtgi+ :

& &TkbL%f2 7 k0 (He was almost killed in a traffic accident.)

-2d v.t. [to do s.t. additionally] (Gr. 1) additionally; add

a. 6 19 t : f i i j . ~ f r ~ ~ ~ z ' ~ a ~ trfici&,% tv~?f i f , ' ~ 1 ' ~ l ~ ? f i a ~

(I have something to add, but is it alright?) b . 6 r *

b. -Ef ' J l - C ~ r ; , K ~ P S Z L ~ ; . , (After writing once I have added (in writing) quite a bit.)

c. 11 2 y&-=A9 tzf i~ , dj t :2-=w"'~lz~t~. (I bought six apples, then I bought three more.)

- xd2 v.t. [to take out s.t. in a certain manner] (Gr. 1) - out

Note: If V1 indicates a movement or a process that causes s.t. to come out in the open, any verb can be used with -dasu.

638 APPENDIX 2

st: a. US;".L/Y ] \ $ b t d 7 e & ~ 1 i i ~ - t , &v$+~Ts~:,

(The man took out a knife from his pocket and jumped upon me.)

b. .Z - / f - -h~&b>!&iZf i$2?$b, E ~ T $ T & L ' ~ ~ ! & % & $ X L 7 y ~ b ' ~

(I'm going to the supermarket, so please list the items you want me to buy.) DtVt

c. A ~ C & + ~ ; & & V x L ~ I ~ L - F ~ A T w ~ . (People are leaning out of the windows, looking at the parade.)

zit *.A@

d. E D 7 4 7 4 7Ci%;tr'%;iIiiLkAT?;31, (Who came up with this idea?) d W C L P b ' L i 8 Hb

e. %Eilffrkh:@ah:,9?~a);5'rE??9f:$,RbrXe&L\. (I cannot remember where I met her first.)

f. h#$Th%$DFe&?l x L k 0 (I checked out a Japanese history book from the library.)

fi

- 2 v.i. [whatever has been figuratively lying down stands up] (Gr. 1)

- UP Dt i t R L

a. & D A D E ~ ~ $ I < 2 4 , & 3 ; t r ' % ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ (When I listen to his talk my mind gets stirred up.)

b. ~ $ ~ c J & ~ T I ~ ~ I h:&~f T&V&7 ko (She flew off to (lit. flew up toward) Paris on business.) 33 Hb

c. xCi,%baaT 2-P &;?ax7?o (When my father thinks of doing something, he puts it into practice right away.)

d. %d~$2&t&77 , %fie.i!~i:~~r:,, (Today I went to see a movie in the company of my wife.)

t;

-,5?tlE1 v.i. [to be sufficient] (Gr. 2) sufficient; enough

Note: If - tariru is affirmative, then rnichi-tariru is the only combination, but if - tariru is negative, VI can be any verb, except *shini-tarinai.

APPENDIX 2 639

bPL W,+? a. $L~&%Fibi&~Ztl T ' J ~ ~ .

(I am fully content with my life.)

L 3 I: d.L d. $ ~ F i b i - t ; @ m ~ ~ i & a ~ ~ a ~ \ ~

(For me seven hours of sleep is not sufficient.) 3 3'

- 3 75 [to make an error in doing st.] (Gr. 2) make a mistake in -ing bkL + iP.3

a. W ~ F B ~ D # ~ Q & Q BATLI~F. , (I misunderstood the point of the letter.)

b. g%%&S?3kt. tb~c, ~&l i$$; t r .$ ; t r .7 f .~ (Because I made a mistake in writing the address, the letter didn't get there.)

c. &%bi&~36G3 F3 kLr/1~=?23 TcO (She has become so beautiful that I cannot recognize her.)

3 --a 5 T v.t. [to do s.t. without any sense of direction or discretion] (Gr. 1)

a. ~mc: 9 ~ 5 ~ C C L \ T Y S L > , (Please don't rant and rave.)

P I & b l b. E I ~ R ~ D E ' J ~ $ G ~ % I : T ~ ~ I : 9 ~ t ,

(When my father was in a bad mood, he worked off his bad tem- per on everybody .) b f ; L L b l ' L r i v - t . l +LA

c. $ L O A & & ~ % I : ~ - R $ ~ B - ~ - ~ & $ ~ % L ~ , (My child scribbled kanji on my important papers.)

--kc v.i. 1 v.t. [to continue on to s.t. else without a break] (Gr. 1)

Note: V, is very much limited. LA. C*( * O t;

a. % @;ii~6ZEEix3 x -PLX Kg 9 ##L\T, @,EEt&$d T.67 k , (I transferred to the Narita Express at Shinjuku and went to Narita

640 APPENDIX 2

Airport.) + ~ t : f t * n 103 CI: d . h . 4 ~

b. J l l $ @ i E i i ~ V ~ - ~ % b a < ~ ~ & ~ B L \ T ~ s H J % % E L ~ + ~ 7;' , (Kawabata Yasunari is said to have completed his Snow Country by writing several episodes successively.)

-&tf b v.i. / v.t. [to be accustomed to doing st.] (Gr. 2)

Notes: 1. V1 can be any verb as long as it indicates a repeatable action.

2. tsukeru in examples (a) and (b) retain the original meaning of 'to attach s.t. to s.t. else.'

a. L O F ~ - V B & V W ~ ~ T < ~ Q ? (Will you put this tire on?)

b. 6 BF@& ~ i w t z , (I wrote the appointment date in my notebook.)

1 L c. & o @ & ~ ~ T w w ~ ; , wa-t t tv ,

(I'm familiar with that town, so I won't get lost.)

d. &<7tf 9 ~ 1 % 0 1 1 ~ & 4 t s b ~ ~ f l b > b a ~ (It's better not to eat things you are not used to eating.)

e. ~ 0 ~ > ~ x - ~ i i @ b a 7 t f ~ b a ~ e b , 0 3-tttvo (I'm used to this computer, so there is no problem.)

f. k$+&ik&04tf7b1tsb>$ab, -$ &-YT l/3b>3?F0 (I'm not used to flying, so I get sick easily.)

76

-ECf 5 v.i. I v.t. [an action continues] (Gr. 2) keep k g ; continue bt;L *li t d . L *$

a. $L~J-RBEF~B~%SRC~~LOT, $ ~ T L ~ T ? : , (I kept swimming for as long as one hour, so I got tired.)

hdc hrlfihn b. g&a)&%l&gll.~ mflk !I I C ~ f2,

(During the rainy season this year it kept raining for a long time.) 4: 1% - < h . $ i ?

c. $ L ~ J : : ~ ~ ~ % H ~ P % Q ~ ~ B L R ~ ~ ~ ~ % W T ~ (I intend to keep studying Japanese even from now on.)

APPENDIX 2 641

--3,StT v.i. [to crush s.t. in a certain manner or to use s.t. until it becomes useless] (Gr. 1)

Note: - tsubusu means literally 'to crush s.t. in a certain manner' as in (a)-(c) or it means 'to use s.t. until it becomes useless' as in (d) and (e).

TLLC bd. bf;L a. 4 7 > ~ ~ ~ - O Z $ . O $ T $ L ~ ~ ~ L L ~ S S ~ + ~ Kf2=ko

(I almost got crushed in a rush hour train.)

fib% Y:h c. wie FA 0 Y+Y 11 Q&.F~SL k,

(I smashed a cockroach in the kitchen by treading on it with my foot.) I l t b . 1 < h f C * i F ' r ,

d. # ~ ~ + $ T C : $ . B + & C ~ ~ ~ % V ~ , S : L ~ L ~ (Up until now I've gone through (lit. driven and worn out) about ten cars.)

bL+t It e. %Ld273 ~ 7 7 7 2 ~ k b ~ 7 J ~ b , @ 7 2 ~ ~ ~ ? i 7 S L " t ~ j 5 1 ~ ~ b f 2 b ~ ~

(Since I started jogging I don't know how many shoes I've worn out.)

t)i

--YT v.i. 1 v.t. [to continue doing s.t. until the last moment] (Gr. 1) - through; finish -ing

b% Loi d%

a. LO%C~&.F~TOI:- fi B W ~ ~ - C L$ =I:, (It took me one week to read through this book.)

b. @ti=b~~:307'1' ILQ%V % ~ k , (I finally finished running 30 miles.) *iL fib.*'( * hLd%

c. @Wk%9B$W71b/f4 I. Q LGCb, %&V24Lfzo (While working part time, he stuck out four years in college.)

+w c d. ' r h *&dr d. ?a>~i~%tib53O%f Q$PL%LTL,

(The politician pushed his ideas through.)

e. F K I L O @ W ~ O ~ $ @ Q & ~ ~ L ~ ~ ,

(The bullet of the pistol pierced through his heart.)

642 APPENDIX 2

RH

v.i. / v.t. [to do s.t. all over again because of failure or dissatisfaction] (Gr. 1) re-; - again

Note: The verb used with -naosu is a controllable action verb.

a. f i " 2 a & ~ ~ z ~ t ~ ~ (I rewrote my composition.)

b. * Q & ~ L T ~ W , i ~ & & $ d : <&ficjafi9~z, (I read the sentence again, but I still couldn't understand the meaning properly.)

c. ~ ~ % ~ s h % ~ ~bafcdr ? &OT, St$$% LE Ltco (My calculation appeared to be wrong, so I did the calculation again.)

d. a d ~ ~ 9 t z ~ - r , &~BL~L (It was still early, so I went to sleep again.)

* 73' -;%b v.t. [to let s.t. go by] (Gr. 1)

a. Y ~ Y ~ ~ ' O ? ~ O ~ B > - ~ T ~ - T % ~ ~ I L ~ L ~

(After jogging I washed away the sweat in the shower.) IiltHI liRL

b. + o ) + c ~ i w o ~ ~ I ? ~ P L T L ~ T & (The child paid no attention to what his mother had to say.) It< l o 3 d.H<

c. %? ~ W ~ ~ Q ~ L % L ~ ~ (The muddy water swept away the houses.)

I: 6% - T d. x : X ~ ~ ~ ~ T E I * ~ O F $ ~ Q ~ ~ % ~ ~ ,

(Professor Smith can write letters in Japanese with ease.) R

-Sh b v.i. / v.t. [to be used to do s.t.1 (Gr. 2) get used to

a. &&~hk> j s J'B&T, ??4-tfx%?a)~7xlc+3T?k1:, (I left Chicago in which I got used to live and came to Dallas in Texas.)

b. %$~~&3@h8$T&&$fi f i&, (It takes time to get used to a dialect.)

APPENDIX 2 643

c. &sA,, & t g h & V X 3 # 5 %a)& Kk3j:.Lo (Mother, there were strangers near our house.)

If i d. & % B ~ ~ L \ & T % + ~ a ~ > f i m > w ,

(It is better not to go on a trip wearing shoes you are not used to.)

e. %kl@hk'7 - ; P ~ # % ~ L T ~ ' d 9 2 , (The word processor I am used to got broken.)

p I I 4 + v L + ' + L L r f. % k $ S h k % + u a ) % % 8 ~ ~ l ? f 5Tk%@-&< (I go to the company every day riding a bike on the street I am used to.)

g. * - ~ ; ~ ~ d a ) % j : ' w + # g 2 $ 8 ~ ~ t m ~ ~ j : , (I've become used to talking with the small children in my home stay family.)

h

-%Cf B v.i. [to go through some place by doing s.t.1 through

Note: VI is a verb of motion. If VI isn't a verb of motion, the compound has a metaphorical meaning.

+;+; Zii!., I t L

a. A % a&B%S II Wt B 2 , ;5 7 4 ;~&?7 jzo (When I ran through the big park, there was an office area.)

L i 5 a L Z i t i

b. E P ! B % I I W Q 2 , z m:mm, II a t o (If you go through the front gate, there is an auditorium in front of

YOU.)

c. i- 2 $ ~ 1 b % < <!l$&Lff:b, k h h k ~ % j z ~ (When we passed through the tunnel, the ocean came into view.)

C 1 ; ( 0 7 t i

d. ~a)@%%& 0%Cf B f : & ~ : ~ i i ~ > f s II a)%~;3'@%7?, (To pull through this difficulty we need to make enormous efforts.)

e. 9 3 > ~ i % 711 - 0 @ ~ ~ , % l f t c . s ; 3 . 9 1 : . (John was not able to see through Mary's lies.)

-%it. v.t. [to leave s.t.1s.o. behind after doing s.t.1

Note: VI is almost limited to taberu 'eat,' kaku 'write,' iu 'say' and toru 'take.'

644 APPENDIX 2

a. & ~ W L T I A W W L , (Don't leave your food half-eaten.)

b. & ~ ~ ~ r s w ~ t j ~ r ; , & f i a t : ~ ~ w , (There are some things I omitted writing about, so I will write you tomorrow again.)

C. ~ b a ~ ~ k ; k $ % & Q 3 . t . ~ (There is one thing that I failed to say.)

d. ~ ~ ' ? ~ % % c l j & a t s ~ / a k , & 7 % b : & i ) ~ c l ~ g f i - c ~ a ~ 1 a ~ ~ ~ (If you do not read newspapers at least, you will be left behind the times.)

.Z S h : h l f

e. %i ~ 7 % T f i % ~ t ~ % 5 3 3 - ~ + & ~ & 7 b Q (I intend to watch the portion of the video I didn't watch yester-

day.) C h e w C * i S L t 0 i 3 6

f. A&%+ P b L A f ? $ b , ,F,baBbZ kbA--7b tsba, (I have nothing to regret, because I have enjoyed my life very much.)

0:

-335 v.i. [to remain where s.o.1s.t. is now] (Gr. 1) b t L i h .~ e C * i v 8 '

a. ~ & t r t ~ c + -&TS a -r-,%a9~B& L ~ Z ,

(I stayed behind at the office till about 11 o'clock and did my work.)

O Z ? S . - O t % L C h b. + D @ ~ T R & & T & ~ W ~ T = A I L ~ : ~ ~ : z A ~ z Q ~ : ~

(The survivors of the plane crash were just three.)

C. r g 7 ? k b a ? ObZ, % 0 % @ ~ 7 ? 6 $ $ % 9 ~ b > & ~ (Even though it is September, the wisteria flowers are still in bloom.)

d. 71f- I . T I A & ~ L B ~ ~ & & ~ ~ o Z & r) e LTM, (At the department store they were selling unsold summer clothing at cheap prices.)

IT :i : i : i Q I*? L hw C * h l t - Li,i e. $LO@@IA&l@? %'?D?%&P@ 8t T & % W T ~ ~ '

(My a h a mater won its way to a semifinal game in the high .

APPENDIX 2 645

school baseball tournament.)

--%b 5 (+DBJG: 131-33) t b

--El Q v.i. [to move around] (Gr. 1)

Note: V1 is limited to a movement verb such as aruku 'walk,' tobu 'fly,' hashiru 'run' and ugoku 'move.'

v 6 E 6 t*? t B v ha q:'$ &PL < T-El + % $ V j % % ? i E l ~ - C b ~ f : ~ (I was very busy today walking around the city of Tokyo all day long.) d.fi LziWl*tPV 4 7 2 q ~ i i ~ ~ ; i ~ & t m ~ ~ ~ - c , $ ! e k m = - z . ~ ~ ~ (He is working for a securities cornpanmy and flying around the world.)

7 3 11 fiaY$a)+-r'/,~x~~i, 11x&$g13~71,1~,~ (On American college campuses squirrels are running around.)

1 < &?in6 z 2 t & , i a : b ~ ~ l ~ ~

(To be always on the go is good for your health.)

v.i. [to bring s.o.1s.t. back to an original place in a certain manner] (Gr. 1) - back

Note; VI is almost limited to yobu 'call,' harau 'pay' and okuru 'send.'

L P $ 2 3 L#-t,z36*3 x i? 2 5 5 ~ 3 B-ki&-=-3-3 Kttl GE + o ~ R T % x ~ : . ~ ~ & o w L ~ L ~ (The president recalled his subordinate to Tokyo from New York where he was sent on business.) Vt, r A.

-ER9f:='/Y- b0&&G&#ib~RI,7< ~ L ~ * / V L ~

(Once you buy a concert ticket they will not refund it, you know.) :49$. C*? L l h l )w 2Bd9 j:/~\a j51s E T B ~ T ~ V ~st1747;~

(The package I sent to my friend came back because the address could not be located.)

(63, d.

- ~ & ~ f : s e ~ b m , r ~ ~ (I bought back the car which I once sold.)

646 APPENDIX 2

?

-be v.i. [s.t. uncontrollable comes to its end] (Gr. 1) stop -ing; ceases to - Note: V, is very much limited.

a. %$k 0 & . f z 0 (It stopped raining.)

b. ~/v~7&3bA.EO (The baby stopped crying.) Mml

c. % $& 9 b/Lf2a (The thunder stopped rolling.)

--& b v.i. [to approach S.O. closely in a certain manner] (Gr. 1) $2: %A*

a. giiki: LTZ < &l@:,t~~ (The man persistently wooed the woman.)

b. ? $ L ~ I T % & o af lb%0* -=~4tz~ (A dog came running toward me wagging his tail.) cl-c*~,.Ll *.

c. B XR&~J&W t:%m 5 t&% 3 ha P,

(The Japan-US relationship won't improve unless both countries move closer to each other.)

d. $3i4~k$~:8$37$!l~3b~0 (Please drop by when you have time.)

(+DBJG: Appendix 4B (589-90) & F (593)) t,

--BCf b v.t. [to distinguish s.t. in a certain manner] (Gr. 2)

Note: V, is often a verb of perception such as kiku 'hear,' rniru "see,' kagu 'smell' and nornu 'drink.' But the verb of perceptions such as kanjinr 'feel,' furetu 'touch' and ajiwau 'taste' cannot be the V,.

bf;L t? $~313?IfA Hh'Bb

a. ~ L l i ~ ~ f j ~ k k ~ f i ~ l i h ~ f ~ f ~ h b , (I can tell the difference (by hearing) between the Tokyo dialect and the Osaka dialect.) %.? :t e L +A:( C A I: I W C A

b. + EIA, w ~ , E I * A Q $ B ~ ~ Q ~ C P ~ L W ~

APPENDIX 2 647

(It is hard to tell the difference (by looking) among Chinese, Korean and Japanese people.)

c. Q Z t & * a d l s % ~ f ~ h a . (She can identify perfumes by smelling them.)

d. x < K P A G & T ~ 1 1 f ~ o ) b 1 5 b 1 6 Q f j & $ $ b ~ % ( f % f i b . (Mr. Smith can use various American dialects properly.)

e. b ~ 5 b 1 5 Q ~ & & # & 9 5 3 C f ~ h 7 , & T 3 f., (Various delicacies came out sewed on separate dishes.)

hf -Sh Q v.t. [to forget to do s.t.1 (Gr. 2)

a. $ $ % & % ~ & 3 t f i ~ , (I forgot to write my name on the answer sheet.)

b. h15h8 ~ k d . " , %$i % ~ / f - ~ . f -d."& u-j-dll;, Pi?' L+c, L T Y P ~ ~ ~ (I forgot to mention that there is a party at our home. Please come along.)

VA b I f q 5 c. &&+5 E o ~ S % 5 % ~ 3 ~ h f = o

(Oh, yeah. I forgot to ask the telephone number.)

d. %kB& ~ S h f : , (I forgot to turn off the light.)

e. @Bdl l tShf= , (I forgot to lock it.)

Note: The following example doesn't mean to 'forget to do sat.' but it has a specific meaning of 'misplace.'

ThL1 hACb f. t $ o ) # ~ ~ ~ b Z d l b f A % & 3 S h k ,

(I left my bag on the rack of the train.)

648 APPENDIX 3

Appendix 3 Compound Particles

Definition While "content words," such as nouns, verbs, and adjectives, convey content information about people, things, their actions and states, etc., "function words," such as particles and conjunctions, indicate grammatical relations between sentence elements or propositional relations between statements. Compound particles are function words which consist of two or more words and function as single particles in that they are interpreted as a unit rather than word by word.

Common structures Common structures for compound particles are as follows:

(1) Prt. + Vte (a)) / Vrnasu / Vinf.nonpast. (Exs. LT (a)); b:W L; c:w-+a)

f*i L A (2) Prt. + N + Prt. (Exs. a) 7: b 1:; Q @ L\K)

(3) N + Prt. (Exs. X&T; YT)

Preceding elements Many compound particles mark only nouns; some compound particles mark verbs or sentences as well as nouns; [NJ, [V -1, [S 1, and [Sq _I indicate what element precedes the compound particle. (Sq indicates an interrogative sentence.)

Forms Compound particles appear either in preverbal or prenominal forms. Compound particles in preverbal forms modify the following verbal, and compound particles in prenominal forms modify the following noun. Prenominal forms are listed with N at the end of the compound particle (e.g., KW-FaN).

Topic marker Some preverbal compound particles are followed by the topic marker wa to introduce topical phrases. (Exs. b: i+ lf T kt; C: 3 b T 12)

APPENDIX 3 649

f. Formal forms In formal speech, Prt. + Vmasu mashite is occasionally used instead of Prt.+Vte. (Exs. G:&+$a LT; l:-$a LTGi)

g. More notations = : Expressions which are interchangeable = : Expressions which are similar but not always interchangeable

......................................................................................................... The entries below are listed in a-i-u-e-o order.

xT [V -1 upon; after; in -ing - -.L .

1 ( 3 2 ~:LPGI& L a -+, (I will respond to you after thinking it over.)

I: L t I: l%L - Cw-LB< f;

C o>b%%Gi El$&W& 8T&+TA%@G:23, (This dictionary is very useful in studying Japanese.)

(+ ue de)

Z2P [V _I by V-ing; because; result in; cause b k L L n i l l S KhTLS*L l i d ,

$L G ~ B ~ ~ C L = ~ I L ~ B T & Z ~ T % % @ @ ~ B ~ T ~ > ~ - ~ - , (I try to lift my spirits by playing golf on weekends.) d.iL 6 w i Sbs ' k b , Ijbl %&m$ &o>gG:&Tb>9f:~ 2~*%Gi&;tG:z LtLfz.? (The situation got even more complicated because he appeared at the mediation scene.)

(+ koto de)

kgT [N _I depending on I: It/, L i 3 % l 11hlL 6 F&%T EI*O/I\ ~CEIXT&XJ & L j 0 a-s- A.

(Depending on your effort, you can (lit. will become able to) read Japanese novels in Japanese.)

2%; 2SOlN [N -1 against; contrary to; reverse; opposite d%li b f i b h L L Z i l i i : ?

~ $ ~ k ~ @ 4 7 k r ; i ~ 2 @ ~ ; & b > T b > & . (The wind is blowing against us (lit. against the direction of our

650 APPENDIX 3

course).) d.h *kL @siaem&%a L?:, (He viewed it in the opposite way from me.)

Note: k B h ~ ~ i s r n o r e f o m a l t h a n k B - 3 T .

& L 7 [N J as; in the capacity of

a ~ s / v s 2 + - ~ b Z ~ 2 & L T % ~ S & ? : ~ (Mr. Tanaka was hired as a salesman.)

7 . 1 Z 4 ~ 3 t k % 1 ~ t : 4 % ; h & $ ~ ~ & ~ ~ ~ < $ ~ ~ ~ & T b ~ & ~ (Plastic is widely used as a substitute (lit. a substitute material) for glass.)

(+to shite (DBJG: 501))

t: LTlt [N J for

zar;t:t?%t'o,r~+- I- t: LT~S~L~~T:" ' ;~~ (For a Japanese apartment, this is one of the bigger ones.)

(+to shite wa (DBJG: 502-03))

~ I % ~ T / ; B ~ \ I ; k 3 3 N l tjS7fiN [N _I unlike; different from T I 1 % .L? 82s / ~ c ~ ~ I : ~ B ~ T F x ~ % H ? ? ~

(Unlike me, Mr. Noguchi is skilled with his hands.)

YE! 2s2%im3t:gka&-3Tb%, (John has different ideas from mine.)

& Z~&C: [N / V J at the (same) time; when: as; while; as well as d-nC~. It=:/*

j ~ f ; k t a ~ ~ ~ ~ r ~ c z Z 4 i ~ & ~ 1 : ~ (She quit her company at the time of her marriage.)

t L b B &&&a ~ t e c c m w ~ ~ jzo

(The telephone rang as I entered the room.)

APPENDIX 3 651

Ls %ri H H d S h L &;t: L o ~ m m ~ ~ d j a C : H ~ C = ~ Z T $ $6. (He is the president of this company and, at the same time, a big stock- holder.)

(c3 to d6ji ni) t b

k#E [N 1 V -1 as well as; with, along with; at the same time; when; as; while ifAL o r < +?$W RF jJi;t:6t$~#t:g 3 G - ~ $ ) b ~ - % j ? ~ (Atomic energy, as well as petroleum, is an important energy source.) X Ld.v?*J It ifA*w Ski% @OC;t:d@8lJ kill#t=#vl:, (The samurai class died with the feudal system.) g&**y kill^?&%$&^^?^:^ (As I recover from my illness, my appetite is coming back.)

(c3 t0 torno ni )

CIiL FwDrJ ? ~ Y ~ ~ - ~ ~ $ ? & ~ ~ & A T H $ ~ ~ ~ ~ X % - Y ~ ? ~ (Soccer, as well as baseball, is now one of the major sports in Japan.) N ' d % ti*? XAd'< Ptiii & f i t i ~ ~ t u , s : ~ ~ $ * ~ a , ~ ~ ~ ~ , (Ogai, as well as Soseki, is a giant in Japanese literature (lit. a giant peak in Japanese literature who stands side by side with Soseki).)

&ZZL* rn J parallel to

& L T ( i t ) [N J without

L ~ @ T . c # ~ L T ~ ~ E G Z - P ~ a ~ , (In this town you cannot live without a car.)

(+ nashi de wa)

r w & t L C i

aik~o~iwt ~~=iszo&%~i%b r ; h a b r o

(This project cannot be advanced without support from the govern-

652 APPENDIX 3

ment.) (c3 nashi de wa)

I W

7 / k ; 7 - G L R L ( 7 ) [N / V J when; at; in; on the occasion of; before; prior to I.4 y": -., 2 frd.cLcW C L K L .

* c r ~ t ~ 7 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ o m s ~ & ~ f f : 0 (Before studying in Germany, I received advice from Prof. Tanaka.) 4 l i I t C I: B L l L i L O L d . < l t % L b \ & & % % b b ~ Z l t : 7 7 , I $ . ~ s F ~ ~ s ~ ~ ) & & Q ? $ % L I L ~ c ~ &if

ILb r; ILbb),

(Before starting a new business, I have to secure Y20,000,000 in funds.) L * % A ? L n i I : L L l k , L + L 4 w $#&t ~ D R I E ~ Z P ~ ~ T ~ > ~ ~ ~ P ~ ~ & ? ~ R C L @ % ~ $ R ~ Z L 5 ?fO

I (The new president's speech (lit. greeting) on the occasion of the assumption of his duties appears to have moved the employees.) $ L l w i %%,KI*%!$k.r,T / E L ~ I ~ ) & & Q ~ < ~ & L T ~ ~ ~ T ? s ~ ~ , (Please master how to deal with (the situation in case of) an emer-

gency.) (e ni atattelatan)

h CZQ9e7 [N J according to; to

+ ~ ~ Q 9 e 7 & A s % t v f f ~ (We selected furniture according to our budget.) t,tLT?f H L d I < $L ~ i i @ % C Z e b e 7 % - 3 ?z0 (We danced to the music.)

CZ&L\T; CZ&(tBN / tZ&L\TON [N J at; on; in; during S V h L t5d.b. ~ ~ 7 m 3 t a 9 s s = r o r ~ ~ I. 7 . ; ~ ~ F I L E ~ L \ T ~ Y ~ ~ ; ~ & ~ (Next year's general meeting will be held at the Hilton Hotel in Chicago.)

2+ L r i 4w 2 ~ P Z - 9 t i ~ b l g ?+3;8~\~~32 L P D $ & G L & ~ $ $ ~ ? ~ ~ 5 . (Computers will probably spread to almost every household in the near future.) 3 b s w c I L ~ ~ L I

* ~ ~ r t - t i & ~ ~ c c d j ' ~ t ~ k ~ ~ ~ t : ~ ~ h ~ c j ~ b l ~ . (Dr. Kimura is known as an authority in (the field of) genetics.)

APPENDIX 3 653

(+ ni Oitelokeru)

L%G(-C); C=GL'L"t;N/t=&Gt-C-CN [N _I in proportion to; in accordance with; according to; depending on; in compliance with; in response to 8 i * S Lei+! 5 W L ~ L W & & @U&L"-CE& .E!&.E!b: . f ; ' -9-~#%~~;kk, (Bonuses were paid to all the employees according to their performances.)

i d v 2 5 S * i Or iC*LL*58 i C d.L f; lL L m < ~ ~ O Z * C Z & L ' T ~ % % F A & % ~ ~ # B % S f i & Z k K & 9 k (In compliance with the union's request, it has been decided that the standard working hours will be reduced.) L s i t a i b i l r

1 ~ r hC=&L'L"'fE jEQ%-:?3 TT, (You should choose a house according to your income.)

%tPfi'b%Q - Kh b T [N I Sq regardless of; independently of; whether or not

Lli ' L A ? LL Z a > ~ $ $ T i i ? $ % ~ ~ ~ ' f i a b % ~ , ISJ&&:W. B T ~ a, (In this company people can be promoted equally regardless of sex.) bnbh C r t v C L ~ ~ t i ~ ~ ~ f i ~ $ ~ & j 5 l ~ j f i ~ ~ ; f i ' ~ ~ b ~ ~ , Z O Y D - ; ~ I . ~ I.B$J& a 9 e rl R, (We will advance this project whether we get a grant or not.)

%c:{*fivm%.r-- / &%TI, k$da~Q~t;%t&+t1;fi&~ (Regardless of who it is, a person who violates the rules will be punished.)

CZfiafiab b N [N _I related to; concerning C*5 rw '

Z hbi&kC:M'bbS- k+E, (This is an important matter which concerns life and death.)

C&f -1 not limited to; not only 2% ab,lj?:L I: IZL

J€e@?m Bm=KJ%Q, c 3 f i ~ o E ~ e ? ? b ; k ~ b ~ & , (Arranged marriage is not limited to Japan; it is practiced in other countries, too.)

(e ni kagirazu)

654 APPENDIX 3

&-,'il. [N -1 the last; particular; only

&M?!~T-?A~=: 2 t2L8b1, (He is the last person to do such a thing.)

*a i e3~-,7i$+t2&&9 ko (It was one of the rare days when Taeko was not home.) b* dt + € L & c ~ ~ ~ T L < ~ & W * ~ - C < aQ, (I get a lot of phone calls only when I am busy.)

(+ ni kagitte)

c m t 7 ( ~ [N _I to; over; when it comes to; in; at; in the matter of; as for

qi, g&&&:fiq,T, F$$&, j.o

(There was heavy rain today covering Tokai and Kanto (lit. from Tokai to Kanto).)

~!$ZE~P,,C-~T~'J;/ }-;/~:i$3df, (I'm going to Washington, D.C. over the weekend.)

l P n + / * I b . 8% 5 G ~ I z ~ \ [ ~ ' ~ T u , ~ E ~ ~ ~ x ~ R , (When it comes to money-making, Masao is a genius.)

*. KIfrtb77 / E b b ) I; tCfrtb5N / E R b 7 T c D N _I for; in place

of; instead of; replacing; on behalf of MI5 S T i f i

% %alllf3%&c:Rb37, m i % & ~ & ~ T Y 3 9 k0 (In place of Prof. Yamada, who is ill, Prof. Suzuki taught us.) d. d'<L* +?P lm

~ + + ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ z R ; ~ , ~ J . ; ~ . I L Y - % B % L T L ~ ~ . (Scientists are looking for an energy source to replace oil.)

(+ ni kawatte; kawan' ni (DBJG: 184-87))

~ : K L ( T ( ~ Z ) ) ; L I T ~ N / C Z M L T ~ D N [N _I concerning; with regard to; with respect to; regarding; about; on; as for; as to; in terms of; in connection with, in reference to & r i V +!w i + t i V I A h 0 9

$4 W%C:M ~79~%aljiLd"~e LI., (With regard to the sales tax, the opinions of the leading party and the

APPENDIX 3 655

opposition parties conflicted.) i:LIfL I fL - L*3 t A ~ ~ C Q Z S 8 &C:M L T U 3 E%%CQ z 2 $ # w o (Concerning human language acquisition, there are still many unknown things.) + i L L * i t i S r i % r ? T L ? ' *%*w VG

% 3 R RTB ~ & = B B ~ B Y B ~ : M ~ ~ ~ ; ~ I : . (Last week a conference on superconductivity was held in Tokyo.)

(+ ni kanshitelkansum)

6&65g~) [N -1 as far as - is concerned

2 of ~$k~?f~i%!tl@i2.&%& (As far as this incident is concerned, he is innocent.)

(+ kagiril)

& < ( 7 ) [N _I compared with / to; when compared with / to; in comparison to 't L I s h L + + C $ ~ ~ C = J ~ < T % C Q i P ~ L ~ L j jzo (1n.comparison to lagt year, we seem to have more rainy days this year.)

(+ ni kurabenr tolkurabete)

~ B ; i i t ( ~ ) [N _I in addition to 2.L S P r <

f i Z c & % c = f i n i t ~ i m f i ~ w c ; LP, (In addition to her beauty, she has superb acting talent.)

t z k ~ ( 7 ) ; CZRLTDN = K { ~ ~ Q - C / 37: !I I; K ? ! ~ ~ T T O N

[N 1 V _I in case of; on; when; at; in +?&&LA s ; i P ~ <

Z ~ ~ ! C : R L T I " $ ~ - ~ ~ ~ ~ 'I j5 C Q G B ~ ~ C Q D f i &l& (In this experiment we obtained cooperation from some American experts.) ILltL IiQ d. Sb,?' C C L b r b L

S$~#;~&C=RL%M~&QBB~~LI:, (When leaving Japan, I got rid of all my household goods.) I L s * i %$?.C=(RLr / * S T L T J T I ~ & ~ % L <!!$&~T$3blT%~~~

(Please master how to deal with (the situation in case of) an emer-

gency .)

656 APPENDIX 3

C Z ~ ~ T / %L\) [N / V _I as; with; in accordance with; in propotion to; following

+ % r i nvtw $@I& ~o+acc%7-irr:rzt; KT=? C=.&X/JL (In accordance with the president's order, Sawada flew to Manila immediately .)

1: I ~ L I VSV 0 1 < 9l. c It/. ' d'< L e i L+ s*okwmn< a ~ h t z ~ i ~ 3 ~ s ~ & ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ @ a ~ ~ f : , (As Japan's economic power gets stronger, the number of Japanese language learners has increased.)

(+ ni shitagattelshitagai)

t: LTU [N / V _I for; considering that 8 r i I i 6 W

+ H G ~ A B C ~ L T ~ ~ C ~ ~ L ~ L (For August, it's cool today.)

ewr< *ffd ?&a79 11 * o ~ w z + 1 ~ 2 & ~ ILL: ~ ~ & & & $ r z , (Considering that he received a degree from an American university, his English is poor.)

(e ni shite wa (DBJG: 309-10)) t

KiB7T; E%7 f"N / K%7Ta>N [N along; by; parallel to; in accordance with

L e Lt f & ~ i : j f l ~ f=&L%2 LT?S b3,

(Please teach in accordance with the teacher's manual.) fib,

KHL(-T:(LL)); K%JTQN/t=HLTON [N _I toward; to; for; against; in; per; in contrast with1 to; compared with; while; whereas; with regard to; about

r r8 rv (

~ % c ~ R % c c H L T M $ R @ c & ~ Q & ~ T ~ fz0 (Japan has adopted a closed policy toward foreign countries up to now.)

+L% 3.L F*l x + 7% * ~ I i k & t c H ~ Q % L 3 f l k * z b 9 ~ 3fzo (People's views about divorce have changed considerably in America.)

APPENDIX 3 657

CZ{~L\T(M) / 7 3 1 ; tZTL\Tll)N [N _I about; on; over; concem- ing; regarding; with regard to; respecting; with respect to; as to; as for

1: l3L *L L * W c ~ ; i p r ~ i & t t i u i l ~ b l ~ 7 ~ j ~ ! % L T ~ > ~ : E V ~ + t ~ i ~ ~ (Could you talk about the Japanese election system?) nw I: r h o 5 saimpcz7~\~a& $Y&h-r~>a.t, (I'm gathering (research) materials on Emperor Meiji.)

( e ni tsuite)

CZ73 [N J a; per; for; on; to L rt b l 3 t d.L

zOtt%ca-@RcZ732 F)b% b 2 b 0 (This job will pay you six dollars an hour.) L 3d' Dt v=TLl fLTL

~ i m - 9 ~ ~ 7 3 - a w . La -To (I'll take one point off for each mistake.)

( e ni tsuki)

CZ7h(T) [N 1 V _I as; with; in proportion to; accompanied by 6 +7 -L d.

ZOak,j: Q i2$@O@f~~7h7&g75'b>6b>6 K&;bb. (The scenery changes in a variety of ways here as the seasons change.)

r;wOr< 8 t h % a t : a t c ~ n ~ . ~ ~ m z ; i ~ ~ a. (As one grows old, one loses physical strength.)

( e ni tsurete)

~ ~ 2 7 7 [N J to; for t L C 6 z ~ L C ~ P ~ C Z 1: - > T ~ B X ~ ~ ~ ~ K E E ~

(For us this is a problem which cannot be ignored.) S L % ; b . l t + Q i r2 b nvc$ f I 3 g ~ t $ z k % & ~ k ~ t r i&~4O;PDYr3 b ~ 1 : ~ ~ % 6 $ & ~ d k ? ? ~ (The loss of Dr. Yoshioka is a fatal blow to our project.)

658 APPENDIX 3

(c3 ni totte)

t:: L (7) ; 6 8 t B N [N-] contrary to; in contrast to; against; in violation of; while; whereas dsb, L a l h 3 L s ~ & I ~ + % c z E LTT ttlw4m9 I:, (Contrary to expectations, few people attended the meeting.)

10 Lo7 t ~ v w i ~ e f i v ~ r / ) b a ) ~ : ~ ~ ~ 3 % a ) & k ~ $ $ s l t f l v ? i ~ ~ ~ ~ a 0

(In contrast to the increase in exports of TV sets, the increase in domes- tic sales is slow.)

I t 9 I). H ~~a>~&t&~~a)3fdC:EdB%%t:k8b~ f:, (The election this time ended up with results which contradicted the general prediction.)

(c3 ni hanshitelhansuru) t b R

KIWTT / / w L \ ; CEW5N [N / V _I as; along with, with; accompanying; attendant upon C L : i L * i € " AWDW &:+F?T, r / ~ 6 ~ ~ a o M $ i s & ~ 3 r : ~ (With the rapid increase in population, various problems emerged.) IW 3 d.b.n ( a- L 7 Z 5 0 - ~,zemwa c : ~ t \ ~ & +&e9 T 3 j;, (As the economy recovers, the unemployment rate is decreasing.)

L* C * 7 s l f L * L C * * P< h941.1 ~ % ~ & ? o F @ ~ C : W ~ & P & B , @ , % ~ ) Z B t:3M LIZ, (The doctor explained the risks which accompany the operation to the patient's family.)

CZ 1% [N 1 V -1 for; to; in order to d r b l i < : d L 3 l j

W E I ~ B ~ c c c b t - ; ~ ~ ~ - ~ - & ~ - t s r / l , (A tape recorder is indispensable for foreign language studies.)

&#C:cbmgm < & $ 3-$o (This medicine works well for headaches.)

3 73% 77 '&lfL<L + z-6 < ~ Z C M T ~ ~ - ~ E $ V ~ - $ ~ (The subway is the most convenient way to get there.)

(+ ni wa)

APPENDIX 3 659

t

Cckfi'77 [N _I toward; to; at; heading for fib,*.? ' +<SAC? ~ ; . l c a & ~ z + - + ~ ~ % ~ ~ ! E c c f i f i ~ 7 ~ % t v ~ ~ ~ a . (The typhoon is advancing toward the north at a speed of 30 kilometers per hour.)

LACf ( 7 ) ; CZl;ilCtT'(DN [N _I toward; for; aimed at d .7 $3 hblhL f w Y < C * i L b i ' % C r i

$ n % c i % + ~ k Y h 3%Act7f% S&L-~b1a. (Kazuo is working very hard for the college entrance exams next year.) ITLSW cs r I t / r S * i tt $El&, ;611cck;ha%~b1=;i\1k~-k%eckCf 7 0 % %#ifEdi) 1; h-c b a a 0

(Research aimed at the development of new energy to replace oil is presently underway .)

CZ+,fiV~>;h%f [N I S _I in spite of; despite; although; though L hb' 1-3

% ~ ~ . 1 % ~ + , f i > f i a ; h % j = , 9 r i~ - ~ ~ ~ ~ i ~ b ~ t ~

(Despite the fierce rain, the soccer game continued.) 0 6 L 3~ c&&&( % ~ - c ~ f i ~ ~ f i t f i a ; b ~ ~ , % k $ ~ a i l l ~ ~ : , (In spite of the fact that Hiroshi loved Miki deeply, he didn't marry her.)

(+ ni mo kakawarazu)

zo$@ea7 79- b % $ t c g ~ ~ \ ~ Q i l l ; k t : )L a,-r-&a. (This report was (written) based on a (questionnaire) survey.)

Z 0 + < h L L t L I r i I fL L e i Z;kG&Z B QFitiDe $4 Ce455< % % I., (This is a study based on historical documents from 500 years ago.)

(+ ni motozuitelmotozuku)

K ~ & 7 7 / k ~ ) I ; L & 6 N [N 1 Sq J due to; owing to; because of; according to; depending on; from - to -; by; by means of; with; on the basis of

660 APPENDIX 3

if& i B $ K ~ ? T % B E < ~ 7 : ~ (I lost my father due to the war.) ++LC*, HL d.fi -2 , %46k~T$,k2.%&.~7, (Teaching methods differ from teacher to teacher.)

VLi P v b + F Z ~ : & ~ ~ - ~ ' E & T - C ~ H $ ; ~ ~ E ; ~ ~ . (The cost differs considerably depending on where you stay.)

It& S o i Ct I: It/.ifL.~ L e707 ZDRRfitiEl&&RCZk-r,78CShI:, (This research institute was established by the Japanese government.)

< , j~L&,1Cck6@)$~a;ka0 (A resolution not by force but by discussion is hoped for.)

iZk%% = C: 7 M b ; h r; -T [N J regardless of; independently of; (what)ever it may be; whether or not

d b . L ? d'<h* ~ o w w ~ c r a ~ ~ , Z?k;;~;kir~X$ a&&~+t-c < ha. (If you are capable, this company assigns you important tasks regardless of your educational background.)

,It-= d. hL5 < $%=k ~ - ~ w R c ~ M + L ~ T , (We'll inform you of the results whether we hire you or not.)

%Z rk 5% / * W M G - ~ I k86&~1;%i&+tr;~a. (Regardless of who it is, a person who violates the rules will be punished.)

CZkB 2 [N _1 according to ** h

% % ~ c ~ . a 2 , $'d 7 n 11 n:g.nzp+, 7 ; ~ ij;., (According to the newspaper, it snowed in Florida yesterday.)

(c3sWa1, Note 2 (DBJG: 409))

C Z ( b f ~ 7 7 / / * I l l ; Ebf';.N/ /Zbf;.?T-CN [N -1 extending for 1 over 1 through; for; over v* < ~z - 1 b C Z b f r ~ 7 $ $ ~ $ ~ h l ; ,

(The break in the levee extended for 100 meters. (lit. The levee was

APPENDIX 3 661

broken extending over100 meters.)) r.7 L e i $4.

F O ~ 4 ~ c 2 - a ~~~cw.-.v%$is;kjz~ (The drama was telecast for one week.) I: 179 :i l r i + L Lo5 H _iJ>Ic=.;br~B: 3 - ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ w ~ a ~ ; b 9 f z o (The musical, whose run was extended for two months, ended last week.)

a h ( # ) [N -1 as far as - is concerned; as far as - goes; from the viewpoint of; according to; in terms of

2 ~ $ f % c i g C a _ t - ~ . ~ t h $ i f s 5 + -j I:, (There seems to be no problem with this plan as far as the documents are concerned.)

(+ no ue de wa)

T O N (+ kawari ni (DBJG: 184-87))

a%& [N _I as a result of; after; upon +it% @$&a$gs, g i j O J @ + & g * b 2 2 KG. 9 fzo (After discussion, it's been decided that this trip will be postponed.)

b,+g'idzx*A %R s ;kfzo

(As a result of the investigation, new facts emerged.) (+ kekka)

oIl%(CZ) [N _I at the time of; when Ire3 L9 2% b iL Lr i k5vL1 + w t .A SOX%X&!fl-)- ~3~+%j?9%&3 b;klzo (I was asked to show my ID when I entered the room.)

k ; & d l ~ f U ) E ~ d 2 @ ~ 7 o 2 1. b:$%lf%sbao

(Please leave your key at the front desk when you go out.) (+ sai (ni))

662 APPENDIX 3

(Because of the recession, cars are not selling well this year.) (r3 sei)

(D%C [N J every time; each time bhL L If& *A& A< L*) % L ! ~ % , % ( I > B ~ ~ % - F B ~ B LQcf tL~%?2 r ; t s b > ,

(I have to review kanji every time we have a test.) (r3 tabi ni)

a f : b ( t Z ) ; a>f;&aN [N J for the purpose of; in order to; because of; owing to; for the benefit of; for the sake of; on behalf of hblhLltL P*? %$w % a k & c = b%+ < +ZT.-$-,

. (I'm planning to go to Japan for research next year.) L * l +*.*v*A. db:? ..b> s w z m m a r ; ~ c = ~ ~ ; t r ' w ~ ~ a ~ L I Z ~

(The school was closed because of the state budget shortage.) 11. *d.tLtW B ~ + ~ ~ ~ ~ B ~ + ~ T < V & ( D ~ ~ & C = ; S I I = ~ Y - ~ ~ 3 7 2 ~ 1 : ~ (Prof, Tanaka gave an orientation for the students who are going to Japan.)

~ ~ ~ X a > t c ~ g & ~ ~ & & \ ' i c ~ > 3 -j-, (I'm writing a fapanese-English dictionary for foreigners.) (+ ni yottelyori, Related Expression In; tame (ni) (DB JG: 447-5 1))

OBf i 'E [N _I besides; other than 1: I*&-z *I= If* s * Z E ~ %acr t m i i ~ m - h - a w, (Can you speak any languages other than Japanese and English?)

O G P J in; with; under bC L L o i L hLlL &!.L~&%!&o&%~)TP@~P*Q& 3 $Vko (I finished my master's thesis with Prof. Suzuki's guidance.)

(r3 no moto de)

bSL1-C [N J except; but; other than

~ O & % ; t r ' & & & ~ ~ 2 1 4 3 7 2h,%)3L\7G3$GZ?2b~o (There is no one else but Mr. Brown who can do this job.)

APPENDIX 3 663

k N / B B L T O N [N _I by way of; through td;Lfii .c/, - L & L e v s z i a ~ ~ ~ ~ F ~ ~ B ~ ~ L T ~ ~ B ~ Y % B B & L ~ : , (We discussed the matter through our lawyers.) btL L c t L r i d - r l $ ~ t i k % B f i L ~ Z a ) ~ 9 ? ? 8 4 4 - ~ ~ & b1;3zO (I was introduced to this job through one of my friends.)

w t C*. lbh w 7 3 3 g f i ~ ~ o $ i ~ & ~ l r : - > 7 e : ~ ~ , zt; 1;0xm1~- & F I = . E ~ ~ f i $ y i &?% t: 2 b a 0

(Because it was a discussion using (lit. through) an interpreter, we are unsure about whether or not our ideas were fully conveyed to the other

party.) Lltvt *w*7

z ~ L ~ ; o & & { * ~ ~ L T / ~ L T ~ ~ . ) ~ & O A ~ O ~ Q N S Z t&,% 5 0 (Through these photos we can relive the lives of people in those days.)

$*i' L A .

$EP .el: [N J around; with - as the center i # * i f:Wt? P t, fiU$iiARBEP&CZB-3 T b a 5 .

(The earth revolves around the sun.) :L r L b G i d % t i + E O B R ~ ~ M R Q E P ~ ~ ~ Z X " $ B & ~ ; ~ I : ~ (The last typhoon brought heavy rain around the Kanto area.)

B%L"(T); E%L"TO)N - Q%L(T); B%L(T); BjiQLf:N/ Q B L TON; B + L k N / B e L T O N J through; throughout

b S L * / rdW $J 9 & ~ B ~ L " - & + J ~ ~ : ~ @ & Q $ L&,E, (I asked for an interview with Mr. Kimura through an acquaintance.)

Z ~ L G ; ~ $ ~ B % L " - C O $ L&%.20Ti&&bbf b:~ib'$tbb'~ (Because this request was delivered by my boss, I cannot turn it down.)

t h r ) - a & ~ * % L " T / ~ L T I -C)O%EO%L%F~ZL&. (I hear conversations from next door through the wall.)

z D ~ l a ? & r n L . 7 /*nL-C)&~&iSP&&z,

(This island's climate is warm throughout the year.)

664 APPENDIX 3

%%L(T); E s L k N / % B L T a ) N = ~ ? % L ( T ) ; ~ ? % L ( T ) ; TON; a f i L k N l G f i T a N l 2 f i L T O N [N _I through; throughout; by means of; via

li, & ~ % ~ L T & $ ~ & G : ~ $ Q ! $ ~&,l?, (I asked for an interview with Mr. Kimura through an acquaintance.) CL b I: t +W F L ~ 6 $2 , ~ 3 e a ~ k 3 1 2 h ~ k ~ 5 3 ~ 7 (Sounds (lit. Voices) via the telephone are considerably different from natural ones.)

trr~ - a g6?{3~7 /*aL"TZ.) ~ O $ f b ~ O $ $ ~ @ j 3 . ' h Z ; i & . (I hear conversations from next door through the wall.)

3 z i *LZL

L O ~ 1 2 i 2 ~ % { ~ L T /*fiLT)$Z,lRP$lEEO (This island's climate is warm throughout the year.)

(+ o t6shiteltsUjite)

% { ~ L \ T / ~ 3 ) ; % R < N / % R L \ ~ N [N .J excluding; except (for); but be L I: I%L z %L%RL\TZ L G:I~%+, ~ ~ g o & + a % j 3 . ' m e ~ ~ ~ (Except for me, there is no one who understands Japanese here.)

CLbsL I*+ fPtltb~ltLL?

+2kx- - t f "2%R~\ f ;3 4XO3?Aifr2@ %@%%l?, (Everyone in the class but Ken and Susan have study-abroad experience.)

%CbL"Lb(L: L T ) ; %CbL;'Lbkb6N/ %lbL"&k L k N -1 including; and other; starting with

L-tf'-12, CDEM ~ ( 2 L T ) , %?0&03li, OGOG:GE;" % # 3 t L T b G 0 (Laser (technology) is widely applied to commodities around us, too, including CDs.)

~LLL: ( LWM +L> s ~ * . , + b 7 9 '1 ;5%lbL"LbL:bQ%@8DEn'd71'+O~SG:ffi ILf:, (The leaders from America and other advanced countries attended the meeting.)

(+ o hajime (to shite))

APPENDIX 3 665

8 6 7 [N _I by way of; via; through tb;i S

+ D B ~ B C & U 2 F > ~ B T < I L ~ I '~+&+i. (The plane is going to Berlin via London.)

L * i % ' f w t ' I r i 911 2 1.2&1&7-55'~~-+1.1 &zBT&~G=~-=I : , (Mr. Clinton became president after serving as governor of Arkansas.)

% ~ & L ( T ) ; B€lELf'N/ 6HELT(DN [N -1 aiming at; heading for; toward; for t t h . ~ 2 ( 1 7 r b w ( < & $ t i

E-CiH2%%€lEL7@. $& L-cblao (Kenji is studying to enter (lit. aiming at) a state university.)

I t & ( * i

Tgi29 1) - ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ - I L Y - ~ H R L ~ L . ~ ~ ~ ~ : R c ~ & " I B x / T ~ ~ & ~ (We are engaged in research into (lit. aiming at) clean energy.)

8.677 [N -1 with; by means of; using; as of 0 ; i L a i LI I2 L r i L r

Z D @ R B ~ . ~ ~ ~ R ~ B G : ( ~ ~ S * T ~ ~ ~ Z ? ? ~ ~ T ~ (We use this receipt as a warranty (lit. replace a warranty with this receipt).)

I2h.J-wdw -k+v

~ t a & ~ ~ $ k @ a w % ~ a T , (With this we will close this meeting.) L * i L mbd'77vf; i L l % z i L* i I :L

&~&kk-~-Et8.677&dz~hk Et:RESkL3To (Mr. Shimada will become our company president as of January 1.)

666 APPENDIX 4

Appendix 4 Conjunctions

There are two types of conjunctions: coordinate conjunctions which serve to connect independent sentences and subordinate conjunctions which serve to connect two sentences into a single complex sentence. The coordinate conjunctions of S1. Conj. S2 structure as instanced by Exs.(la, b) below are particularly important, because the proper use of such conjunctions is essential for forming a paragraph, a discourse unit consisting of meaningfully arranged independent sentences.

b * L it ?3 .he* *>* ( 1 ) a. $Lkk+$8~k'< sjji.%d.3k0 tzha%, %$$i~&d.tsd.37?~

( I had a severe headache this morning. So I didn't go to work.) i: I S L r +" S i ?

b. i%-e3-C~$%%m ?,&~kb>,, LtPL, &&&< -mVts ba0

( I want to study Japanese in Japan. But the travel cost is so expensive that I cannot go there.)

In view of the importance of the coordinate conjunctions in discourse, this segment addresses specifically the classification, meaning / function and uses of the coordinate conjunctions that combine independent sentences. For the subordinate conjunctions, see the following items in DBJG and in this volume:

ato de (DBJG: 78-80), ba (DBJG: 81-83), kagiril (82-85), kara2 (DBJG: 177-78), kara3 (DBJG: 179-81), kara to itte (103-05), ka to iu to (114-16), (no) kawari ni (116-21), kekka (121-23), keredo(mo) (DBJG: 187-88), kuseni (155-58), mae ni (DBJG: 231-33), nagara (DBJG: 269-70), nagara(mo) (199-202), nara (DBJG: 28 1-84), ni atattelatari (237-41), ni mo kakawarazu (257-60), ni shitagattdshitagai (268-71), ni tsurete (285-88), ni wa (289-92), node (DBJG: 328-31), noni1 (DBJG: 331-35), noni2 (DBJG: 335-37), sai (ni) (369-74), tabi ni (442-44), -tam (DBJG: 452-57), tatte (DBJG: 461-63), te mo (DBJG: 468-70), te wa (461-63), to4 (DBJG: 480-82), to d6ji ni (471-74), to itte mo (474-77), to iu noni (484-87), to iu yori (wa) (495-97), to naru to (512-14), to tomo ni (532-35), totan (ni) (525-28), uchi ni (DBJG: 512-15), (no) ue de (547-50), and ue (ni) (551-53)

APPENDIX 4 667

The coordinate conjunctions are further classified according to their general meanings into eight subcategories:

668 APPENDIX 4

Examples and meanings of the eight types of coordinate conjunctions ae given. (For the items already explained in DBJG or in this volume, the page number is given.)

(A) Conjunctions which indicate CAUSE & EFFECT, REASON & RESULT, SITUATION & RESULT:

fi3 < ( L ) T 1 manner & result <w> / L 3 ' eL t r 3 Ot

7 1 ) > x I. > D & W % I) m $ & & o & % % o - = t ? 9 k o L e L , 1756gC: y l ) ',;( 1. >~!&gTfil;Ci@;j~aX"$

bl t ut ~rYY~-ct.c. ( ~ 3 L T / @<(LIT]( +-tit, @$ 4th #w L r I d.L Lt Bw 2 m m a i i e a W R ~ ~ ~ G W L L L U U ~ ; ; ~ T L G . (The town of Princeton was one of the battlefields during the War of Independence. It has developed as a quiet college town since Princeton University moved there in 1756. As a result of this, now it is well known as a site of research institutes, including the Center for Advanced Studies.)

L 3 L 7 I manner & result /

L f$7 T / reason & result <very f m b / (395-97)

3-6 2 1 events & unexpected situations; situation & prediction / (DBJG. 437-39) bLL bd'

$LVXU~LL j ?i$gj:., 3-6 2 f i Z ~ & 3 & ~ j z , (I told her that we should break up. Then she started to cry.)

? L T / situation & result I (401-05) %wY( 1.7 Fr i

8Cr/ lS/vVA$W%o6l: , 3,OOOF)L< ;k?., P, %ci i%&< c 2 GL L k O (My grandfather gave me $3,000 on my college grac m day. So I decided to go to Japan.)

APPENDIX 4 669

I t- . + 3 a%% / cause & effect; reason & result /

a 3 r i 79 L 9 5x5 L? $ &F$&>Tb>a0 *0%%, & %$iO$&~$~%b:$kTb>&~ (The depression is continuing. As a result of that, the number of unemployed is rapidly on the increase.)

3 0 Ti (E) / cause & effect; reason & result / fihlPi 0

~ g O F l 2 6 j g d r 9%&,j:/UT-if0 30t:&E, @~g&#' fi.> 7?/UT-ifo (Last winter it was colder than the ordinary year. That's why the heating cost was high.)

3 hT / cause & effect; reason & result / (DBJG: 413-14) P o i 3x5 t Le-br i

@ElbGZ tb& % L T b l 1 L k O ?hi?, 5 t ; b = b > a s ~ k / v T-ifo (Yesterday I was in Kyoto on a business trip. That's why I wasn't at home.)

I m i

?h&(E) / cause & effect; reason & result <w> /

R % ~ ~ & % L ? ! L ~ ~ ~ WIAW), E ~ ~ O & & & & L . > ~

(Japan lacks natural resources. Therefore, the Japanese economy is shallow.)

Efia 5 / cause & effect; reason & result / (DBJG: 414) I2 It&-Z 4LSr-i s2E;mea w a k&.b0 ~ f i a 5 H ~ E ; ~ ~ s ~ L T L . ~ (If we study Japanese, it will be useful. That's why I am studying Japanese.)

Tbfi'5 / cause & effect; reason & result <fmb / (DBJG: 414)

(In that Japanese passage there were a lot of words which I don't understand. So I used a Japanese-English dictionary.)

(B) Conjunctions which mean 'BUT':

( E ) Cf P / disjunctive <inf, s> / (DBJG: 122)

670 APPENDIX 4

tt h ZS 1 disjunctive I (DBJG: 187-90) ?!< L +

@bi1-4,L"#;f;r 6 b97F:fd7'?, CthZS, kTb%%f;', (He is a scholar who won the Nobel Prize. But he is very humble.)

L L / disjunctive <fmb / (DBJG: 122, 186) t L * b , .=,c*,

Ll~bat 2Ci.T: < 3 A,&&, Lh'L, A&bi@~l, (There are so many things that I want to do. But life is short.)

QO < %! / disjunctive, accusatory, contemptfull

~ $ i i $ & $ ~ b b ~ 9 ~ % ~ T b a & , Q O < %!, &&%2k3tsbr0 (He is insisting on his rights. But he does not perform his duties.) A W C I V . t * i @!i&~$&O~TIf b a l i 1 ~ 2 l i ~ d 1 1 % ~ T b a h ~ i O < %!, TCiZW ;f;r%gTbl&07'f0 (She is saying nothing but nice things in front of people. But behind their backs she is speaking ill of them.)

Q h T S /highly disjunctive I (418-20)

( 3 h ) E & h 5 f 1 highly disjunctive; accusatory; surprise; dissatisfaction <w> I

Q h f& O E / highly disjunctive, accusatory; surprise; dissatisfaction / +it *v*= q m ~ ~ c i & P a # ~ . r ~ a ~ o i h I T S trS;n,aah5f/ t

v%l=%rr+ C. iPhihr7

OCC), -H-RB~~@I% LTbla0 (His life is extremely busy. Yet he exercises one hour every

day.)

Q h CC L 7 CZ / disjunctive, unexpectedness 1 4: l % l w<w e L b L ** EIi B $ ~ % O @ F ~ Z ? Z + ~ 7F?, QhtZ LTLl, %&O%%bi%

&%?9 7:h0 (I was told that he is an expert on the Japanese economy. But his lecture was awful, wasn't it?)

APPENDIX 4 671

(You were hospitalized until yesterday, right? But you look so healthy !)

Q fi CT L 7 % I disjunctive, partial acceptance of S1 content /

& o ~ b & b > 9 & ~ < 3 k b t v r p . i f d c Q qh l zLT6 , % d ~ a - T b >

& t v ~ b ~ T . i f b L (He always shows up late. But he's very late today, isn't he?)

(During a depression we cannot do without some layoffs. But it's too much for 10% of the workers to be fired.)

Ehf I disjunctive <inf in <s> but can be fml in <w>> I (DBJG: 122) H.F it?

r ~ ; ~ a 7 ~ + ' ~ i ; t r ~ j ~ $ 3 j 3 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ E ~ , B W L F ~ ~ it, ~ c v ~ & t s 2 i . (They haven't yet discovered a vaccine for AIDS. But I believe that sooner or later they will.)

f2aa % t 3 3 7 / disjunctive, partial acceptance of Si content I (21-23) kc: B p i & x p x y n - ~ b $ v z < ~ t v i & , z , . t - a 3 5 t ~ 7 ~ , g ~ + &

4&09~tiij'-g.&b o 1 2 8 d h ~ b 1 ~ (There is a lot of cholesterol in eggs. But it is absurd to stop eating eggs completely.)

f i f i 1 disjunctive, partial acceptance of Sl I (445-48) eLCw 8 L d.l;

& ~ % & t & $ ! & f i b & ~ ~ b ~ b ~ kt;", V$&Jfk < f h b l , (That teacher is good at teaching, But his personality is not good.)

k E L / disjunctive, supplementary explanation, condition, exception /

672 APPENDIX 4

(You can drink sake. But don't drink too much.)

T b f l / disjunctive <polite> / tw-ABI?

& + c & ~ $ c : ~ ~ ~ > T . f o TTfi-3, kggjib: ( t,sT-ifo

(Kanji is indeed interesting. But it is hard to memorize them.)

Tb l t ( h ) 2 % / disjunctive <polite> /

ii%&~P$kaz 2 t & % j i a ~ , it;. / TT) t t ( h ) z ( 5 ) , j& ~ b : ' & j . a a t v ~ t ~ (I can say simple things in Japanese. But I cannot handle difficult talk.)

T 6 / disjunctive <inf, s> 1 (DB JG: 122) b h I-=:&

f i i i k % L T b ~ 3 . f 0 T5, f?&$a/tTT, (My older sister is married. But my older brother is still single.)

I: Z 3 fif / disjunctive, unexpectedness /

b1

I: lb= 3 5 a)a)/ disjunctive, partial acceptance of SI content <w> /

I: i t B 2 /disjunctive, partial acceptance of SI content <w / s> /

)J l b t 7 :,T 5 / disjunctive, partial acceptance of SI content 1 p Lloi - t d.A I: It& -

I:($ / E 7 T 5 / B 3 6 a ) a ) ) , 5 ~ ~ T F i : a ~ ; a b > ~ (I have been studying Japanese five hours each week since last year. But my Japanese isn't getting any better.)

5 7 I: 5 / disjunctive, condition; limitation; exception /

Z O % % E $ ~ ~ ~ : T B & ~ J ~ T P T - F L . G ~ I : ~ & B B W T -if#, (This fountain pen is very easy to write with. But the price is high, you know.)

APPENDIX 4 673

(C) Conjunctions which mean6AND':

i3 & Cf CZ I addition <inf> 1 S r i h L k L*=Sr? e*L a w a 4ElGrtrF!EldlbOLb ~ O Q @ ~ I ~ L ~ ~ Q I . . L . i3&CfE, %% 3 T & 7 T S 7 %&?QI:/UIZ~ (Today I was busy preparing for the business trip for tomorrow. To make matters worse, I had guests, you know. Gee, it was a tough day !) * m C r a c~ @kG&SAtbtvI2h a, i3&CfCZ, %$brbr t: 3 Tbl6, (She is a beauty, isn't she? And she's smart at that.)

L A'& I addition l(390-95)

& O L X 1.4'/b;f.t:Th&~.L0 LA>&, $11 3 - a h g h g &/Ul:,

(That restaurant is very inexpensive. Moreover, the amount they serve and the taste are super!)

=f ( 3 ) L 7 I a sequence of actions 1 (DBJG: 422-23) i ~ y c = e . r ~ -):

~ b i ~ a u ~ ~ ~ J & G - ~ r ~ I : ~ ~ ( 3 ) LT? Z T % % B & ~ T ~ ~ I: (I went to the coffee shop in front of the station. And there I waited for my friend.)

i i 3 OIL( 6) / addition, surprise 1 (413-17)

Dt h t * ~ O A W i $ b ~ b ~ , =fO+(CZ), F & h t: T % b*~ ,

(He is bright. On top of that, he has such a nice personality.)

;f f i hb 5 I event & event; action & action; state & state <chronology> I

1 (DBJG: 416-19) i: I%& ' L*< f i b > X & a ~ s $ & m ~2 LIZ, ;ffiaa5, %ib~A~=&;~.ctf: ,

674 APPENDIX 4

( I did my Japanese language homework until 8 o'clock. And then I went out to see a movie.)

? h I: I addition 1 (43 1-34)

2%- .YG~YT-xX L L d o ;fhL:, ~ & O ~ ~ ~ L - $ - - , I / ~ t: $L L-cb1L L7zo (Speaking of sports, I play tennis. In addition I played volleyball a little when I was a student.)

4 h l: 1 addition l(427-31) * 5 i i l i L 4-4 13. v 9 = 7 9.K&V3*,L0 % A -3 k + m f w f l % b + L ~

bw L*? ?t s.3 -+, m c z , % m a ~ j w x L, ( I cannot go on a picnic today. I feel kind of ill. And what's more, there is a final test next week.)

? h IJ f i a 1 addition I b0 t; (i:'

I. 7 7 : 11 -timm&ar-Eat:&-c < ~ 2 , I ~ W P b 6 L h t : h IJT& < / ?hldfiaIJ fi*] ~ ' 8 1 / ~ 6 b ~ 6 ~ ~ b ' % t : & ; k ~ & . > ~

< kko (My host family kindly came to pick me up at Narita Airport. And it didn't stop there. They also took me around every day to all sorts of interesting places.)

3 t; 1 addition 1 fib I th . l* i

@ I ~ ' @ ~ % % % / U C = ? . > T I ~ ' & ~ L r : i r a t k , X k 6 % ~ < & 3 & - 3 ~ , tsd. hd .?eml?, (He is doing research vigorously. Moreover, he is quite outgo- ing, associating with people very closely.)

(D) Conjunctions which mean 'OR':

? h I: & 1 alternative /

% C$ I alternative I (17 1-74)

8 j 6 L Cb 1 alternative I

APPENDIX 4 675

F-IW: ~ a - 6 . n . ~ m t i f & h : ~ ~ f i ~ , (Would you like beer? Or would you prefer sake?)

(E) Conjunctions which mean 'TO CHANGE THE SUBJECT':

d 7 / change of subject <w> /

Note: Sate can be used not only in written Japanese but also in formal speech.

9 s T L l Z ~ L T , Z ; ~ ; " - Y K ~ O = ~ - - Z B & ~ I I W , ~ w x a +%T% (This concludes sports-related news. Moving on, next we have the weather forecast.)

t L 3 T / change of subject /

? h Id ? 3 2 / change of subject <s> /

t S E / change of subject <s> /

z ( o I ~ z ~ - ? ~ z I ; I ~ ; ~ ? L ( - C ~ R . f1L7%t&&f6b? ' sb ' t v hfi*

ti&. 3 1 L 7 % L h c l I r , Et i f l -6~3 ?I L?'s:>hjr, { k c 3 T / ? h i t ? 3 t / % I t B ; b b t f E l 7 Z 1 I j 5 f T ; i Y 3 ? ' s 7 t ~ ? (I've been awfully busy lately. I don't even have time for golf, you know. My mind isn't clear if I don't play golf. By the way, what happened to your trip to the U.S.?)

(It's been so warm up until last week, but it's cold this week, isn't it? By the way, your son is going to take a college entrance examination next year, right?)

676 APPENDIX 4

%Eb 7 T / change of subject <w> /

T 3 a Lfi, (Cinderella left the castle in a hurry, losing one of her shoes on the way. Meanwhile back at Cinderella's house, her sisters had come home disappointed.)

(F) Conjunctions which indicate PARAPHRASING:

~ L \ & R 6 L: / rephrasing /

7 % b) / rephrasing, conclusion / (53842) .ti

Z b 6 t= / rephrasing, focus on a crucial point / If? S r <

@! W / rephrasing, conclusion / (DBJG: 540)

(The President is insisting on raising taxes. His idea is that it does not matter if the consumers' purchasing power is lowered as a result. (In short / In a nutshell / After all}, he is saying that people have to make a sacrifice.)

(G) Conjunctions which mean 'FOR EXAMPLE':

A. kK 1 exemplification I hb, h PJhICf 6 L: / exemplification /

APPENDIX 4 677

f z k ? Z B ! k i k*, 8 7 = 4 ; / B & 9 & ~ 6 1 : 7 5 ' , & $ * ~ 8 -Fa k7N2 L3+?Ao (I do not do things that are harmful to my body. {For example / To give examples}, I do not smoke, nor take in too much caffeine, nor sit up until late at night.)

(H) Conjunctions which mark A REASON FOR SOMETHING.

&Q& % (if) 1 reason why /

QQh>&ZXC% /reason why /

(I) Conjunctions that indicate CONTRAST: V l l ? i

-3 1 contrast, <w 1 s> / f i I l i

f&3 / contrast, <w> / r;W

3 h EN L 7 / contrast /

678 APPENDIX 4

brother is a type of person who will talk with anybody like a friend; he is totally different from me.)

1: IML - 8 * & ~ g i i $ , S & ~ t i a ~ p l o - ~ + ~ ~ X ~ f i % g ~ ~ ~ d.h,i,'

%AaA#k>a. I f & f /3hEML-Cl ItCpl;3>1;, T4L56-p ai..:$Et:%;i.rk~aAbk~s. (There are people who believe that learners of Japanese should start with roman letters first. On the other hand, there are also people who believe that one should start with hiragam.)

APPENDIX 5 679

Appendix 5 Affixes: Prefixes and SufYixes

Prefixes and suffixes are dependent, non-conjugational words attached to nouns or the stems of verbs and adjectives in order to form new independent words. There are many affixes in Japanese. The following list contains those which are commonly used.

The entries below are listed in a-i-u-e-o order.

[polite prefix]

each; several

one

counter-; reverse

[polite prefix]

semi-; quasi-; associate

many; several; various

bare

fprmer; last; ex-

whole; entire, full

(letter); &Y % (~MllfuI); $i:d(L~) (busy) (+ o- (DBJG: 343-47)) d. hLL7 dl k i +?w

W !% % (a flammable thing); % fk (fu- sibility; solubility)

fi. < %a (each country; various countries);& && (each room)

i , . tb%lSi E+ (one hand); R-fi (one of the two); Fk! (a moment) r e < : 5s < 2k d% (counterproductive); 3 3 - X (reverse course)

r I .,EL

((your) family); i~ikt~ (marriage); E'T% (polite) (+ o- (DBJG: 343-47))

E*L It- L I i &*L 7t-b.k.

@ & :R (semi-final); @ 52 (associate member) Lie7 V L r f - fi. 243R (many I various facilities); W&4 (many I various prices)

&k! (bare feet); && 3 (unglazed (pottery)) i t / rL* L r i +fL*v $

FiiiB $El (ex-prime minister); $8 tf4R (last century) *L; < X L i r ~ e ~ t i

52 El E (the whole nation); 2 A ti (the

680 APPENDIX 5

entire; general; grand; full

to; with; anti-

-proof; -resistant

Number; -th

super-; ultra-

same

first; maiden

half; semi-

anti-; counter-

non-; un-

-ed; -ee

un-; in-; dis-

vice-; deputy; additional

right; due; pure

Q L

entire population); 26- Y (full page) + ' C A ~ L + i z i l t b n

$ ES (general election); i ~ g ~ t (grand *5-31$'*

total); (full-scale attack) Lb'^ib, lm LW7 cb>l:SlZi . f Q 8% B (export to Ayerica); t Q B @ $$

c v < 7

(trade with Japan); jtQ$ < -Ff 4 Ib (antiair- craft missile)

(fieproof); %$& (heat-resistant) 7% I: Cb.kL L i i

8%- (NO. 2); %Fl @ (the fourth chapter, Chapter Four) S r i t = 3*? S r i S L If $3 R $3 (super-express); @ d'B (ultrasonic waves) E i C f i b s E i hblfw

RW'C (the same generation); R@B? (the same age)

I t 9 ; i d . b - %% (the first snowfall); $JfjiiZt (maiden

voyage) 4th. L: d% zE%1 (half hour); $g (semicircle); $d 4 (semiautomatic) It/* L l d . b , ' Z S I t& P L i

E?f 8 @I (antisocial); El+H (counterac- tion) 0 s ~ r c D + A ~ < + ~ 3b&E (nonmetal); ~F#-~WJ (unscientific) 0 It I f L L * 0 L Iic,b.l:L

BEIW (the (person) insured); 419% #.A A (payee); &k@& (dividend)

L *r*>+(

(unnatural); EiER (inaccurate); $ (discontent)

L < t ? b t 3 525 h < S '

HA% % (pic,e*$yident); 1911& (deputy governor); d 4Fl A (additional income)

ky (right above); k% (due north); LS

E! (pure white)

APPENDIX S 681

1 w

@ every; per

i un-

2. Suffixes

& -ization; become

1 ) limited to; only

% how to; a way of

% [honorific plural marker]

% -shaped

!2 type; model

hf% tend to; often

3k verging on

% Mr.; Ms.; Miss

% about; around

p " / u 8% (every morning); (per minute) (+ma& (DBJG. 233-36))

X d W l t ? 5 6 . b l l i ?

2%T?#t (unsolved); 5kR% (undeveloped) fr + L L h h C r i I / * % W & (indifferent); % % (uncondi-

fr U t 7 L t l

tional); % b 'R (expressionless)

* L d r < d. 3%. . e L b L 6.

%Z (musician); $3 B4 Z (specialist); & %& (capitalist) Lv 73% d , b < Z ? d , E! i@ik (cinematization); @%iL-if 23 (become complicated) iL Lw3il.E r > 3 r d , ~ + 3 lrIs rl (limited to this week); --ED$ "I (only once) (+ -kagiri2)

&k% (how to read; a way of reading) (c3 -kata (DBJG. 183-84))

Q!..Cb.d'f; dj el:% (you [pl.]); %&fi (the teachers)

(+ -tachi (DB JG: 440-4 1)) fif zw: x d . - ~ a i l r k @P W (egg-shaped); 3 El f l W (crescent)

@6 (box type); A 3 (Type A); 1990 $% (the 1990 model)

% k ~ f l % (tend to forget); %&fl% (often get ill) (c3 -gachi) h)r

k !I 3 k (verging on obesity); 3 k (have a slight cold) (+ -gachi) *I P ( L fi h i ( & lh EEIZ (Mr. / Ms. / Miss Yamada); k&[lZ! (Taro) (d -kun (DBJG: 21 1)) L 3 C Z 5 h < d ' 9 Z h .1; 9 W (about 7 o'clock); R 1% (around June) (+ -gore (DBJG: 126-28))

682 APPENDIX 5

-ness 8 l (height); @;jl l (quietness) (+ -sa (DBJG: 38 1-89

k L d W L i i . i t?b * Q

Mr.; Mrs.; Ms.; Miss $H k (Mr. Hiroshi Yoshida); &% (Mrs. 1 Ms. I Miss Mari Uemura); 8% $$ (guest) (+ -sama (DBJG: 38487))

Mr.; Mrs.; Ms.; Miss 8& l A (Ms. Takagj); :$+ S A (Yoko); k; if S tv (aunt); & %l A (Section Chief); %& l A (wine dealer)

-er; -ant; -ist

-er; 4an; -ist

Mr.; Mrs.; Ms.

style; fashion; system

-er; -ant; -kt

-er; -or

place

(+ -sama (DBJG: 384-87)) L dakOtbl L

?Sf (lawyer); Htf (accountant); &$ (nutritionist)

V t i L a< 6. L

KBR ~: ;h L (beauticim&?)l t i (pharmacist);

EE@ (gardener); E & (missionary) 2 T i t+bL B B I

I\LLI B& (Mr. Susumu Koyama); 8 4 A i 0s : L

E$& (Mrs. 1 Ms. Nobuko Sasaki); + - >& (Mr. 1 Mrs. I Ms. Keen) It I i L L I !3 f 8, (Japanese style I fashion); 4 x Y 2 (the Hepburn System); % 0 kk&f (col- lapsible) L t L s + d l < L e L*? be L 4

4 d . B US^:&^=^^+ (scientist); f f i Ri; (attendant); Xl3.B (person in charge) 3LTLLlo ; i + L L n

36F (driver); 2gF (switchboard opera- tor)

b L r I t L I*i C L

&%% (business office); @f R % (research I i7C/ rL*

lab); 8Zfi (power plant) I t i W < Cki

from the viewpoint & tk k (from the viewpoint of education) of; for (e -ia)

t r i

-like; -shaped -+? 1) -4A Gelly-like); %& 3% (spiral) 8 a i L+ C r i 9 P w i ' r i

place L S f (parking lot); 8 Y.$ k (ball park); .

APPENDIX 5 683

x 4 LbCL person; people F 4 Y (a German); B%h (an intellec-

Ifhf*,CL

tual); W 4 t h (modern people) +v%Lrw 3% oj*w

&E%k (productivity); 48EB (possibility); *-, L < *v k B (positiveness) *v I; IfLCW

# made in 1 of I from El $% (made in Japan); 3- I' u ;/% (made from nylon)

f i l generation; era 50 ((in) one's fifties); 1990 gE ((in) the '90s)

E2 charge; rate; fare; 3 Y-74 (copying charge); + i hR (hotel - T ,?k,

rent; bill rates); x 4% (bus fare); $% E R (room CL 3 f W

rent); %ER (electricity bill) iM:Lfi4 - ? 6 f i $

k5 S [plural marker] %L 32 (we); %E2E (children) ( e -fachi (DB JG: 440-4 1))

f2 % If full of; covered with t & % b \ f CJ GS (full of mistakes); 1% Z b 72 CJ GS (covered with dust) ( e -darake)

4 ?A [endearing suffix] B L b ~ 5 T iL (Grandpa); %+t~ .e iL (Hana- ko) (+ -sirma (DBJO. 384-87))

i*',

=I= h i + 4 ~ 1 E w ?$~j$ei

during; while; in; @ I ++J$?Gg the vacation); i?? % tP (in under class); H% + (under development)

G -er $7 3 + (hearer); 3 b $ (sender)

g I fLCQT6 a 9 + A + % -ic; -ive; -a1 2 A $ (realistic); b @ 09 (objective);

@ 1% 09 (emotional) hfi L

Z 6 bumble plural %L ? B (we) marker] (d -fachi (DB JG: 440-41))

x I LS7l:L -er; -or g&x (sender); k % h (spectator)

ift * b + 7 IT c*',a; IT expense; cost; fee &$a (the cost of living); 42 ER (hous-

d.W IT ing expenses); 9% (membership fee)

684 APPENDIX 5

f i

%

k

i

%

i

2.3

H

5

ii Or?

t4

Note 1:

Note 2:

style; looking like

worth; for

-new

-th (one)

I: MLh? d l ( +?L.u? El $I (Japanese style); ?!&El (looking like a student) h i : ILLXL

t FIL% (ten dollars worth); TiAe (for five people) (+ -bun)

&k (thickness); % L k (sorrow) ( ~ 3 -sa (DBJG: 38 1-84))

51 k I:& h

39 8 (the third (one)); A €I (the fourth person) i L i r l 4 L

(from) the aspect of; 2Zs7*F ((from) the aspect of operation); $%&Ed (in terms of tax) (+ -men) in terms of; regard-

ing

store

way

for (the use of)

[plural marker]

for the past; since

fee; charge

8% ?

$E (bookstore); 2& (bakery) (+ -ya (DBJG: 535-36))

& 3 ~ i (away towrite) (* -YO) f < C b ~ k ? tU. L*? 2 ? $!&H (for students); M 8 H (for practice use)

2 6 (we); % 6 (they); Z kL 6 (these) (+ -tachi (DBJG: 440-41))

I: C * ? hLSh 8 ( Z -t- % % (for the past twenty years); % g% (since last year) (+ -mi) I:+iLiiVr? T t PI1

A % $4 (admission fee); $4 (handling charge)

Affm characters function in a different way as elements of compounds which do not contain independent words. For example, in R %I 'opposite,' the prefix character E is used with 3$, which is not an independent word. In this case, E is not a prefix.

?t :HI) fi ::~nd change occurs with some prefixes. For example, B + ik is B ?k.

APPENDIX 6 685

Appendix 6 More Counters

The following chart lists additional counters that are not listed in Appendix 6B of DBJG (604-07). (Although the counters given in parenthesis are the same as the ones given in DBJG, they are repeated here for your convenience.)

t *For native Japanese numerals and Sino-Japanese numerals, see DBJG (602-03).

h/rCL,

i *Except in Item 59 (+&), "7" sounds more natural when it is pronounced [nana] rather than [shichi]

Type A:

m e A':

Type A":

m e A"':

m e B:

Type B':

Type C:

Type Cr:

No phonetic change takes pla:?, e;~~h~r/rinrth~ Si$oJ,apanese number or in the counter. (Exs. &, G, %, b, B, a, T&)

Exactly the same as Type A except than number 4 is pronounced c *L ah

yo not yon. (EXS. &, RW, +)

Exactly the same as Type A except that numbers 4,1;! and 9 are pronounced shi, shichi and ku, respectively. (Ex. 'name of the month')

Exactly the same as Type A except that the initial sou$ of the counter with number 3 changes from wa to ba. (Ex. 'bird')

The counter starts with the sound of h- but changes to p- after 1, 3,6, 8 and 10 as f?!',":;: ,l,[ipp-1, 3 [sanb-],6 [ropp-1, 8 [happ-1, 10 [jipp-I. (Exs. $,?F, E)

Exactly the same as Type B except that the initiaJ sound of the counter with number 3 is not b- but p-. (Ex. rB 'stay (overnight)')

When the counter starts with the sound of k- the last sound of the number changes for 1, 6, 8 and 10 as fo1l;ws: IfYM-],,6 [mkk-1, 8 [hakk- / hachik-] and 10 [jikk-1. (Exs. 8, m, a, &, @)

Exactly the same as Type C except that the initial szynd of the counter with number 3 can be either k- or g-. (Ex. B)

Type D: When the counter starts with the sound of s- the last sound of the number changes for 1, 8 and 10 as follows: 1 [iss-1, 8 [hass-]

2 7 e v and 10 rjiss-1. (Exs. %,%,8)

Type D': Exactly the same as Type D except that t h ~ initial sound of the counter with number 3 is z- not s-. (Exs. ,d. 'pair of footwear9)

Type E: When the counter starts with the sound of p-, the last sound of the number changes for 1, 6, 8 and 10 as follows: 1 [ipp-1, 6 [ropp- 1 rokup-1, 8 [happ- 1 hachi-] and 10 [jipp-1. (Ex. 6- P, $2 F)

5 p e I? When the counter starts with the sound oft-, the initial sound of the counter changes with regarcl to J,-f and 10 as follows: 1 [iff-], 8 [hhaff-1, 10 [jitt-1. (Exs. B,$,B, b 2 )

Irregular Types: The number is a mixture of Japanese numbers and Sino- 1.6 1-A

Japanese numbers. (Exs. %, El, A)

Additional List of Counters

(In 'x'-(y), 'x' indicates an item for which the counter is used and (y) indicates the type it belongs to.) The list is arranged in the a-i-u-e-o order. The irregular type, a new type introduced here, requires the use of native Japanese numerals 1 through a certain number depending on the counter (above which Sino-Japanese numerals are used).

1. & 'rank 1 place' (A) C l tL z' LL

EX. -;i's ; . ~ ; /P tYktB7prZBxV- . f~27x t . ~ = I ~ G z t ? ~ l : , (Johnson was third place in the Japanese speech contest.)

2. -1>F 'inch'(A)

EX. Vii ~3di8.r' ; . - ~ B & B ~ ? : ~ (Yesterday the snow piled up as much as 10 inches.)

* 1

3. RQ 'station' (Irregular: 1 and 2 in the native Japanese numerals) e a < i:d.?olf if

Ex. % T S ~ ~ S H A ~ ~ J ~ C J ? & T . ~ ~

APPENDIX 6 687

(Shinjuku is two stations away from Takadanobaba.)

4. ?i 'yeny (A') h d Lip< i L

Ex. 1 FlLbi+ '6 H C bbbT'ifo (One dollar is now about 100 yen.)

5. 3& 'return trip1 (A) @iLTLPi< h v f S L b i L <

Ex. &~ibi53k%@~O~~~~iL.?'.'., (Today I made three trips between my house and the post office.)

b <

6. 'one hundred million' (A) I: ltL CL:i v 3 a < w C t i

Ex. B$a)AUii-BJX kT, 7 2 '1 j 5 O ~ ~ b k ~ % k k ? ' . & (The population of Japan is more than one hundfed milliod and the population of America is more than two hundred rriillion.)

M'i r). c

7. EI 'kanji stroke' (C) Coi I LA.

EX. r i k < 11 k ~ l i % h i + PII~OR?T-+, (The character M < has fourteen strokes.)

d. ec 8. %& 'family' (C / Irregular: 1 and 2 in the native Japanese numerals)

Ex. Z O ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ O & & ~ ~ O ~ ~ O ~ ~ ~ S & A T ~ ~ & ~

(Two families are living in this house-my older brother's family and my family.)

V? s 9. %# 'semester' (A)

IZ < f wdr< +"Vs $

Ex. ~ i k ~ O ~ ~ T 3 1 : - l f ~ ~ ~ % j i ; j l ~ b ~ f h ~ ~ ,

(I have taught only two semesters at this college.)

10. f jU > 'gallon' (A) < a * k ~ 6

Ex. ZO$Gi 1 1 5 " ~ ; / T ~ O ? - ~ I L % ~ ,

(This car runs 40 miles to the gallon.) s

11. 'term' (C)

688 APPENDIX 6

(Is there an American President who served for three terms?)

12. & 'machine / airplane' (C)

Ex. g%~:CL.j'-r ;/$.j'r 7 l . -h 'T&~r;br&a ~Tbaf:, (About ten jumbo jets were parked at the airport.)

t i

13. 3.B 'cylinder' (C) < h i 8th t i h/r 73 b h

Ex. Z OgdLA%@??&Lj, 8RB;5'Ebao (This car has eight cylinders, so gas consumption is bad.)

14. % 'line' (A) ' C r i 4

EX. %, 2 6 4 - ~ 0 3 f i B O rz;kl C L % B & L T P ~ , L T - M ~ (Professor, what does 'this' in the fifth line of page 26 refer to?)

I r <

15. Bi 'piece of music' (C) $ * f i , (She played three of Beethoven's piano pieces.)

16. S C1 'kilometer / kilogram' (C)

EX. (a) % d l ~ ; % $ 3 ~ ~ 3 ? ~ ~ 4 ~ & 5 0 a-ifO (It is eight kilometers from home to work.)

h k L k b > E * i Zt*i51

(b) %.O@&Ci 56 4 u T $ , (I weigh 56 kilograms.)

Note: 1 + t~ reads not [ikkiro] but [ichikiro]. For other numbers, 3 0

belongs to Type C.

17. %I 'haiku / waka' (C) l ib. < O?." <

Ex. ~ l L # @ % ~ h J ~ b b ~ % ~ k ~ (I have composed about one hundred haikus.)

Itk

19. $6 'digit' (C / Irregular: 1-4 in the native Japanese numerals.)

APPENDIX 6 689

i l r < e b 1 hFl F

Ex. & a ) ~ & I k ~ ~ a ) & $ W l & ~ f ~ & &&?2bao

(That student cannot do even multiplication of two-digit numbers.)

20. 'house' (C') if11 9 IiCfli? 1 A.

Ex. ~ a ) k ? K I k $ ~ ; 3 ' * A k & & & ~ (This city has eight bookstores.)

It11

21. I3 'distance' (= 1.9 yard) (C') AC b CC 1: It/*

EX. & ~ ) G I ~ B ~ U I W ~ ) ? ~ ~ ~ L ~ G T ~ ~ (That store is a small store with front measuring two ken (one ken = 5.695 ft.).)

22. 'house (fml)' (C) c * ~ F ( c r ~ c - 2

EX. za)%~b+~ ~w:1$;3'* m+ p C ~ ; ~ ~ & ~ - C L ~ Z , , (About forty houses stand in this new residential area.) -

23. %! 'word' (A) O + < : v abl 1: 13L -

Ex. $$L %EZJJFJ~) El $%& 3 S ba0

(Write down your answer in Japanese using less than one hundred words.)

24. % 'school' (C) b f i L Cw?< C it11 BL:? zWLLr

Ex. 8 i ~ ~ k k ~ d % a ) % , SRC:@IB%& L % L k o (During the college entrance examination period, I sent applications to three institutions.)

Zi Lr

25. 9(S) 'Number X (car)' (A)

EXS. (a) 2~71\ " - 12 j?g~~ Z W T ~ ~ (My apartment is on the 5th floor of building No. 5.) L < ?i L n r b r J L+

(b) &22@6k 4 . 7 @ - ~ ; = s b ~ a t ~ (The dining car is car No. 4.)

8 5

26. IIJI 'plate' (D 1 Irregular: 1 4 in the native Japanese numerals)

690 APPENDIX 6

C - B S bs tti C EX. z ; ~ c ~ ~ I ~ J - x T . L " ~ L > ~ ~ & I ; , + m x L t t l - c a b b r ) 3 t ,

(This is a full course, so there will be more than ten dishes.) C

27. P 'letter'@) Cvd'< I: U L - w 6 h L C v I L V * < -rL p s i

Ex. Z 2 c r l ~ + ~ fl*&a)-+&Ci$%-3-6? z B + (" 1; 5& L 'at,

(The fitst year Japanese students at this college study about three hundred kanjis.)

28. % 'company' (D) I L 0 ** C V * L 2 2 4 I

EX. @!&d'~ ~!&8??7'$7 T ~ > & o T , f@ & f l % ~ b > ~

(Because four companies are making the same product, competition is fierce.)

L e i

29. )$ 'circling' (D) t- L a i

Ex. @Ci&?$773 2 (I am run around the grounds about ten times every day.)

L*i d.L

3d. 8(H) 'week' (D) I: i%L - S * i L * i d ' L

EX. E O El$&l%&'bif~ B Bdf?., (The summer Japanese program is nine weeks long.)

L* a * ,

31. IS(@) 'kind'(D) 6 % C ~ L * h k l

EX. (a) X G ~ + @ % <" 1 ; ~ @ ~ & t v ~ w f . ~ (My father was taking about ten kinds of medicine.) i I - I: L * aw ~ t w r ? L

(b) B ~ E C L t a ~ @ ( f i ) O%%BW& ho (There are two kinds of adjectives in Japanese.)

L 1 - l

32. S 'chapter' (D) i f < L h L X L P L X I f - L r i I r L z ? d.

Ex. t3k$*Ci&%bTj1@1?fl, a f ? I @ L;5lf b > T b a a L.',

(The doctoral dissertation will be eight chapters in all, but I have written only two chapters so far.)

L i i

33. fl 'amount of liquid I grains' (= 1.8 liter) (D) w- L r i

Ex. #k#??--fib~f b Q < & L T L ~ iD (He drinks one shd of sake quite easily.)

APPENDIX 6 691

35. %( 'color' (D) C*i I: L r <

Ex. (a) Z ~ 3 L 3 2 C i f I$T.fO (These crayons come in twelve colors.)

(b) ECiWT-L (The rainbow has seven colors.)

Note: In (b), +& reads not [shichishoku] but [nanairo]. +ill 1

36. EE 'century' (D) I: coi v l r w $ I:%<WLI b~

EX. 1 + - - B ~ a H ~ ~ k t i ~ i ~ ~ 1 ~ 3 i & , (I wonder what will happen to the Japan-US relationship in the 21st century.)

37. 6% 'household' (D) I: +i LLI L%iL< BL .tC i ; b ~

Ex. b%KiiIB% fE %93B% ~$%#gb>~ (There are many two-household and three-household residences in Japan.)

38. 6fi 'generation' @) Bh+iCI> t i 1 2

EX. ~ ~ P & c : ~ ~ z B R ~ B L T ~ ~ ~ , (Three generations live together in our house.)

r L

39. F 'thousand' (D') i: ( 3 : ' k 3 ZLFh - *.,< .iL

Ex. &B%&&~;R ~ ~ T & $ . T ~ & Z $ - ~ B P3 (*1;b>T L7'& (If I remember correctly, the train fare from Narita Airport to Tokyo was 83,500.)

40. % 'sen' (D) 3.h *,-,+ih tr i 2 -373.

Ex. @Ci-B&f LAbl?? L a b > O (He doesn't waste a penny.)

692 APPENDIX 6

41. t >F 'centimeter' (D) hT;L L A % ; ? 6 Q C * i Z

Ex. $La)& Ed2 1 % - 1. IL 75 -k '/FT-$, (I am 1 meter and 75 cms tall.)

42. t > E 'cent' (D) % * i C * l S * i

Ex. ZD-k-9-C2 99 FIL9911'J1.TL#cO (This sweater was 99 dollars and 99 cents.)

43. 9 - X 'dozen' (A) hd.'LV-= V6

Ex. tk'd-&tv7F, P&%Q 1 Y - X & Q - C % - C ? S L ~ ~ - @ / V & (Could you kindly go and buy me a dozen red pencils?)

44. 'problem' (A) &&f ibs t * i f i b % r

Ex. &@$a)?X P C:b7%df -I- ~ ~ k 0 (In the math test there were ten problems.)

f bl

45. d 'machine' (A) 4: 7 3 ,

EX. ~ ~ ) & & G : C ~ Y L F # ~ % , . 4 ~ f f i - 6 , C D Y L - Y - ~ F - ~ W ?I aa,

(There are one TV set, two radios and one CD player.)

46. % 'step' (A) * b ~ t % # L 6: e L u c < C L

EX. za)&a)~w"xc~awz B ~ b j 9 aa, (The stairs of this temple total 300.)

47. %.% 'paragraph' (A)

Z r i

49. T 'piece of t6fu / pistol / block' (F)

APPENDIX 6 693

t i h P h . % r i < f i Ex. (a) Ca)%ZR, 3 T 7 ; P b 1 ,

(Please give me three blocks of this t6fu.)

(b) % ; ~ L F X I.ILIBZT)L&~ICPIL (The man possessed three pistols.)

% t i

50. R 'one billion' (F) d w L ? L I f L l L T < P h . % r i L L

Ex. C o)%;iEfOR*&b;t:&Z dl5 WI?, (The capital of this company is approximately 3 billion yen.)

f r i *

5 1. T €l 'subdivison of a large city' (F) Ex. i g & i h . % i i n

Ql TH 0 % ~ t i ) : 39;S.T-Fla0 (The No. 4 district of Ginza is bustling, isn't it?)

7 3

52. A 'duration of a month' (Irregular: only 1-4 in the native Japanese numerals and none of the Sino-Japanese numerals) cf.

* \ L Z < z I, 9 3 4 L $ t i

Ex. @!ZEBZA@HT%! 3B L 3 LI:, (I studied Korean for three months in Korea.)

711

53. 9 'area' (= 3.9 square yard) (F 1 Irregular: 1 and 2 in the native Japa- nese numerals) b t L W i or< 712

Ex. $LO%CLB k7 C l; b l T f ,

(My house is about 100 tsubo.)

54. % 'drop of liquid' (F) an wlr3 I : T $ h i i l :

Ex. iifijfl-78, 372, i%O &bI:, (The rain started to fall, one drop, two drops . . . .)

T L

55. A 'point' (F) I: I - l i 7 L ith. L a i C * i l i = T h .

Ex. 8 $%a)%*%%ki h f A,ef? 9 I:, (I got 98 points in the final Japanese examination.)

t H

56. % bj 'way' (F 1 Irregular: 1 and 2 in the native Japanese numerals) d . t 8 L t H

Ex. ~ a ) w & ~ k + $ ~ t ; t : Z f !Jbja0

(There are three ways to solve this problem.)

694 APPENDIX 6

57. FJL u011ar~ (A) i: * L z * h

Ex. z o'$G& 2 A5,000 FIL C 5 b1T L fi. (This car was about $25,000.)

I:&*?

58. A 3 'portion' (Irregular: 1 and 2 in the native and Sino-Japanese numerals)

Ex. 3- L %%X?$$&bl L 3 To (We'd like to order portions of sushi for five people.)

59. r& '- year student' (A') r k w ( S L ~ L ~ V

Ex. 15 L 2G&X 9 2 7 + - FkFO5@kTT0 (Karen is a junior at Stanford University.)

60. /C- -b > l. 'percent' (E)

Ex. - izD+ll x, b~&Q)~i&~"~L~lf-+2 bfiTT&a0

(The number of Japanese Christians is less than 1% of the population.)

i t <

61. 'overnight stay' (B') i z = 6 ~ b ~ r ' v ? D t r - d* b r : i

EX. tii&G:-iEC EI 0fiic:'I'i8 L $TO (I'll make a one night two day trip to Hokkaido.)

ti:

62. SI 'box' (B' I Irregular: 1 and 2 in the native Japanese numerals) b . E Z 1 L i f i t

EX. I : C ~ Z B ~ E ~ R - = - C ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ (I am smoking three packs of cigarettes every day.)

63. 'shot I round' (B') LA?? V = i f -

Ex. r'x P ILO$$~&&PCL-&!$IZ~ TL~IZ, ,

(One shot of the pistol's bullet hit the heart.) l fL%h

64. ?#@ 'train track' (A) SLl fh*L L L I f L e L

Ex. %b3x7'~xG&3%%t: 4 % % ~ 3 - ,

APPENDIX 6 695

(The Narita Express leaves from Track 3 and Track 4.) IfL %

65. 'a house number' (A) bFL t i li_i t * i L r At+< < t 7 r l S % ~ i B A % i ' k51:t*1-lfL 15

Ex. $LOR ROE %bib rl;f KFB 811. 3 ? B 25 -%%T-?, (My address in Tokyo is 3-25 Totsuka-cho, Shinjuku-ku.)

66. %( 'hundred' (B) D c < Ii7HL ILlFr< h?*+< I t ? V r < - 5

Ex. EOA?WCi, 3 8, /'; 8 t ~ 8 L f i ~ 6 j - c j - ~ ? Z b ~ ~ (In pronouncing 'hyaku,' pay attention to 'sanbyaku,' 'roppyaku' and happyaku.')

Note: 8 is basically of Type B, but there are no *[ippyaku] or *[jip-

pyakul.

67. 3 'second' (A) t * i C V t i ItL

EX. # ~ i Y 6 6 % - I - I L ~ 12 1 9 ~ 2 9 I* , (I run 100 meters in 12 seconds.)

68. 7 < - 1. 'feet' (A)

EX. E t i & ~ h $ 7 4 - F Ti 4 W T - F ~ (My older brother is 6 feet and 10 inches tall.)

L L

69. 5C 'sentence' (A) hLJL W ~ t i t * i S L

Ex. ~ Q % ~ ~ ~ ~ B - i - ? W I t d h ~ b ~ , (Summarize the content of this paper using 10 sentences.)

-6

70. L 'frequency' (B) 6-^iL'Pt" b

EX. qd 12% 7 1 1 - C : / ' ; Z ~ B ~ $ C ~ f:;5.', b12;3191:, (Today I called Mary six times, but she wasn't there.)

71. & 'step' (B')

Ex. ?&Q $8 Q 3& d. 6, (Proverb) (A journey of a thousand miles must begin with the first step.)

696 APPENDIX 6

(The electric current of this place is 100 volts.)

1

73. B$I 'room' (Irregular: 1 and 2 in the native Japanese numerals, and beyond 3 the counter is seldom used.) b k L k 6 .F h 1% t i -h2 I

EX. +L B D ~ ~ C ~ W ~ ~ L - A I : q-ch 0 a*, (In our house two rooms are reserved for our grandparents.)

74. ;j: '10,000' (A) th( i&*&

EX. ~ z i p 3 6 r ; ~ f : r ; E ~ ~ a * - h . , (What would you do if you were given H,000,000?)

75. % 'person' (A) b: I% - t i L ?:(++ e ~ n w t:/r L

Ex. Z 6'1 B*&D? 7 % C:iik3f & 7 E % , % 3 ~ & 7 & 8 b r 3 .f, (This Japanese class has three female students and five male students.)

76. % - b 1b 'meter' (A) h I: Bh.

Ex. la>^^ I&?$$ - 1- %fi YT*, (Mt. Fuji is more than 3,000 meters high.)

r)&

77. EI 'newspaper page' (A) LAX& z/rr)/u L L ~ L :t e b w . m , s . c

Ex. Z6'I%ifi~D~iEfiI: ~ ~ c ~ ~ ~ ~ E w @ D ~ z & ~ ~ ~ ~ (The third and fourth pages of this newspaper carry international articles.)

6 L

78. Ba 'problem' (A) t ' d r t L It& - b L h i w 6 b L

Ex. & % D ~ R T S ~ ' + ~-h.&V72;3~3 fz0 (On the math test I was able to solve only one problem out of five.)

79. P- F 'yard' (A) I : t * X

Ex. 7% '1 55D?-1Lb&f:b>Tb1 25 T- Ff., (An American pool is usually 25 yards long.)

APPENDIX 6 697

?*

80. h 'pile' (Irregular: only 1 and 2 in the native Japanese numerals and none of the Sino-Japanese numerals)

ut**zuc< Ex. Za) 9 /vc"C3.-tl1500 BP$,

(These apples are Y500 a pile.)

5 47

81. k! 'distance' (= 2.5 miles) (A) : Fb t l Lr?lE?:? pE32 h hh

Ex. ?l%a)@, 4. BR$Tr&El E%$hcf kLC%h l;h$37':., (When I was a child, I had to walk one ri everyday to my elementary school.)

82. IJ r E I C 'liter' (A)

Ex. i % a ) f f ~ l l ;/13.?ll Y 1-1Lba < l;T$$a (How much is Japanese gasoline per liter?)

bfi t1h

83. SJ '10 percent' (A) 8Lbb V

Ex. Z a ) & k E % 5 I 3 T$ dr, (There is a 30% discount on these shoes, you know.)

84. 7 r E 'watt' (A) T L l*?

EX. '2% 7.? ~ ~ ) E ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ L ~ ~ ~ T ~ ; ~ " ~ (I need a 200 watt electric bulb.)

698 APPENDIX 7

Appendix 7 Cooccurrence

Some adverbs, particles, and phrases commonly occur with certain kinds of sentence / clause endings, as listed below.

1. Adverbs, particles, and phrases which occur with negative sentence endings:

b.3#* ' t L 7v * i ? W < L Z 5

-RE([$) g@$&Rkr < ablkti, - & [ Z l $ & f abl,

(We cannot make a generalization about comics being bad from an educational point of view.)

-(counter) t : L 7 ~ ~ ~ $ $ ~ : t i ~ ~ t : ~ ~ & & ~ ~ & ~ ~ d r b l a ~ l ,

(There is not a single boss in this company whom I can respect.)

b.bfi*.

~ z ~ : a t i , a ~ ; c ~ ~ - ~ t i - + t ~ ~ - a k ~c:&.n~ab~,

(Not a single computer here functions properly.) +/rttv D t 0 . . ,

-(Counter) 5 ~!kbi--hS~~-~ 4 - G:&~$Q I& (Not a single teacher came to the party.)

t L ~ + A I: 1 % ~ - IX. *'-e- Z D B ~ @ C : ~ ~ ~~$~g~$.ii-msaw, - (This library houses no books in Japanese.)

(+mo2 (DBJG: 250-53)) 6. t~ L i Q r i ~ & D Z ~ ~ b l a z k ii-mt:~ %%h0 (What he is saying doesn't make any sense.)

sEiig$~~~Xe$$i~:ti~a~l~ (Money doesn't necessarily bring happiness to people.)

(+ kanarazushimo)

+@I?~I>% t : ~ 7 : , ~ @ - j - ; h l f C:iibld.ab\, (We cannot forgive him just because he is a child.)

(d kara to itte)

APPENDIX 7 699

(He is not that kind of person at all.) -ti

9L8 ?%;3'f:< S/"Wb0T, 9L&L< aba0

(I have a lot of friends, so I don't feel lonely at all.) *A"*!.

&?8 ~a)&$iGi&&b:&f:?'sba, (This dictionary is totally useless.)

%LT z k ~ < r;w%%a ~ ; A L T & F ~ G ~ w ~ ; ~ w , (A translation like this wouldn't take much time.) S L 72 CLQV " z

5726 m%&0#%ii%7 &&i$ < ab\,,

(Prof. Yoshida's lectures are not interesting at all.)

% A =&y?=&T ~ 0 k % i % & 7&~?7&7?l ikV72b~~

Vvol E 8

(This problem cannot be solved easily.) S r l L%l ~0&3l i~ : 5TL\48 $Kbi&&Ccba0

(We cannot possibly finish this job today.) : L r i zm~pr;:~; f :e. j~eP~r iswo

(There's no way to fm this problem.)

Q i z ~ t ~ / " ~ & $ k t ~ f : < Q L ~ , (I never want to take on such a job again.)

tZh C i a sfi~z/vamzc:& 2 ~ i b a ~ ~ r : , (I never dreamed I'd see you in a place like this.) b t L 4 L b r i % l i @ ~ ~ C Z i %T% 5&L8b\, (I seldom study at home.) w+6

K L < T3< I:%%Q&&ablo (I am so busy that I can hardly read the newspaper.)

i: d L l L d

zzx, 5 ~ 3 < & & 2 L T L . ~ ~ W ,

(I haven't eaten any decent meals these two or three days.)

(6 rokuni - nai) t Lrl if*, I f C % L ~ > E %2&@&3 CZ8&Zswo (I have no funds even if I want to begin a new business.)

700 APPENDIX 7

(Among my friends there's no one who can speak English.)

(Wh-word) S @ y - n . & & ~ ~ b ~ ~

(I haven't eaten anything since this morning.)

%47& T < tL?2bl0 (No one will help me.)

(a mo2 (DBJG: 250-53))

The following adverbs and particles often appear with negative endings but can also occur with affirmative endings.

cf. &%~J$&,ka)~, J~Y?.TQ&~~~T&% LIZ, (It was so hot that I slept without pajamas.)

(+aman (DBJG: 72-73))

a t~a &a zoW%i;fat~atr&~fa~. (This problem cannot be solved easily.)

cf. ZotLb;fQh*h'Qi~%b~Lb~~ (This sushi is pretty good.)

(+ nakanaka)

v;'F3 bL5jJ~=$Zbi& 9 3 "if. Lo (I have no particular plan today.)

cf. Z~LG~XIJE%~T?SLL please send this separately.)

APPENDIX 7 701

I: llh - t v 7r cf. B*&DRETT L ~ I Z ~/LZ$WI a LIZ,

(Although it was a Japanese film, I understood almost all of it.)

~ & i i % & a 7 ~ b 1 3 + ? & ~ (The meeting hasn't begun yet.)

cf. I L - k Z - l . l i& f&Tb~3~, (My roommate is still asleep)

( emada (DBJG: 224-25))

& 5-c / % 5 3 3 1) ri$$ii%&m 5 ~ & & t t b > ~ (Kawamura cannot speak English at all.)

I= IfhCL 1: Ith - cf. 9 1 1 -G~BQPB*ADL $ K B ~ & Q % - F ,

(Sally speaks Japanese just like a (native) Japanese.)

&i&%~liLd+?tv, (I won't be late (for class) any more.)

cf. G r % i i & i 4 i ~ a L?;, (I've had my breakfast already.)

( e m 0 (DBJG: 224-55)) bLL t *d. +~ta~~pp~c3c"i'F1;.c=%+?tsb~, (I am not as good a speaker as Mr. Tanaka.)

LS3. b> c 9 b S <

cf. 9#$LUZo% fld'ht~ii, ? L + & ~ T leg b~tih L; ttb17?3 5 (With his capabilities, Mr. Imai should not have any trouble finding a job.)

(+ hod0 (DBJG: 135-38))

2. Adverbs which occur with interrogative sentences:

-#%fl~/"ao?b~z 2 &9kE? (Who on earth said such a terrible thing?)

702 APPENDIX 7

cf. L T E C ~ ~ -bKb>7kdl7f& (He wasn't home, as I expected.)

3. Adverbs which commonly occur with expressions of uncertainty: st 2% < LO&%c;s;E% <$h:Ci&&hb>mj,

(He probably cannot do this job.) htL b a r I: lib

~ L M - H ~ G : & ; T ~ > ~ z t i i , ~ ~ < $ & w w , - (Probably no one knows that I am in Japan now.)

? $ I ~ L O Z t Q % L I : ~ P Q % ~ L ~ I ~ ~ ~ , (If I tell this to my mother, she will certainly be very

happy.)

~ $ A , I & & ~ + o L 2 2b7Tbabf.6 5 (Mr. Mori probably knows about it.)

& - ? r ~ A , l i ~ ~ ? k b ~ ~ (Ms. Wada probably won't come.)

L r i P < & b

U a ~ t b b l : 0d:7:,l:it~l:@f&;3%br;;i.bi~ab$uh~b>, (I may possibly be able to get a scholarship.)

% -8 k> z$,,?&79 1) %Xtg&*6 tIig&%i*o (No one would ever dream that I am manying an American.)

?&i5tr~a)$%%~~:&b ~ f z l v ~ 9 ~ b l f 2 b i ta, (Don't tell me that you have told this secret to others.)

APPENDIX 7 703

4. Adverbs which occur with expressions of appearance or resemblance: 3 L b TS 6. @ < L r

~\t~>,'cz.f f ,o%~%~;f. t : 7 ~ W W J T L \ ~ ~ X . ~ R + % ~ ; L L ~ , (The way he talks is very logical, which is just like a (typical) scientist.)

$6 ta~\mc.tA&t; d: $ T i C L & - C L ~ ~ ~

(Yukio is sleeping very comfortably (lit. looking very comfortable).) L XT L b t L 6.h:

%zk~t$~\tJ>n.t:.f%:G L7'z d: i G:$LOBB~~, (Mr. Shimizu looked at me, appearing to be truly impressed.)

+,'c:.f%i";3.'& 13 T 5 I?, (It looks like it will rain at any moment.)

&i P .fW+ 5 GL 5 tbTl/a7'z0 (He nodded showing great satisfaction.)

SL 9 +LbL i), ~ F ~ ~ ~ % ~ " ; ~ . ' c G + o ~ P o $ B s ~ T ~ ~ $ o 1 i GL%

L7'& (Tanaka talked as if he were a specialist in the field.)

A$?$ tvbk?Z Q ~ % B & t v ~ ? k ~ z b ~ 7 ' ? ~ (Mr. kimura looks as if he has just drunk sake.)

I: IILCL I: IIL z if B 9 1 ) -b;tr%bTB$AOh i G:B$ZQB-if, (Sally speaks Japanese just like a (native) Japanese.)

5. Adverbs which occur with provisional or concession sentences: b~3YlOt l ;V?

-BE f ,~a -~&% L=, 'k.++k~~&i, (Once he makes a promise, he never fails to keep it.) d.<+L i 3 # * l i i ~ t w it n l m & c i - ~ s & 3 a ~ , ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ a ~ = ~ t b i " ; 3 . ' a . (Once a nuclear war breaks out, it will lead to the destruction of the entire earth.)

704 APPENDIX 7

(Even if he hadn't made this mistake, he would have been fired anyway.)

b%* I: lfbl Iffib fiE+a>I{$f @b\I: 2 Z 5 T , Zd&&i%-i?;+~b~., (Even if I worked twice as much as I do now, I could not pay off this debt.)

I t ' LA. IiLfiw bfiL d.h It3:L

t- t js;w~ji~ L-, + L C ~ 2 ge L a .to (Even if my parents object, I will many him.)

?*i :< V.2 t:tR,$,ELLT=.I:2Z::5T, @ l i , A ~ $ i Z L i ' s P & $ i i LQV, (Even if you gave him advice, he would not listen to it (lit. others).)

he h ? a i L E - A f l @ = . B , f3;r- r 3 CiEPLLaT, (If it should rain, the picnic will be canceled.)

Cw e LA. t T b 0 F b s C r i K

E - k M S f l & 3 ~ , ~ ~ ~ E a i i k X ATTO (Even if a big earthquake hits here, this building will be all right.)

~ - & $ f l ~ & & & ~ & = . f . . k ~ 6 ~ , 7 P U Y r 3 bbL1i *kli;+S~'~ (Even if he cannot participate in the project, it won't be affected.)

& ~ ~ $ T S t v & c ; % & @ & = . ~ , %=.t.c;T("~m- 6 2g- ,L&b '~ySb '~ (If Mr. Murakarni calls me, please tell him that 1 will call him back soon after I return.)

&~%c; tL i ' sb ' l 5= , h b - t ? - c ~ ~ b ' ~ (If it appears that you cannot come, please let me know.)

6. Other instances of cooccurence:

4275>< Sekkaku typically occurs with the conjunction noni, (no da) kara and temo.

SLhA.*L I: IZL z < A . % i i

@.r,fi><<+M%B$BQB$&L?:a,b=., & a b % 5 &

APPENDIX 7 705

*w &;3'fbL1, (I studied Japanese for (as many as) three years, but I do not have many chances to use it.)

++-r , t r< = ~ ~ - 3 - 3 % ~ $ t : O l ~ ; 5 . b , 9L>TI :7>

9 P ' / ~ : t , & ~ - c r ~ g r : ~ , (Because I came as far as New York, I'd like to take the opportunity to visit Washington, D.C.) +L*w W-J LI? ItL*raSL

%&;3'-F rr t. 7 ha< - !& %&&ka, $&F@!j& L fb i j - t ~

mu: it a l; av., (Even if teachers work hard, it won't make any difference if students don't work.)

(+ sekkaku (DBJG: 392-94))

Zehi occurs with expression of desire, volition; request, and invitation.

I: l3L f w % < be3 6*<

t f l bE l$OkFt :B FLf:L~T-it, (I'd really like to study at a Japanese university.)

791) j5I:k>bj%I:, bU2&772 1.'*~-=.%yd & h i b ~ L ' a t ,

(I'm seriously thinking about visiting the Grand Canyon (once) while I'm in the States.)

b t L t l ,

B O l l f - ? 4 -I:&7YWo (Please do come to our party.)

M6 {chotto de 1 sukoshi de} often occurs with tokoro

datta.

6 5 { % & - > k T l $ L T l %$b:617@&bi267?9 it: - (I almost missed my train.)

(& tokoro da2 (DBJG: 496-501))

706 APPENDIX 8

Appendix 8 Functional Expressions and Grammatical Patterns

Functional expressions, i.e., those expressions which are used to perform functions such as making requests, asking for permission, and giving suggestions, often involve certain grammatical patterns. The following is an inventory of functional expressions which involve such patterns.

Abbreviations:

<s>: Spoken Japanese only <w>: Written Japanese only inf.sit.: Informal situations only m.: Used by male speakers only (m.): Used mostly by male speakers f.: Used by female speakers only (f.): Used mostly by female speakers

1. Ordering someone to do something; giving instructions

a. Vcond (Gr. I verbs)

&rO (Stand up!)

%&&, (Write in English.)

Variation: Vcond d: <s> inf.sit., m.

Note: Vcond is a strong command. Vcond d: is a milder expression and used only in spoken language.

(+ Imperative)

b. Vmasu 6 (Gr. 2 verbs) <s>

~ t ~ ~ f i 3 , (Look at this!)

APPENDIX 8 707

Variation: Vrnasu 5 k <s> infsit., m.

Note 1: Vmasu 5 is a strong command. Vmasu 5 k is a milder expression and used only in spoken language.

Note 2: g e imperative forms of the irregular verbs 5k h and ?? h are $$b> and L 5 / -& 1, respectively.

(+ Imperatiwe)

c. Vrnasu k (Gr. 2 verbs) <w>

l i 1 && (Look at Fig. 1.)

(+ Imperative)

d. Vmasu 8 3 La

Note: Vrnasu 8 S b > is milder than the patterns in (a)-(c). $3

Vrnasu fh 3 b1 is even milder. (+ - nasai (DBJG: 284-85))

e. Vinf . nonpast k 5 1: bLL .. P

$-if C%LDBE~:&~ 2. i i:, (Come to my office right away.)

*.A,&

i % + T & b l 7 ~ ~ L t 0

(Please write in kanji.)

Variations: Vte < ;k <s> inf.sit., m. Vte 5 L j f?bl cs> infsit., f.

(+ kudasai (DBJG: 209-10))

708 APPENDIX 8

g. s vmasu YS bl sE?7;sVo (Please sit down.) Note: 9 Vmasu 7; S bl is politer than Vte T S b '.

(+ o - kudasai) h. Vmasu 3 t

~ & ~ ; S S I L \ B T , (Please stand up.)

i. {Vinf enonpast 1 N a)) L 2 <w> 1: IIL z E I ~ W & < ;to (Write in Japanese.)

? W B +b. L*- 5 1 El 3TK@ Lb DZt, (Submit by May 1.)

(e koto)

j. Vinf.nonpast Z 2 KG 3 T b l b

S L S L ' v - I f l V i G ; s c c ~ % % T % & ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ . ~ = T L \ B T , (You are supposed to present your paper in English.)


k. Vmasu 3 t

a ~ ~ & a % i i ~ + a ~ , (First, bring the water to a boil.)

Variation: Vinf .nonpast <w>

Note: Vmasu 3 -if and Vinf .nonpast are commonly used in giving directions.

APPENDIX 8 709

1. Adj(i 1 na)inf or adverbial form

5 6 8 L \ ! (Shut up! (lit. Noisy!))

&ha ! (Get out of my way! (lit. Hindering!))

g< ! (Hurry! (lit. Hurriedly !)) LS

Sh'h'E !

(Be quiet! (lit. Quietly!))

2. Ordering someone not to do something (prohibition)

a. Vinf.nonpast f2 <s>

&< a, (Freeze! (lit. Don't move!))

(+ Imperative)

& S e f i r i g t \ c t a + t ~ ~ (You must I may not consult dictionaries.)

Variations: Vte G A I? 6 I? Vte tfj'bbf2b3

Note: - f; e I?@(??), the contracted form of - T GA I?&(??), is used in informal conversation.

(e - wa ikenai (DBJG528))

2% I-$%< ~ i b ~ \ t f QL\, (The cost should not be high.) I:$ t r l r b + ? .6. l t < El '# &&F;~ ;%WI ITML\C~~L~~ (Your daily schedule (lit. life) should not be irregular.)

71 0 APPENDIX 8

Variation: Adj(i 1 na)te t i l.& I;I'

d. N Cib\bf 'ldb1

% ~ b 4 4 % 1 b L \ ~ t a e / L ,

(You should not do strenuous exercise.)

Variation: N Ci7?&7?

e. {Vinf .nonpast C 2 1 N} C2 7tb 6 'ld b3

LO&&%$$? i 2 t ~ t b t )

(You must 1 may not use this room.)

R%tbtbV %e/Lo (You may not stay out overnight.)

& % C & & L \ L k o (Do not consult dictionaries.)

(e koto)

g. Vneg 'ld b> h 5 1: 0 t O 24% L*(J Zci-~rf i B L t b t u 3 t:,

(Do not go out alone after dark.)

Variation: Vneg 'ldbl h 5 1:h <s> inf.sit.

h. Vinf. nonpast 4 iP 6 f <w>

&gTK64h>5-f0 (No entrance without permission.)

S L

i. {Vinf.nonpast C 2 1 N} Q sf <w> L S L c T k i L s i

i O+JZT%T im 6 C 2 (Peddling is prohibited around here.)

APPENDIX 8 71 1

VL L < S % T ~ &EST, (No food and drink in the room. (lit. Drinking and eating in the room is prohibited.))

Variation: {Vinfenonpast Z k IN} Q % L 3 ? 34" L

j. N %L <w> Li f A R w t zwatjX 11 ~ 6 , (Keep off the grass. (lit. Entering the grass zone is prohibited.))

k. N&% <w>

ik 11 EI%, (No posters. (lit. Posters strictly prohibited.))

1. 'N $8 <w>

+ .n .~#Rf l (No hooks.)

rn. N <w> C @ i l t ? a w iF LL U.t C * i C r ' + ~ f f % i ~ ( ~ ~ ~ h % ~ ) s @ ~ l . (No admission for minors. (lit. We refuse the admission of those under

18.))

Variations: Vneg Q b > T <s> infsit., f. Vneg Q b l T < ;k <s> inf.sit., m. Vneg Q b l T t j a j E b > <s> inf.sit., f.

' (+ kudasai (DBJG. 209-10))

71 2 APPENDIX 8

ire o)*W

~ D ~ ~ ~ T ~ ; ~ I ~ c ~ ~ ~ ~ ; ~ & ~ ~ L \ ; : ~ c ~ ~ ~ - c L ~ B T , (It is a rule that you cannot smoke in this building.)


3. Making requests

7% 1: W T ~ ~ T T ~ L L (Please write in kanji.) S r i * Lr ~ ? + ~ Q ~ ~ * L \ P T ; P L \ , (Please don't look at your textbook.)

Variations: (Vtel Vneg f b b l T ] 7;PblaT$ (VteIVneg f b b l T ] TPbl$ . fTLb. 5 $ VtelVneg ' r b b l T <s> inf.sit., (q {Vte 1 Vneg Q b l T } < ;k <s> inf.sit., m. {Vte 1 Vneg Q b l T } 3 b: 5 I?ba <s> inhit., f.

Note: The question ending 'd .f $ (e.g., P b ' T F P b> b .f 5.) makes the request less direct and therefore more polite. The conjecture question ending T L b. 5 $ (e.g., BblTT P b l 3 TT L d:

5 d l ) makes the request even less direct and more polite. In general, the longer the ending is, the politer it is.

(+ kudasai (DBJG: 209-10))

& Z ) ~ T P L \ ~ (Please sit down.)

Note: k; Vmasu 7; P b l is politer than Vte 7; P ba. (Also, see Note in 3.a.)

(e o - kudasai)

APPENDIX 8 71 3

k'&f;i%L\%T0 (Please stand up.)

Variations: B Vmasu Ri liR 3 T da 8 Vmasu i B i i 3 - i f ~ L a 5;31 B Vmasu MliR 3-ktA;31 B Vmasu @lift 3 @ A T L a 5 da

Notes: 1. iBi i3t is thepotent ial fomofRb~3f .

2. The negative ending 3 -ktAda is less direct than the &r- mative ending 3 -if da ; therefore, it makes the request politer than 3 T;31. (Also, see Note in 3.a.)

3. The adverbial f oms of ~om~~adject ives can also be used with this g:ttern. (e.g., S % ;31K J@ b l 3 To (Please be quiet.); $39 < Rbl 3 To (Please hurry.))

s $ Z B & i i - c T C ~ \ ~ - f ? A . h ~ ~ (Could you please teach me Japanese?)

Variations: Vte < kL3 +?A? <s> inf.sit., (f.) Vte T P br 3 +?A? <s> inf.sit., f. Vte < kLa b \ ? <s> inf.sit. Vte 7; S b aha? cs> inf.sit., f. V t e T S b l 3 - k t A T L a 575 (See Note in 3.a.)

Note: Affirmative versions of the above patterns with rising intonation can also be used to make requests, i.e., Vte < kL3 t? <s> infsit.

71 4 APPENDIX 8

Vte < h& ? <s> inf.sit., (m.) Vte T 2 & ? <s> inf.sit., f. Vte T 2 L.13 'if? <s> idsi t . , f. The difference is that the affirmative versions are more direct and therefore less polite than the corresponding negative versions.

~ > % ' & ' L T % % X % ~ A ~ ~ ' O (Could I borrow your pen? (lit. Could I have you lend me your pen?))

4YBRLTt \ f c f ; "Cf 2tthfia0 (Could I borrow your pen, please? (lit. Could I have you lend me your pen, please?))

Variations: Vte b b k 3 -@A,? <s> inf.sit. Vte b>f:j?bf 3-@/v? <s> inf.sit., (f.) Vte b b k h bl? <s> infsit. Vte blf:f?Gf a k a ? <s> infsit., f. Vte b b f 3 - @ / v T L b j j 3 . Vte blf:f?Gf 3-@/vT L b 5 j3. Vte b b k a? <s> inhit., (m.) Vte blf:j?Gf & ? <s> inf.sit., f. Vte b b 2- 3 'if? <s> infsit. Vte blf:f?lf 3 *? <s> infsit. (See Notes in 3.a and 3.d.)

f. Vneg hb'T I < h3-@/v&/ b bk3-&Lj3.)

%k% L&t\P { < hb-k!hfia/ %%A&+?hk~)O (Could you stop bothering me?)

Variations: Vneg h b l T < hb-@/v? <s> inf.sit. Vneg CbrT b b k 3 -@A? <s> infsit. Vneg h b l T < hh bl? <s> ids i t . Vneg a baT b b k h bl? <s> infsit. Vneg hblT < h h b l j 3 . <s> inf.sit., m.

APPENDIX 8 71 5

Vneg h b > T 9, 6 2- hb1-h' <s> inf.sit., m. Vneg t s b > T < kL&? <s> inf.sit. Vneg Q b a T b 6 2 & ? <s> inf.sit. Vneg h b > T < kL 3 3-? <s> Vneg thb3T.h 62-33-? <s> (See Note in 3.d.)

Note: Vneg h b > T ? ~ b > b + ? h - h ' and Vneg hblTb>f:i '?lf a+?tVda are awkward because 7 ; S b > % + ? h $ and b>f:f?lf 3-tth-h' are very polite expressions but asking someone not to do something seems contradictory.

c k ~ , 7> '1 t~-% U) t ~ L \ A . T b f l r , (I'd like to send this to America. (Please tell me how I could do that?))

(+ tai (DB JG: 44145))

43- L L \ A . T T ~ . " ' , (I'd like you to come right away.)

@ $ ~ : z ~ ) $ ~ ~ G z ~ ~ ; ' ~ L \ T c ~ L L \ A . P ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

(I'd rather you wouldn't enter this room without permission.)

Note: The pattern in (i) is less polite than that in (h).

[To a taxi driver] t i Q-iir?*$ R,E R ~ T M ~ L \ L % ~ ~ (To Tokyo Station, please.)

71 6 APPENDIX 8

z k ~ , %Z@T~SRL\ L a -ro ((I'd like to send) this by airmail, please.)

4. Asking for help; seeking advice

L ? 33flh&t2b>A.~bfif~ (The window doesn't open. (Could you help?))

i%T&k% Lf'.b1A.Tb#, @Jfi%\~\.tt.gtb$j 1) dQhfibO (I'd like to work in Japan. Are there any good jobs?)

(c3 no da (DB JG: 325-28))

Note: In this pattern, S describes the situation with 1 for which the speaker wants help, advice, or suggestions.

5. Giving advice or making suggestions *I

a. Vinf.nonpast (4 3 I? / 4 $3 T I& a L a 1 ( 2 3, i ) .tr-&6& d. $~g%a%Q&< 4 d f i ( t t R i ) , ((I think) youtwe should ask for a specialist's opinion.)

3.t & & - h r f < s ~ ~ t m , \ , (YoulWe shouldn't reach a conclusion right now.)

Note: A suggestion with 4 $3 72 is quite strong. 2.9,i can be used to soften the tone.

(c3 bekida)

b. Vinf Z 2 f?

& 3 f :17 i f i~a~;1 .~ :~b , (You shouldn't worry too much.)

c. Vinf { it Of? / it a>TGf.Gb>)

Xaf % z " t % & c Gat:, (You should listen to others' opinions.)

APPENDIX 8 71 7

~a%s%i$? % A C T & L \ ~ (You shouldn't speak ill of others.)

(e mono (da) (DBJG: 257-61))

d. Vaff.inf.past 3 ; f r rbab l

r 5 b Z $G f ; A f l t \ ~ \ ~ - i f 1 ,, (You'd better go see the doctor (lit. go to the hospital).)

Note: This pattern cannot be used with Vneg .inf .past. (+ - h6 ga ii (DBJG: 13840))

e. - Vinf.nonpast %;frrblb\

CLCb. elf:& %&b=#%-if6Afi%\~\~-if,,

(It would be better to consult your teacher.)

L ~ L 2 z " t ; f : % ~ i thawjw~\~\-r .- if~. (You'd better not tell anyone about this.)

(+ - h6 ga ii (DBJG: 138-40))

9 3 9-T&< kL\L\T-ifo (It would be a good idea to go by taxi.)

7 X f ' l ; ~ % k b L 1 2 % 2 : * i ~ ~ f i > ~

(How about taking some aspirin? 1 Why don't you take some aspirin?) (+ - tam d6 d e w ka (DBJG: 457-58))

Variations: Vaff.inf.past I; b>&VT-if&

Vaff.inf-past I; bl&;frrT-if? <s> Vaff .infapast I; bl&d'? <s> infsit., f.

71 8 APPENDIX 8

Vaff.inf.past b F j T-if? <s> inf.sit., (m.) Vaff.inf.past 6 F j ? <s> inf.sit. Vaff inf .past b ? <s> inf.sit.

(+ d6 (DBJG: 1 14-15))

Variations: N C3 .bad lPT- i fd l N b & b l d l P T t ? <s> N b3.b>dl;trf? <s> infsit., f. N 13. F 5 T-if? <s> inf.sit., (m.) N 13. ? 5 ? <s> inf.sit.

6. Asking for / granting permission

A: Z D # , ~ ; L - > ~ & Q T G L \ L T B ~ P ~ (May I borrow this dictionary for a moment?)

B': dj, - i f k 3 * A 0 ? k L C 2 t ; L 9 k o (I'm sorry, but I'd rather you didn't.)

Note: There are a variety of ways to respond to A's request nega- tively, but negative responses are usually expressed rather indirectly, as in B'. (i) is another example.

(i) $, ~ k ~ ~ b t ; ~ ~ t s % i t v ~ - i f ; t r f ~ (Oh, I'm going to use it now.)

Variations: Vte 6 6 : 3 L b a T L d : j d l Vte & 6: 3 L b a T f dl Vte 6 6: 3 L b a ? <s> inf.sit.

APPENDIX 8 71 9

b. N, (6 r 7 k ) b \ b > T - F &

ZkL, % . A ~ ~ L \ L \ T T ~ ~ ~ (May I use I borrow I see I etc. this for a second?)

c. V(causative te-form) br l<l?l f 3 Qh.&

zcr)r/-7u, @b+?-C~\t;tf~f di.th.haO (Could you let me use this word processor?)

Variations: V(causative te-form) 9, l; 2 3 QL$ V(causative te-form) < kL3 Q LjJa (See Variations in 3.e. and 3.f.)

720 APPENDIX 8

7. Extending invitations

a. Vmasu 3 -@A+

A: yg, g&&X %-12Af.,>o (Would you like to go to a movie tonight?)

B: b~brTf;ta, q73 3 L dr 5. (Yes, let's.)

Variations: Vmasu 3 -@A? <s> infsit., (f.) Vneg inf? <s> infsit.

f ~%&4%~a5f.,~, (Shall we have sushi?)

f L Q h 4 % L a 5(&). (Let's have sushi.)

(+ - mash6 (DBJG: 240-43))

Note: The sentence particle d: makes the invitation stronger.

c. Vvol (+ / L) <s> inf.sit., (m.)

f~Q&4&5f.,>~ (Shall we have sushi?)

fLQh4&5(&), <s> (Let's have sushi.)

(See Note in 7.b.)

~g&+TS~3Ttf.,r, (How about dinner tonight?)

8. Offering something; offering to do something

3-k-ld~\fiWPTfi'~ (Would you like coffee?)

Z D l \ > k . f , z3?0 (Please (use) this handkerchief.)

c. Vmasu l L r 5

Variation: BVmasu L l L b ?

d. Vmasu l L dr 5 ~b

?mjlr.cPA, 46% L & 3 jP0 (Shall I carry that bag?)

Variation: $3 Vmasu L a L r i d l

9. Expressing obligation / necessity

L t w o i i N H # ~ P hb:&;h%~thU'%%&~~, (I have to meet Mr. Inoue tomorrow.)

722 APPENDIX 8

Vneg &l%h 6 hb' Vneg hb) 2 b\Cf hb> Vneg h Cf fit% <s> Vneg h < T ti <s> V n e g h < 3 ? ( h l ; h b > l b > l f h b l ) <s> infsit. Vneg h 3 ? (h 6 hbk / b>1f hb>) <s> inf.sit.

(+ - nakereba naranai (DBJG: 274-76))

d'72') i b l * S

%8;fa)E@$b: < &Cf hl2& % &L\, (Your school grades must be good.) * t' C r i S

&b~~k~&cfhc8&%&~\, (Your body must be strong.) H i l l LI I: I ILCA.

Q%%G2 El$AT&MhC2& % &L\, (Applicants must be Japanese.)

c. Vinf bbf iZi2bldahb> kL%*9 3.h 8 ~ g h ~ ~ a ; f a ) ~ % + ; 9 : , c f ~ ~ s ~ ~ f i ~ & ~ \ , (Because it is an important meeting, I cannot excuse myself from it.)

(+ wake ni wa ikanai)

z;ktikfidr?d~c;f&s~ )EG&L\~ (Since this is a regulation, we cannot help but obey it.)

(+ l am o enai)

e. Vinf Snonpast 4 3 72 3 X L*?tiS z O%&:G&~ it ffi RTKS Eo

(You should attend this meeting, too.)

APPENDIX 8 723

(c3 bekida)

f. Vinf .nonpast E$$d'& & +L6L b @~~Fj?G:~&&&~t,fgjb~ (We need to consult a specialist.)

g. Vneg Q < T it TV.3 I : l i L -

za>+%t& EI$-%T&&< T % L \ L I o

(This letter doesn't have to be written in Japanese.)

&;jf#< a< T & L \ L \ o

(You don't have to be tall.) i : l % L - t 2 3 T BZ&~'~+T& < T%L\LL (You don't have to be good at Japanese.) 2 w P ; i LLC< H W&&WT& < T % L \ L \ ,

(The materials do not have to be metal.)

Variations: {Adj(i)stem< /Adj(na)te / N T) G < T it $2 b Q L '

Cb1 C r i bi

{Adj(i)stem< /Adj(na)te/N T} Q < Tit% %k7'?

724 APPENDIX 8

L t & W I f Z L L o g ~ c k g @ ~ a & s r t m\, (We do not have to keep this document.)

j. {Adj(na)stemlN} T&a83?t i t sb> ".Pi C * i e L

t&ck% %P$ b&E(b&L\, (The structure does not have to be flexible.) If L r fw t ~ m a ~ $ l s + ~ i b j a ~ s r m , \ ~ (The place does not have to be a big city.)

10. Expressing intentions 1 volition

a. Vmasu 9 b r) 72 SvhL I: lih

% ~ E I $ & < 7&1ltr", (I'm planning to go to Japan next year.)

(+ tsumon' (DBJG: 503-07))

%??&k;5 t l ~ T ~ \ Z i t , (I'm thinking of buying a house.)

(e - y6 to omou (DBJG: 569-71))

c. Vinf .nonpast 3 b l

b 5 & & 5 * ~ \ k , 9 \ 9 i ? ~ (I thought I would not see him any more.)

(e mai)

d. Vmasu 3 L b 5

B: % ; 3 ' ~ & ~ & 5 , (I will.)

(+ - mash6 (DBJG: 240-43))

Variation: Vvol <s> inf.sit., m.

APPENDIX 8 725

11. Expressing decisions

a. Vinf .nonpast Z 2 G: {.f 6 / &@I 6 I 1: 1% Pl+< ~1$0k%-&< (c-t:C;:LBLko (I've decided to go to a Japanese university.)

( d koto ni sum (DBJG: 204-06))

?O%&l~b&it < % $ / v f l & < LL:Etb:Tka (It's been decided that Mr. Smith will attend the conference.)

(c3 koto ni nam (DBJG: 202-03))

d. N G: /&a61 b L + % r i i i f i L

$CRIB EC&MERCSM =fro (It's been decided that the next president will be Mr. Ueda.)

12. Expressing desires I wishes

a. ~ f i f & ~ \ / a

g ~ I v % L b ' o (I want a piano.)

( d hoshiil (DBJG: 144-46))

b. Vmasu 7Lzba

3 -0 .?/~&~+Lf-.~\, (I want to travel in Europe.)

( d tai (DBJG: 441-45))

(c3 hoshii2 @B JG: 146-47))

Variation: Vte $ bb\I:b\

13. Conveying information

a. Sinf +? 3 I .

7 7 9 7 s ~ 7 & k h & ? 5 ~ Z O

(I heard that Mr. Brown is getting mamed.) ( e sWa1 (DB JG: 407-09))

b. Sinf 6 Lb1

g & ~ t v ~ i t;+A3f:% L L \ ~ (I heard that Mr. Kono bought a house.)

( e rashii (DBJG: 373-75))

t n I f - f 4 -cLaQk@I=h7I : t : ( f i~ )~ \5L t : t :~ (They say that the party has been canceled.)

d. Sinf t a ) Z 2 f ?

X ~ ~ t v t & ~ & ~ ; k a t : a , ; t : ~ ~ , (I was told that Mr. Nagata is going to be a litte late.)

%-tf"7iL$$s"a)~f--f4 - - I ~ ~ L & $ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ z z T T L \ ~ , (Susan says she will not go to tomorrow's party.)

APPENDIX 8 727

Variation: Sinf 9 T <s> inf.sit.

(e- f fe2 (DBJG: 510-11))

~ ~ ~ / ~ G & ~ $ ~ ~ : ~ & ~ ~ ; ( ~ ~ I : ~ A L \ ' ~ T L \ Q T ,

(I hear that Mr. Yoshida has been transferred to Kobe.)

g. sinf %i <w> (I;' after Adj(na) and N changes to a).) 5 v L * i t i C 3 wzmgi~=.~>r;~ L G ~ , 2 ! ~ w : ~ - c w a ~ , (I hear that you are coming to Tokyo next week. I'm looking forward to seeing you.)

%%&a>h, EL !I TB, (I'm glad to hear that you are doing fine.)

Y L V a ) r . = - - X C Z k b & , (According to a TV report, there was a big earthquake in Alaska yesterday .)

( e s6da1 (DBJG: 407-09))

14. Expressing certainty

a. Sinf C i f 7;' (I? after Adj(na) and N changes to and a), respectively.)

' j , - ' j k 7 ' 1 ; ~ 9 , A & t t f ~ . (I expect George and Alice will come, too.)

( e hazu (DBJG: 133-35)) %;el

b. Sinf C:ZblG-b> (EafterAdj(na)andNdrops.)

B&3%/vab: LT~~~'.CC.~L\&L\~ (It must be Yoshiko who told everybody about that.)

( e ni chigainai (DBJG: 304-06))

728 APPENDIX 8

Variations; Sinf I:&% 3 T b l 6 (72 after Adj(na) and N drops.) Sinf & k G b \ (f after Adj(na) and N drops.)

c. Adverb of certainty + S

6 G c 2 s 3 &&ao (I'm sure Kazuo will come.)

n.e r, I +fir

Note: Other adverbs of certainty include: !l&?? (for sure); R B b \ a < (without fail); %% (absolutely)

15. Expressing uncertainty

a. Sinf {T L d 5 / 7 . 6 5 } (72 after Adj(na) and N drops.)

9 x 7 4 - d 2 ~ & $ 3 ~ b l ~ b l ~ f , & 3 . (Judy probably hasn't returned yet.)

( e dare (DBJG: 100-02))

Variations: Sinf T& 6 5 <w> (2 after Adj(na) and N drops.) Sinf T& !I 3 L d: 5 <w> ( f after Adj(na) and N drops.)

( e de are)

b. Vinf 3 b) <w>

y 3 ; / ~ ~ Z O Z ~ & U ~ Q L \ , (John probably doesn't know this.)

Z O Y U Y Z ~ b~2j~;t ,>33. (This project will probably be difficult.)

APPENDIX 8 729

e. (Vmasu 1 Adj(i 1 na)stem] +? 3 I? a* R& !I =f. 5 t:, (It looks like rain.)

Z O % I ~ % ~ + j tz0 (This book looks interesting.)

(+ soda2 (DBJG: 410-12))

f. Sinf 6 L b a (I? after Adj(na) and N drops.)

Emstvc ia1 .+?a )~k~ in1 ;s ;k~b~ab~~ LL\, (Mr. Matsuda doesn't seem to have been informed of that yet.)

(+ rashii (DBJG: 373-75))

g. Sinf 1 5 I? ( I . after Adj(na) and N changes to a and a), respectively.) &/"?3. ,F<*V

Z a ) ~ ~ ~ % I k % & ~ I ~ ~ ~ - i f ~ b & i f : , (This problem seems to be too difficult for the students.)

Variation: Sinf & k ba I? (I? after Adj(na) and N drops.)

(+ yoda (DBJG: 547-52))

16. Expressing possibility 1 impossibility

a. Sinf dl 6 h ; k ~ ba (I? after Adj(na) and N drops.)

36s tvriiE~;;ka~ammfitb~\~ (Mr. Maeda might not be able to come.)

(+ kamoshirenai (DBJG: 173-75))

I l i :< $ 3% z a ) % e f l ~ ~ 9 T b a b z k 6 & r 7 k a ~ (It is possible that this report is wrong.)

+?ha2 t: cAz r7 & t b ~ \ , (Such a thing cannot happen.)

(+ uruleru)

730 APPENDIX 8

c. Vinf .nonpast ~ k l a b>

d. Sinf 1: iiii it^ L.>

I1.w .w; o>BB~lX-n..g< kht:cti3~sa~\~ (It is not always true that frail people die young.)

(+ to wa kagiranai)

f. Sinf bbf d'QL.1

(I? after Adj(na) and N changes to a and T& Q , respectively.) I1.h q~ i : z~%E~kc~~ ;h t f f r ' ac \ , (It is impossible for him to solve this problem.)

(ct, wake ga nai)

17. Expressing ability / possibility

LI1.L+?L t i l r i B L t + L l ;

~#w:&LI;T~F m1;X&a ~z~eaar;-m& < z t : r . x s ~ ~ ~ (By Shinkansen you can go from Tokyo to Osaka in less than three hours.)

(c3 koto ga dekiru (DBJG: 200-01))

hl; L

%LIi F4 9 ~ f r ' ~ % % - 6 , (I can speak German.)

c. vpot 'I*+:< Z 1

+a'/-Ii+ HZd"S@Q, (Kathy can read Chinese.)

APPENDIX 8 731

d. Vrnasu

iPi.s II D&#c&& ~186, (Many earthquakes are predictable.)

e. Vrnasu iP ;fa a ?;klP2t=.C&$f wa8-6, (I cannot answer that.)

(4 uruleru)

(+ -kaneru)

18. Expressing habits

a. Vinf.nonpast Zkt:LTLla

Pbz%bs6 - ~ E I - - ~ I ' I ~ % c z L : c z L T z . L ~ . ~ . (I make it a habit to swim one mile every day.)

(+ koto ni sum (DBJG. 204-06))

b. Vinf .past Q O I? 1E<bw C 7?br

ywitc:c~d: < i$&aAf:wm~, (I used to see foreign films a lot when I was a student.)

(+ mono (da) (DB JG: 257-6 1))

19. Expressing experience

Vinf -past Z k Pdi bt;L * o l f l ~ : ? i w = ww m~~~a&ji;if:;t:flri4ja, (I have taught English at a junior high school.)

(+ koto ga am1 (DBJG: 196-98))

20. Expressing resemblance

a. N O L i f ?

z D%+~A -a a -&$ma i T - ~ (This lake is just like the sea.)

(+y6da (DBJG: 547-52))

732 APPENDIX 8

b. N O l j C : IL I l & C / u I: I t & -

7 1 ) 1 ) ~C&B$ACT)&~CZB$%B%$, (Marilyn speaks Japanese like a Japanese.)

(e y6ni2 (DBJG: 554-56))

21. Expressing comparison

A C & B l I I 1: Ilk z B$?j3bX.Y-r' ;/%& b)s&,'a (Japanese is more interesting than Spanish.)

(+yon" (DBJG: 564-67))

A 2 B 2 ? % b ( O % ) f l LrT*

B $ % t : u 2 7 % t Z 4 % f i * % L b > T f -hl,

(Which is more difficult, Japanese or Russian?)

AOf j j J fB 1 9

B $%CT)3firU 2 7 % & 1) % L b > T T 0 (Japanese is more difficult than Russian.)

(e yon'l (DB JG: 564-67))

A B tar -QM 27Sft El$ZME%L < aL\,

(Russian is not as difficult as Japanese.) (+ hodo (DBJG: 135-38))

22. Expressing happiness 1 relief

a. { V t e / A d j ( i l n a ) t e l N + T } { h . h l ~ f z / % - h ~ ~ f : / e t c . ] 1: I%& z < & S k i

El$%??% % LT%L.>T&fia7f;., (I'm glad that I studied Japanese.)

&#flg< TWfitr=f;., (I was lucky because the rent was cheap.)

APPENDIX 8 733

b. {Vneg l Adj(i)stem ~ ~ (I was lucky that I didn't take that plane.)

23. Expressing regret

a. Vcond h dl-3 7:

21 % 7 7&-3~&~2?k t J>~f t ; . (I wish I had brought a camera with me.)

(+ ba yokatta (DBJG: 87-89))

' i 3 2 ~ : A h * ~ f h l 2 k % P 7 ~ , (I wish I had not seen John.)

24. Expressing gratitude

&i, b b j f l ? 5,"i%\g L k, (Thank you very much for your letter.)

?%~$&TTP .r ,? '&~bjfl t3,"~~\Q Lf;, (Thank you very much for showing me (the way) carefully.)

c. Vte {b>f.:Eb>T / W q T /etc.l t k ' d Q A ( T L I : ) *+ h b +

E L > Q ~ & WLTT~Q~~ATL~-,

(Thank you for letting me borrow this for an extended period. (lit. I'm sorry that I borrowed this for an extended period.))

% - 3 ~ ~ \ k t : ~ \ ~ r n ~ > b b j Q LYE, (It was so helpful that you gave me a ride.)

734 APPENDIX 8

25. Apologizing

A: %< ~ ~ Q T T A I Q A , (I'm sony I'm late.)

B: b>ba;ia

(That's all right.)

Variations: tkb-t?/v, Vte cs> Vte ZbLtbSba (f.) Z'btvtbSba, Vte <s> (f.) Vte Z@/v. <s> infsit. Z'bh, Vte <s> infsit. Vte t b 2 bl kI <s> idsit. , m. -j- 3 bab, Vte <s> inf.sit., m.

ENGLISH INDEX 735

ENGLISH INDEX

a ni tsuki

a way of -ing -yo1 a way to -ye1 h la f n ni -able uruleru about ni kanshitelkansuru, ni

tsuite, no koto

absolutely not masaka

according to ni yottelyori, no ue

de wa accordingly ni shitagattelshita-

gai, shitagatte

after - kekka, (no) ue de

after all ddse, toto, tsumari after - style f a ni

against ni hanshitelhansuru almost -so ni naru

alone nomi along with to tom0 ni

also mo, - mo - mo, sore to

although kuse ni, nagara(mo), ni mo kakawarazu, to iu nonl, tsutsu

although - saylsaid that to itte

mo am determined to miseru

amount equivalent to - -bun

and -ku, sore to, -te, Vmasu

and yet kuse ni, shika mo

anyway dose

apparently omowareru appear omowareru apt to -ppoi as hodo, ni shitagattelshitagai, ni

tsureteltsure, to d6ji ni, tori (ni), to

tom0 ni as a matter of fact nanishiro,

sore dokoroka

as a result of kekka as far as kagiril

as far as - goes no ue de wa as far as - is concerned no ue

de wa, ten (de)

as few as ni suginai as if to saylshow (etc.) that to iu

fU ni

as little as ni suginai as long as ij6 (wa), kagiril, sae

as might be expected sasuga

as soon as shidai, totan (no

as well sore to, ue (no

as well as igai, to d6ji ni, to tom0

ni as you know wake da

aspect ten (de) assume that to surul

at ni atattelatari, ni oitelokeru at - -est tom0 at all dose at all events d6se at (long) last t6t6, yatto

736 ENGLISH INDEX

at least kurai, semete at once sugu at that shika mo, sore mo at that time soko de2 at the same time (as) to ddji ni,

to tom0 ni

at the time to ddji ni at the time of sai (n13

barely yatto based upon ni motozuitelmoto-

zuku be de aru

be Adj. I N wa be - and ori be apt to -gachi

be brought about by koto ni

YON be caused by koto ni yoru be due to the fact that koto ni

YOru be enough tolfor - mo - ba be liable to -gachi be not in a position to -kaneru be nothing but ni hokanaranai be probably not mai be prone to -gachi be simply - ni hokanaranai be subject to -gachi

be the result of koto ni yoru because koto ni yoru, koto de, no

koto da kara, sei, te wa, to because - is habituallylusually/

often that way no koto da

kara because of amari, ni yottelyori,

no kankei de

because of that dakara to itte, soko del

because of too much - aman' because - or something like that

toka de become to naru before ni atattelatari

believe it or not nanishiro besides igai, shika mo, sono ue,

ue (no better mashida

both - and - - mo - mo but daga, igai, kuse ni, soko 0,

sd ka to itte, to iu noni, tokoro ga but (to make up for) (no) kawan

ni but in spite of that sore demo but it doesn't mean that dakara

to itte by (means of) ni yottelyori by -ing koto de

by the medium of o toshite

C

can uruleru can hardly -gatai

can just - dake de can manage to miseru cannot -gatai, -kaneru, wake ga

nai, wake ni wa ikanai

cannot (help) but zaru o enai, wake ni wa ikanai

ENGLISH INDEX 73 7

cannot help -ing naranai, wake ni wa ikanai, zaru o enai

cause koto de, koto ni naru

certainly - but tashikani - ga come to mean that koto ni naru common tada no

compared withlto ni kuraberu tolkurabete

concerning ni kanshitelkansuru,

ni tsuite consequently shitagatte considerably nakanaka contrary to ni hanshitelhansuru

contrary to one's expectationlin- tention -gatai

conversely -gatai covered with -darake

definitely koso definitely - but tashikani - ga

depend on shidai depending on ni yottelyon despite ni mo kakawarazu difficult to -gatai

do yam1 doldoesldid V wa

do not have to made mo nai

do not need (to go as far as) to made mo nai

do s.t. in a - fashionlmannerl J

way -kata o suru

don't tell me that masaka Don't V Imperative, koto drink yam1

due to ni yottelyori, sei during ni oitelokeru

each sorezore each time tabi ni easily sugu

easy to -ppoi eat yam1 either - or - mata wa end up (with) koto ni naru even dokoroka, sae

even if kara to itte, ta tokoro de, torno

even so shikamo, sore demo, sb

ka to itte even though kara to itte, nagara

(mo> even though - saylsaid that to

itte mo eventually tbtb

every time tabi ni except (for) igai

fairly nakanaka far from (that) dokoroka, sore

dokoroka

feel - to suruZ filled with -darake finally tbt6, yatto following ni shitagattelshitagai

for -bun, de, ni totte, ni tsuki,, ni

wa, -rai

738 ENGLISH INDEX

for some reason dorno for some reason like - toka de

for the first time te hajimete

for the purpose of ni wa for the reason -jo

for the sake of -jo from - on -kagiri2 from the aspect of -men

from the standpointlviewpoint of -@, men, no ue de wa

from - tilYto - - kara - ni kakete, - kara - ni itaru made

from - to ni yottelyori from what I gather dorno full of -darake

furthermore shika rno, sono ue, sore ni, sore rno, ue (no

give yam1

hard -kaneru hardly rokuni - nai hardly possible -kaneru have been -ing -ppanashi

have no (other) choice but to wake ni wa ikanai, zaru o enai

have to -neba naranai, zaru o enai

having done s.t. te hesitate to do -kaneru How - ! donnani - (koto) ka, na however daga, tokoro ga however, it doesn't follow from

this that dakara to itte

I admit that - but tashikani - ga I cannot manage to dorno I don't know for sure, but nan-

demo I don't know why but demo I don't mean that wake de wa

nai I gather that domo

I tell you sa, zo I wish na I wonder (if -) kana, na if ni naru to, te wa if - as muchlmany as -, it will be

enough to - rno - ba if - at all ijo (wa) if - at least - mo - ba

if it is the case that to naru to if it is true that to naru to if it turns out that to naru to

if - justlonly sae if - say that to iu to I'm telling you zo immediately sugu

impossible -gatai, rnasaka impressive sasuga in ni atattelatari, ni oitelokeru, ni

taishiteltaishi, no moto de, -mi in accordance with ni shitagattel

shitagai

(and) in addition sore ni, sore to, ue (no

in any case dose

in comparison to ni kuraberu to1

kurabete in contrast to ni taishiteltaishi, ni

hanshitelhansuru

in fact nanishiro in -ing -j6 in - manner fiS. ni

in one's own style I way nari ni

in order to ni wa in other words tsumari

in particular koso in place of ni kawatte, (no)

kawari ni in proportion to ni shitagattel

shitagai, ni tsureteltsure in regard to ni taishiteltaishi

in short tsumari in spite of ni mo kakawarazu

in spite of that soko o

in spite of the fact that kuse ni,

to iu noni in such a fashion to suggest to

iu fU ni in such a way that to, to iu fiini

in terms of -j6, -men, no koto,

no ue de wa, ten (de) in that ten (de) in the end tot6

in the same way as tori (ni)

in the way t6ri (no in violation of ni hanshitelhan-

sum ' incredible masaka

indeed ikanimo, sasuga

indeed - but tashikani - ga

-ing tsutsu, Vmasu

ENGLISH INDEX 739

instantly sugu

instead (of) (no) kawan ni irresistibly naranai -ish -ppoi

it does not mean that wake de wa nai

it is impossible to wake ga nai it is not that - (not -) naj koto

molwa nai, wake de wa nai

it is not true that wake de wa nai

it is only natural that sasuga it is - that koso it is true that - but tashikani -

ga it isn't the case that - (not -)

nai koto molwa nai, wake de wa

nai it will be I was - whenlthat

- no wa - no koto da

just d6m0, ni suginai, nomi, tada

just as totan (ni) just because kara to itte

just by -ing dake de just -ing is enough dake de

keep -ing -ppanashi

leave -ppanashi

740 ENGLISH INDEX

less objectionable mashida let to sum1 let alone wa iu made mo naku -like -ppoi like fU ni, to (things) like - nado to like - or - - nari - nari like this k0 shita likely -yo2

limited to -kagiri2 look - to sum2

may not koto mean to iu no wa - koto da mere ni suginai

merely ni suginai might as well mashida more - yon more surprisingly shika mo more - than - to iu yori (wa) moreover shika mo, sono ue, sore

mo, sore ni, ue (no must -neba naranai

must be -ye2

namely tsumari naturally sasuga, -ye2

(yes,) naturally sore wa neither - nor - - mo - mo never dreamed masaka never thought masaka

nevertheless daga, nagara(mo),

ni mo kakawarazu, shika mo, sore

demo No -ing Imperative no matter how d6mo

no matter - may be tomo no matter what nanishiro not -nu

not Adj. / N / V wa not always kanarazushimo, to wa

kagiranai

not - and 1 but -naku not at all likely masaka not easily nakanaka

not either mo, - mo - mo not even mo

not just dokoroka not limited to - (but also) ni

kagirazu

not more than ni sugi~ai not necessarily kanarazushimo, to

wa kagiranai not necessary koto wa nai

not necessary (to bother) to made mo nai

not only - (but also) - bakari ka - (sae), ni kagirazu, o hajime (to shite), sono ue, ue (n11

not ought to koto not properly rokuni - nai

not readily nakanaka not satisfactorily rokuni - nai not sufficiently rokuni - nai not to mention wa iu made mo

naku

not to speak of wa iu made mo naku

ENGLISH INDEX 741

not to V Imperative not until te hajirnete not well rokuni - nai

nothing more than ni suginai notwithstanding ni rno kakawamu now that ijd (wa)

of ni tsuite

(yes,) of course sore wa often -gachi oh, surely sore wa

on ni kanshitelkansuru, ni oitel okeru, ni tsuite, ni tsuki

on behalf of ni kawatte

on every occasion tabi ni

on the basis of ni yottelyori on the contrary kaette, sore

dokoroka

on the occasion of ni atattelatari, sai(ni)

on the one hand -, on the other hand ippd de (wa) - tahd de (wa)

on the side of -men

on top of that shika rno, sono ue, sore rno, sore ni

once ijd (wa)

only -kagiri2, ni kagitte, ni suginai, norni, tada

only (when, after, because, etc.) koso

only after te hajirnete only until -kagiri2 operate yam1 or - ka - ka, rnata wa

- or - (for example) - nari - nari - or something like nado to ordinary tada no other than igai

ought -yo2 ought to bekida owing to ni yottelyori

per de, ni taishiteltaishi, ni tsuki plain tada no play yard

please do s.t. o - kudasai point ten (de)

portion -bun possible uruleru precisely koso preferable rnashida pretty kekkd, nakanaka prior to ni atattelatari

probably de ar6, kar6, -ye2

Q quite kekkd, nakanaka

R

rank-and-file tada no

rather kaette, kekkd rather than - kurai, to iu yon

( w 4 readily sugu really ikanirno, sasuga regard ten (de)

742 ENGLISH INDEX

regard - as to sum1 regarding ni tsuite related to no koto relating to -j6 replacing ni kawatte respect ten (de) r&pdctively sorezore result in koto de right (away) sugu

saying something like toka de seem omowarerv, d6mo

send yam1 should bekida, -neba naranai, -ye2

should (not) koto show (etc.) that to iu fii ni simply tada since J6 (wa), -mi, te

so -ku, soko del so (to make up for) (no) kawari

ni

so long as J6 (wa) so - that - amari so - that - (almost) - kurai (is) something which mono (da)

soon sugu

starting with o hajime (to shite) starting with - ending with -

- kara - ni itarv made such k6 shita suppose to sum1 sure sa surely not masaka

tend to -gachi -th (one) -me that to iu koto wa (thinking 1 saying) that to

that (same) rei no

that is (to say) tsumari that means tsumari (is) that which mono (da) that's all ni suginai, tada

the - (in question) rei no

the -, the - - ba - hodo, hod0 the fact is that wake da the fact that to iu koto wa the last -kagiri2, kono

the meaning of - is to iu no wa - koto da

the moment totan (no the only - kurai

the only thing - need is sae the truth of the matter is that -

wake da

the usual rei no the very - koso

the way (s.o. does s.t.) -yo1 the way of -ing -ye1 the way to -ye1 then soko de2, tokoro, totan (no there is no chance to koto wa

nai

there is no need to koto wa nai there is no possibility that koto

wa nai there is no reason why wake ga

nai

ENGLISH INDEX 743

therefore shitagaffe, soko del this kono this coming I past kono

(are) those which mono (da) though ni mo kakawarazu through o toshite

through - into I on to - - kara - ni kakete

throughout o toshite

to ni taishiteltaishi, ni toffe, ni twki, ni wa

to say nothing of wa iu made mo naku

to sum up tsumari to the extent (that) hodo, kagiri!

kurai too mo

toward ni taishiteltaishi truly ikanimo, sasuga

truly - but tashikani - ga

un-able -gatai unbearably naranai

unbelievably nanishiro under no moto de unless kagiri until kagiri

upon kekka, (no) ue de usual tada no

via o toshite

way ten (de) well sore ga What - ! n5i

what - means is to iu no wa - koto da what's more shika mo, sono ue,

sore mo, sore ni what's worse shika mo, sono ue,

sore mo when ni naru to, sai (no, te wa,

to d6i ni, tokoro, to tom0 ni

when compared withlto ni kuraberu tolkurabete

when it becomes ni naru to when it comes to ni naru to, to iu

to, to naru to when - mention to iu to when - say that to iu to whenever tabi ni

whereas ni hanshitelhansuru, ni taishiteltaishi

whether - or - - ka - k while kagiri l, ni hanshitelhan-

sum, to d6jj ni, to. tom0 ni, tsutsu will defdtely do miseru will (probably) not mai

willV wa -wise ten (de) with ni tsureteltsure, ni yottel

yon, no mot0 de, to tom0 ni with regard to ni kanshitel

kansuru, ni tsuite without nashi de wa - worth -bun

744 ENGLISH INDEX

X

(X) of all (X's) ni kagitte

Y

yet daga, sd ka to itte, sore

demo

you know sa, zo you may be surprised, but nani-

shim

you would think that - but (that is not right) ka to iu to

JAPANESE INDEX 745

JAPANESE INDEX

Note: Entries in non-bold type appear in DBJG. and entries in bold type are included in this book . X <Y> indicates that X is found under Y .

aged 's.0. gives s.t. to LO.' .... 63 aged 's.0. gives s.0. a favor by

doing s.t.' ................................. 65 aida (ni) ....................................... 67 aida wa <kaginl> ..................... 82 arnari k t . is not great' .............. 72 amari 'because of too much' ..... 3

. angai <kekk6> ....................... 123 anrnari <amarb ......................... 72 am1 'exist' ................................. 73 aru2 's.t . has been done' ........... 76

. B shita ck6 shita> ................. 130 atari <ni tsuki> ...................... 283 ato de .......................................... 78

ba ................................................. 81 ba'ai <sai (ni) > ...................... 369 . ba . hod0 ............................ : ..... 6 . ba . hod0 <hodo> ................ 57 . ba . hod0 <ni tsureteltsure>

................................................. 285 ........................................... bakari 84

. bakari de (wa) naku . (rno) c- dake de (wa) naku . (rno)> 97 . bakari de (wa) naku . (mo)

. ............... <- bakari ka (sac)> 8

. bakari de (wa) naku . (mo) <ue (no> ................................ 551 . bakari de (wa) naku . (mo)

cwa iu made mo naku> ....... 568 . bakari ka . (sae) ...................... 8

.................................... ba yokatta 87 bekida ......................................... 11 -bun ........................................ 16 -bun' <-rai> ............................. 343

-chan <-sarna> ........................ 384 chau <shirnau> ........................ 405 chirnau cshirnau> .................... 405 chittorno <amarb ...................... 72 . chl7 (ni) <uchi ni> .................... 512

da <- wa . da> ...................... 521 .............................. da cde aru> 30

.............................. daga <ga2> 120 ............................................ daga 18

.................. daga <tokoro ga> 503 ................................................ dai 90

................... da kara <sore de> 413 ............. da kara cshitagatte> 395

.............................. dakara to itte 21 dake ........................................ 93

.......................... dake <nomi> 307

746 JAPANESE INDEX

dake da a i suginai> ............. 271 dake de ....................................... 23 . dake de (wa) naku . (mo) ....... 97 . dake de (wa) naku . (mo)

<- bakari ka . (sac)> ............... 8 . dake de (wa) naku . (mo)

a i kagirazm ........................ 249 . dake de (wa) naku . (mo)

<o hajime (to shite)> ........... 320 . dake de (wa) naku . (mo)

<ue (no> ................................ 551 dakedo <ga2> .......................... 120 dakedo <daga> ........................ 18 -dam <-tam> ........................... 455 -darake ....................................... 25 dam ........................................ 100 daM <de aM> .......................... 29 daM <kaM> ............................ 106 daM <-yo2> ............................. 599 -dasu ........................................ 102 -datte <-tatter ......................... 462 del [location] .......................... 105 de2 [instrument] ...................... 106 de3 [te-form of desu] .............. 107 de4 [time] ................................ 109 de <te> .................................... 464 de ................................................ 27 de a i oitelokeru> ................. 265 de a i yottelyori> .................. 292 de ageru <ageru2> .................... 65 de ar6 ........................................ 29 de aru <am2> ............................ 76 de aru ........................................ 30 de hoshii <hoshii2> ................. 146 de iru uru2> ............................ 155 de itadaku anorau2> ............... 263

de kudasai -&udasai> .............. 209 ............ de kudasaru <kureru2> 216

de kureru 4ureru2> ................. 216 de miru <mini> ........................ 246 demo 'even' ............................ 111 demo <ga2> ............................. 120 demo <daga> ........................... 18

........ de mo <te moz 'even if 468 de mo ii <te mo ii> .................. 471

.............. de moraitai <hoshii2> 146 de morau unorau2> ................ 263 de oku <oh> .......................... 358 de sashiageru <ageru2> ............ 65 de shikata ga nai <tamamnab 447 de shimau <shimau> ............... 403 deshd <dam> .......................... 100 deshb <-yo2> ............................ 599 desu <- wa . da> ................... 521 (so) desu ga <so ka to it& 397

....... de tamaranai <tamamnab 446 ........ de wa ikenai <wa ikenab 528

de wanaranai <waikenai> ...... 528 de yam <ageru2> ....................... 67 dd ........................................ 114 dokomka ..................................... 34 dokomka <- bakari ka . (sac)>

..................................................... 8 dokomka Gore dokomka> .. 420 -domo <-fachi> ....................... 440 domo ........................................... 36 donnani . (koto) ka ................... 39 dorehodo . (koto) ka

........... <donnani . (koto) ka> 39 dose ............................................. 41

E

............................ e [direction] 116 ........................... em <rareru2> 370

F

fii ni ........................................ 44 fii no <-ppob ........................... 337

.................. futsii no <tada no> 449

G

............... gal [subject marker] 118 .................................. ga2 'but' 120

................................ ga <daga> 18 ............... ga <(no) kawan' ni> 116

................... ga inagara(mo)> 199 -gachi ........................................ 47 - ga (0-nakereba <nashi de wa>

................................................. 230 -garu ........................................ 123

......................... -gata <-fachi> 440 -gatai ........................................ 50

...................... -gatai <-kaneru> 96 -gimi <-gachb ......................... 47 go- <o-> .................................. 343 goro ............................................ 126 goto ni ....................................... 128

........................... gurai <kurai> 213 ...................................... gyaku ni 53

H

-hajimeru .................................... 131 ham ........................................... 133

......................... ham cbekida> 11 ham ga nai <wake ga nab .. 578 ham wa nai d o t o wa nab .. 146

JAPANESE INDEX 747

hyd ni aakanakaz ................ 206 hitsuya wa nai made mo nab 159 hodo ........................................ 135 hodo ........................................ 57 hod0 <kurai> .......................... 151 hod0 no koto mo nai

made mo nab .................... 159 hb ga ii ....................................... 138 hd ga ii <bekida> ..................... 11 . hb ga . yori ............................ 140

.......................... hbhd <-kata> 183 .............................. hoka ugab 60

.................... hontd ni <ikanimo> 66 .................... hoshiil 'want st.' 144

.... hoshii2 'want s.0. to do s.t.' 146

I

....................................... ichiban 148 ............................................... igai 60

...................... igai to d e k k b 123 .......................... ii <mashida> 169

........................................ yo (wa) 64 .............................. ikaga <do> 114

ikani - (koto) ka ........... . <donnani (koto) ka> 39

....................................... ikanimo 66 ................................... ikul 'go' 149

...................... iku2 'go on -ing' 151 ................................... Imperative 70

... . ippa de (wa) tahd de (wa) 73 irai <-mi> ................................ 343 irul 'exist' ................................ 153

............................ in? 'be -ing9 155 ................................ im3 'need' 157

iru <tsutsu> ............................ 542 .................... itadaku <rnoraul> 262

748 JAPANESE INDEX

.................................. ite <ori> 329 ........... itsu (de) mo <tabi ni> 442

itsumo wa . nai <kanarazushimo> ................... 92

J jau ahimau> ........................... 405 jibunl [empathy marker] ......... 159 jibun2 [contrast marker] .......... 161 jimau <shimam ....................... 405 -j6 ................................................ 76 -j6 wa <no ue de wa> ........... 312

K

kal 'or' .................................... 164 ka2 [question marker] .............. 166 . ka . unata wa> ................. 171 ka (do ka) .................................. 168 -ka de a o mot0 de> ............ 310 kaette ........................................ 80 kaette <gyaku ni> .................... 53 kagiril 'as long as' ................... 82 -kagiri2 'only until. limited' ..... 85 kagiri (wa) <ij6 (wa)> .............. 64 kai ............................. ; .......... 170 . ka . ka ..................................... 87 . ka . ka <- nari . nari> ...... 223 . ka . ka dochiraka unata wa>

................................................. 171 -kan <-mi> ............................. 343 kana ............................................ 90 kana <kashira> ........................ 182 kanarazushimo ........................... 92 kanari aakanakaz ................ 206 ka ne <ne> .............................. 288 -kaneru ....................................... 96

karal 'from' ............................. 176 kara2 'after doing s.t.' ............. 177 kara3 'because' ........................ 179 kara <kara to itte> ................ 103 kara <(no) kawari ni> ............ 116 kara d o t o der ...................... 137 kara <taka de> ...................... 498 kara da <koto ni yoru> ......... 143 - kara . made

<- kara . ni itaru madel ....... 99 . kara . made

<- kara . ni kakete> ............ 101 kara ne <ne> ........................... 288 . kara . ni itaru made ............... 99 . kara . ni kakete .................... 101 kara ni wa 4 6 (wa)> .............. 64 kara to itte ................................ 103 katti ........................................ 106 kattijite <yatto> ..................... 591 kashira ........................................ 181 -kata ........................................ 183 -kata <-yo1> .............................. 595 -kata o sum .............................. 109 ka to iu to ................................. 114 kawari ni ..................................... 184 kawari ni a i kawatter ......... 254 (no) kawari ni ........................... 116 kedo <keredomo> ................. 188 kekka ........................................ 121 kekk6 ........................................ 123 kekk6 <nakanaka> ................ 206 kekkyoku <yahari> ................... 538 kekkyoku <tsumari> .............. 538 keredo <keredomo> ................ 188 keredomo ................................... 187 keredo(m0) <daga> ................. 18

JAPANESE INDEX 749

keredo(mo) <(no) kawari ni>

................................................. 116 keredo(mo) <nagara(mo)> ... 199 keredo(mo) <ni mo kakawarazm

................................................. 257 keredo(m0) -6 ka to itte> ... 397 keredo(m0) <tokoro ga> ....... 503 kesshite <amarb ....................... 72 kikeru <kikoeru> ...................... 188 kikoeru ....................................... 188 kiraida ........................................ 190 k6 itta 40 shita> .................. 130 k6 iu <k6 shita> ..................... 130 konna 4 6 shita> ................... 130 kono ........................................ 127 kono y6na 4 6 shita> ............ 130 k6 shita ..................................... 130 koso ........................................ 132 kotol 'thing' ............................ 191 koto2 [nominalizer] ................. 193 koto ........................................ 135 koto <Imperative> ................... 70 koto <to iu koto waz ............. 480 koto de ...................................... 137 koto ga arul 'there was a time

when -' .................................. 196 koto ga aru2 'there are times

when -' .................................. 198 koto ga dekiru ............................ 200 koto ga dekiru iuruleru> ...... 553 koto ga dekiru

<wake ni wa ikanab ............ 581 koto ni kimeru <koto ni sum> 204 koto ni naru ................................ 202 koto ni naru .............................. 140 koto ni natte im do to ni naru> 202

koto ni shite iru doto ni sum> 204 koto ni sum ................................ 204 koto ni yorilyotte 4 o t o de> 137 koto ni yoru .............................. 143

.......... koto wa 'indeed . but' 206 koto wa <-nai koto molwa nab

................................................. 203 koto wa <wa> ........................ 564 . koto wa . ga dashikani . gaz

................................................. 450 koto wa nai ............................... 146 -ku ........................................ 148 kudasai ....................................... 209 kudasai <o . kudasab .......... 322 kudasaru <kudasai> ................ 210 kudasam <kurerul> ................. 215 kudasaru <kureru2> ................. 218 -kun ........................................ 211 kurai ........................................ 212 kurai ........................................ 151 kurerul 's.0. gives s.t. to me' .. 213 kurem2 's.0. gives me a favor by

doing s.t.' ............................... 216 kureru <yaw2> ....................... 589 kurul 'come' ............................ 219

........ kuru2 'begin to. come to' 221 ...................................... kuse ni 155

............................ -kute <-kc= 148

.......................................... mada 224

.......................................... made 225 ........................... made <sac> 363

................ made de made ni> 228 ............................ made mo nai 159

...................................... made ni 228

750 JAPANESE INDEX

-mae <-bun> ............................ 16 mae kara <-rai> ..................... 343 mae ni cni atattelatarb ........ 237 mai ........................................ 161 mai <de at@> ............................ 29 mai- ........................................ 233 mama ........................................ 236 mama <-ppanashb ............... 333 -mamire <-darake> ................. 25 masaka <yahari> ..................... 538 masaka ..................................... 165 mashida .................................... 169 -mash6 ...................................... 240 mata wa .................................... 171 -me ........................................ 174 meimei .sofezore> ................ 436 -men ........................................ 176 -men <ten (de)> .................... 458 mettani <amarb ........................ 72 -mi <-sa> ................................. 381 mieru ........................................ 243 minna wa . nai <kanarazushimo>

................................................... 92 mirareru <miem> ..................... 243 miru ........................................ 246 miseru ....................................... 177 mitaida <ydda> ....................... 550 mol 'also' ................................ 247 mo2 'even' ............................... 250 mo ........................................ 179 mo <sac> ............................... 363 md ........................................ 254 . mo . ba ................................. 184 . mo . mo ................................. 255 . mo . mo ................................ 185 mon <mono (cia)> ................... 260

mono <kotol> .......................... 191 mono (da) .................................. 257 mono (da) ................................. 189 mono da <bekida> .................. 11 moraul 'receive' ...................... 261 morau2 'receive a favor of doing

s.t.' ........................................ 263 morau <yam2> ....................... 589 mci sugu csugu> .................... 439 mci sukoshilchotto de - suru

tokoru (datta) <-sci ni naru> ................................................. 409

motte iru <am1> ......... : .............. 73 motto <yori> .......................... 602 mushiru <kaette> .................... 80

na ........................................ 266 na ........................................ 193 nado ........................................... 267 nado to ..................................... 197 nagara ........................................ 269 nagara <tsutsu> .................... 542 nagara(mo) ............................... 199 -nai <-nu> .............................. 315 -nai de ....................................... 271 -nai de <kudasai> .................... 209 -nai de <(no) kawari ni> ....... 116 -nai koto molwa nai ................ 203 -nai to ikenai <-nakereba naranab

................................................. 274 -nai wake ni (wa) ikanai

ua ru o enab ........................ 606 nakanaka .................................. 206 -nakereba naranai ...................... 274 -nakereba naranai <bekida> .. 11

-nakereba naranai ................... <-neba naranai> 232

-nakereba naranai <wake ni wa ikanaiz ............ 581

-nakereba naranai uaru o enab ........................ 606

-naku ........................................ 211 -naku(t)cha <-nakereba naranab

................................................. 276 .................................. -naku naru 277

-nakute ....................................... 279 -nakute wa ikenai

.............. enakereba naranab 274 -nakute wa naranai

.............. <-nakereba naranab 274 ................................... nandemo 215 ................................... nanishim 216

......................... nanka aado> 267 .................... nantoka <yatto> 591

nara ........................................ 281 ...................................... naranai 219

.............................. . nari . nari 223 nari ni ........................................ 227

.................. . naru <o ni naru> 358 -nasai ........................................ 284

................ -nasai <Imperative> 70 .............................. nashi de wa 230

... nashi ni wa aashi de wa> 230 .......................... n da <no da> 325 ....................... n desu <no da> 325

ne ........................................ 286 ne <sa> ..................................... 358 -neba naranai <-nakereba naranab

................................................. 274 ........................... -neba naranai 232

................... nil [point of time] 289

JAPANESE INDEX 751

ni2 [indirect object marker] .... 291 ni3 [agentlsource marker] ....... 292 ni4 [direct contract] ................. 295 ni5 [purpose] ........................... 297 ni6 . [location (existence)] ........ 299 ni7 [direction] .......................... 302

.......................... ni 'and' <to1> 473 ............................................... ni 234

.................. ni a i oitelokeru> 265 .............................. ni a i wa> 289

................... ni <ni yottelyori> 292 ........................... ni atattelatari 237

................................. ni chigainai 304 ................. ni hanshitelhansuru 241

ni hikikae ......... cni hanshitelhansuru> 241

......................... ni hokanaranai 245 ................................ ni kagirazu 249

................................... ni kagitte 250 ................. ni kanshitelkansuru 252

................................. ni kawatte 254 ................. ni kimeru <ni s urn> 312

.......................................... -nikui 307 ......................... -nikui c-gatab 50 ...................... -nikui <-kaneru> 96

.......... ni kuraberu tolkurabete 256 ................... ni mo kakawarazu 257

ni mo kakawarazu <kuse ni> 155 (sore) ni mo kakawarazu

........................... cshika mo> 390 (sore) ni mo kakawarazu

<sore demo> ......................... 418 ........... ni motozuitelmotozuku 261

.................................. ni naru to 262 ni oitelokeru ............................. 265 ni saishite a i atattelataril .. 237

752 JAPANESE INDEX

............... ni shitagattelshitagai 268 ni shitagattelshitagai

<to tomo nis ......................... 532 ni shite wa ................................. 309 ni suginai .................................. 271 ni suginai <ni hokanaranab 245 ni suru ........................................ 310 ni sum <to sum1> .................. 518 ni taishiteltaishi ....................... 275 ni taishiteltaishi

a i hanshitelhansuru> ......... 241 ni tomonatte <to tom0 ni> ... 532 ni totte ...................................... 278 ni tsuite ..................................... 280 ni tsuite a i kanshitelkansuru>

................................................. 252 ni tsuki ...................................... 283 ni tsuki <de> ............................ 27 ni tsureteltsure ........................ 285 ni tsureteltsure

<ni shitagattelshitagai> ....... 268 ni tsureteltsure <to tomo ni> 532 ni wa ........................................ 289 ni wa <ni totte> ..................... 278 ni wa oyobanai w a d e mo nab 159 ni yom <shidai> ..................... 385 ni yottelyoti .............................. 292 no1 [possesive marker] ........... 3 12 no2 'one (pronoun)' ................ 315 no3 [nominalizer] .................... 3 18 no4 [sentence-final particle] .... 322 no da ........................................ 325 no da <wake da> ................... 570 node ........................................ 328 node <(no) kawati ni> ........... 116 node do to de> ..................... 137

node 4oka dez ..................... 498 no desu <no da> ..................... 325 no hd ga <- hd ga . yorb ........ 140 no kankei de ............................. 302 no koto ...................................... 304 no koto a i kanshitelkansuru> 252 no koto <ni tsuite> ................ 280 no koto da kara ........................ 306 nomi ........................................ 307 no mot0 de ............................... 310 noni1 'even though' .............. 331 noni2 'in the process of doing' 335 noni <daga> ............................. 18 noni &use ni> ....................... 155 noni u?agara(mo)> ................ 199 noni a i > ................................ 234 noni a i mo kakawarazm .... 257 noni a i wa> .......................... 289 noni <to iu nonb .............,.... 484 no tame (ni) a o kankei de> 302 no tame ni a i yottelyori> .... 292 no ue de wa ............................. 312 no wa - da ................................ 337 - no wa - no koto da .............. 313 -nu ........................................ 315

o1 [direct object marker] ......... 347 o2 [space marker] .................... 349 o3 [a point of detachment] ...... 351 o4 [emotive marker] ................ 352 0- ............................................... 343 o . da ........................................ 318 o haiime (to shite) ................... 320 di ................................................ 354 okage <sei> ............................ 378

JAPANESE INDEX 753

oki ni <goto ni> ....................... 128 oku ........................................ 357 o . kudasai ............................... 322 omake ni ehika mo> ............ 390 omake ni <sono ue> ............. 413 omake ni <sore ni> ............... 427 o moto ni (shite)

<ni motozuitelmotozuku> .... 261 omowareru ............................... 325 o . ni naru ................................. 358 o . ni naru <o . da> ............. 318 ono'ono <sorezore> ................. 436 ori ........................................ 329 ori ni e a i (no> ..................... 369 o . suru ..................................... 360 d to omou <-ye to omou> ...... 569 o tsukatte <de2> ...................... 106 o tsiijite <o t&hite> .............. 330 o tashite .................................... 330 -owam ....................................... 362 dzei <Oh ................................. 354

-ra <-tachi> ............................. 440 -mi ........................................ 343 rarenai <wake ni wa ikanab 581 rareru1 [passive] ...................... 364 rareru2 'can (potential)' ........... 370 rarem <o . da> ...................... 318 rareru <unrlenr> .................... 553 rashii ........................................ 373 rashii <-ppob ....................... 337

rei no ........................................ 346 Relative Clause .: ........................ 376 Relative Clause ........................ 349 reru <rarerul> .......................... 364 Rhetorical Question ................. 352 rokuni - nai .............................. 355

sa ........................................ 358 -sa ........................................ 381 sae ........................................ 363 sai (no ....................................... 369 sai (no <ni atattelatari> ........ 237 -sama ......................................... 384 -san <-sama> .......................... 384 sappari <amarb ........................ 72 saserareru csaseml> ............... 392 saseru ........................................ 387 sashiageru <ageru1> .................. 64 sasuga ...................................... 374 sasuga (nil <yahari> ................ 538 sei ........................................ 378 sekkaku ...................................... 392 semete ...................................... 383 seru csaserur .......................... 387 shi ........................................ 395 -shi- ........................................... 397

........................................ shidai 385 shika ........................................... 398 shika mo ................................... 390 shika nai uanr o enab ........ 606 shikashi <gaZ> ......................... 120 shikashi <kawari ni> ................ 184 shikashi <daga> ...................... 18

..... shikashi <(no) kawari ni> 116 shikashi <s6ka to itte> ......... 397

754 JAPANESE INDEX

............ shikashi <tokoro ga> 503 shikata ga nai <tarnamnab ..... 445 shimau ....................................... 403 shim ........................................ 406 shitagatte ................................. 395 soda1 [hearsay] ....................... 407 -soda2 'looks' .......................... 410 sd ka to itte .............................. 397 soko del .................................... 401 soko de2 .................................... 405 soko o ....................................... 407 -sdni naru ................................. 409 sono ue ..................................... 413 sono ue <shika mo> .............. 390 sore de ....................................... 413 sore de <soko del> ............... 401 sore de ite <shika mo> ......... 390 sore de wa ................................. 414 sore demo ................................ 418 sore dokoroka .......................... 420 sore ga ...................................... 423 sore ga <tokoro ga> .............. 503 sore kara .................................... 416 sore kara <sore to7 ............... 431 sore mo ..................................... 425 sore mo <shika mo> ............. 390 sore nara .................................... 4 19 sore ni ....................................... 427 sore ni <shika mo> ................ 390 sore ni <sono ue> ................. 413 sore ni <sore to> ................... 431 sore to ....................................... 431 soretomo ................................... 421 soretomo <mats wa> ............ 171 sore wa ..................................... 434 sore wa csore ga> ................ 423

sorezore .................................... 436 sdshita &d shita> ................ 130 soshite ....................................... 422 subete wa . nai <kanarazushimo>

................................................... 92 sugim ........................................ 423 sugiru <amarb .......................... 3 sugu ........................................ 439 sukida ........................................ 426 sukoshimo <amarb ................... 72 sukunai ....................................... 427 sukunakutomo <semete> ..... 383 sunawachi <tsumari> ............ 538 sum csae> ............................. 363 sum1 'do. play' ....................... 428

............................. sum2 'have' 434 ..................... sum3 [sensation] 435

sum4 'cost / lapse' ................... 436 sum eo - sum (humble)> ....... 360 sum <yam1> ........................... 584 SUN to ....................................... 437

tabi ni ........................................ 442 -fachi ........................................ 440

........................................... tada 445 ...................................... tada no 449

tada no a i suginab ............. 271 -tai ........................................ 441 taihen aakanaka> ................ 206 takusan <ai> ............................ 354 tamaranai ................................... 445 tamaranai <naranai> ............. 219

.................................... tame (no 447 tame (no <koto de> .............. 137 tame (ni) <sei> ...................... 378

tame da <koto ni yoru> ........ 143 tame ni <ni wa> .................... 289 -tam ........................................ 452 -tam <tokom> .......................... 500 -tam do desuka .......................... 457 -tam sugu cshidai> .............. 385 . -tan . -tan' <- nan . nan> 223 . -tari . -tari sum ...................... 458 tashika ni <ikanimo> .............. 66 tashikani . ga .......................... 450 ta tokom de ............................. 452

........................... tatta <tada> 445 tatte ........................................ 461 tatte <kara to itte> ............... 103 tatte <torno> .......................... 507 te ................................................ 464 te <kudasai> ............................ 209 te ............................................... 455 te ageru <ageru2> ....................... 65 te aru <aru2> ............................. 76 te hajimete ............................... 456 te hoshii choshii2> .................... 146 te iru <iru2> ............................. 155 te itadaku <rnorau2> ................ 265 te kara <karaz> ........................ 177 te kara <te> ........................... 455 te kara <(no) ue dez ............... 547 te kudasai <kudasai> ............... 209 te kudasaru <kureru2> ............. 2 18 te rniru <rniru> ......................... 246 te rno ........................................ 468 te mo <kara to itte> .............. 103 te mo <sore demo> ............... 418 te mo <fa tokom de> ............ 452 te mo <torno> ........................ 507 te rno ii ....................................... 47 1

JAPANESE INDEX 755

te rnoraitai choshii2> ............... 147 te rnorau unorau2> ................. 263

..................................... ten (de) 458 te ne <ne> ............................... 288 te oku <oku> ........................... 357 te sashiageru <aged> ............. 67 te shikata ga nai <tarnaranai> 447 te shirnau <shirnau> ................ 403 te tarnaranai darnaranab ........ 446 te wa ......................................... 461 te wa ikenai <wa ikenai> ......... 528

...... te wa ikenai <Imperative> 70 te wa naranai cwa ikenai> ....... 528 te yam <ageru2> ..................... 67

........... te yokatta <ba yokatta> 89 to1 'and' ............................... 473 to2 'with' ............................. 476 to3 [quote marker] ................. 478

........................ to4 'if. when' 480 to ............................................... 464

................................... to diiji ni 471 ............ to d6ji ni <totan (nQ> 525

to gyaku ni ......... <ni hanshitelhansunr> 241

to ieba ........................................ 484 to ieba <to iu to> ................... 492

....... to issho ni <to tomo ni> 532

....... to itsu (de) mo dabi ni> 442 .................... to ittara <to ieba> 485

to itte mo .................................. 474 ........................................... to iu 486

to iu fiini ................................... 478 ............................ to iu koto wa 480

to iu koto wa <to iu no wa . koto da> ................................ 487

to iu noni .................................. 484

756 JAPANESE INDEX

to iu no wa . koto da .............. 487 to iu to ...................................... 492 to iu y6ni <to iu f0 ni> .......... 478 to iu yori (wa) ........................... 495 toka ............................................ 488 toka de ...................................... 498 . toka . toka <- nari . nari> 223 toki ........................................ 490 toki <ni atattelatarb ............. 237 toki ni isai (nil> .................... 369 to kitara <to ieba> ................... 485 toki (ni) wa <tabi ni> ............... 442 tokoro ........................................ 500 tokoro dal 'place' ................... 495 tokoro da2 'moment' ............... 496 tokoro ga .................................. 503 toku <oku> .............................. 358 torno ........................................ 507 torno -a> .............................. 358 to narande <to torno ni> ...... 532 to naru ...................................... 511 to naru to .................................. 512 to naru to <to sum1> ............ 518 tonikaku aanishiroz ............ 216 to onajiku <to torno ni> ........ 532 t6ri (ni) ...................................... 514 to shite ....................................... 501 to shite wa ................................. 502 to sum1 's.0 . assume s.t.' ....... 518 to suru2 'feel -; look -' ......... 523 to suru to <to naru to> ......... 512 totan (ni) ....... : ........................... 525 totemo <nakanaka> .............. 206 t6 t6 ........................................ 528 t6 t6 <yatto> .......................... 591 to torno ni ................................. 532

to torno ni <to d6ji ni> .......... 471 to wa kagiranai ........................ 536 tsui ni <t6t6> .......................... 528 tsumari ...................................... 538 tsumori ....................................... 503 tsutsu ........................................ 542 tsuzuke da <-ppanashb ....... 333 tsuzukeru <-ppanashb ........ 333 ttara <to ieba> ........................ 484 -tfel 'speaking of' ................... 507 -tfe2 [quote marker] ................ 510

U

uchi ni ........................................ 512 uchi wa <kaginl> ..................... 82 ue (ni) ....................................... 551 ue (ni) <sono ue> .................. 413 (no) ue de ................................. 547 uruleru ...................................... 553 ushiro ni imae n b ..................... 231

v Vmasu ....................................... 556 Vmasu as a Noun .................... 561 Vte <Vmasu> .......................... 556

W

wal [theme] ............................. 516 wa2 [female speech marker] ... 520 wa .............................................. 564 wa u e i no> ............................ 346

wa da 521 . . .................................. wa desu <- wa da> 521 . . . ...... wa ga 525 . . ..................................

wa ikenai .................................... 528 wa iu made mo naku ............... 568

JAPANESE INDEX 757

wa iu ni oyobazu <wa iu made .............................. mo naku> 568

....................................... wakaru 529 ..................................... wake da 531 .................................... wake da 570

........................ wake de wa nai 574 wake ga nai .............................. 578

.................... wake ni wa ikanai 581 wa mochiron <wa iu made mo

..................................... naku> 568 ........... wa naranai <wa ikenab 528

wariai &ekko> ....................... 123 .............. wazawaza <sekkaku> 392

................... wazuka <sukunai> 427

................................... ya 'and' 536 ................................ -ya 'store' 535

yahari ........................................ 538 yahari <sasuga> .................... 374

..................... yappari <yahari> 539 yard ........................................ 584 yarn2 ......................................... 589 yaru <agerul, suru2> ........... 64, 428 -yasui ......................................... 541 -yasui <-ppob ........................ 337 yatto .......................................... 591 yatto <t6t6> ........................... 528

................................... yo <sa> 358 yo u o > ................................... 609 -yo1 ............................................ 595 -yo2 ............................................ 599

y6da ........................................ 547 yomoya <masaka> ................ 165

.......................... y6na <-ppob 337 yo ne <ne> .............................. 288 y6ni1 'so that -' ...................... 553 y6ni2 'like' .............................. 554 y6ni <fa ni> .............................. 44 y6ni <-kata o suru> ............... 109

....................... y6ni <t6n (no> 514 y6ni iu ........................................ 556 y6ni naru .................................... 559

.................................... y6ni sum 562 .............................. yoril 'than' 564

yori2 'side' ............................... 567 ............................................ yon 602

.............. y6suru ni <tsumari> 538 ............................... -yo to omou 569

.................. -yo to suru <miru> 246 ...................... y6yaku <yatto> 591

................................ zaru o enai 606 zenbu wa . nai &anarazushimo>

................................................... 92 ......................... zenzen <amari> 72

.................. ............................ zo ; 609 .............................. -zu <-naku> 214

................................ -zu <-nu> 315 ....................... -zu ni <-nai de> 271

......... -zu ni <(no) kawati ni> 116 ......................... -zurai <-gatab 50

.......................................... zutsu 572

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2 dictionary of intermediate japanese grammar

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