Introduction to Research Methods

Concept …mental images as summary devices for bringing together

observations and experiences that seem to have something in common

…the process of specifying the vague mental imagery in sorting out the kinds of observations and measurements that will be appropriate for the research

….means drawing boundaries around terms to make these tangible, to be happened

… is an early planning stage in the development of a research initiative (a program announcement, request for applications, or request for proposals).

 

Definitions R = rationale way of thinking E = expert/exhaustive treatment S = search for solution E = exactness A = adequate date; analytical analysis R = relationships among facts, information C = careful recording; critical observations H = honesty; hard work

…….as the search for knowledge, or as any systematic investigation, with an open mind, to establish novel facts, solve new or existing problems, prove new ideas, or develop new theories.

…….. systematic search for knowledge

Definitions A broad definition of research is given by Martin

Shuttleworth - "In the broadest sense of the word, the definition of research includes any gathering of data, information and facts for the advancement of knowledge

Creswell states - "Research is a process of steps used to collect and analyze information to increase our understanding of a topic or issue". It consists of three steps: Pose a question, collect data to answer the question, and present an answer to the question

…..systematic investigation, including research development, testing and evaluation, designed to develop or contribute to generalizable knowledge

Definitions ……research is "a studious inquiry or examination;

especially: investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts, or practical application of such new or revised theories or laws”

…..a devoted attempt of finding out the truth …..a careful inquiry or examination to discover new

information or relationships and to expand and to verify the existing knowledge

….as the formal, systematic and intensive process of carrying on the scientific method of analysis

…is the systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data to answer a certain question or to solve a problem

Definitions …… is a process of finding facts and arranging them in

such a manner that information is obtained regarding any fact, figure or phenomenon.

…..as the scientific investigation of phenomena which includes collection, presentation, analysis and interpretation of facts that lines an individual’s speculation with reality.

….is “the pursuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison and experiment; the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding solutions to a problem”

Importance/Purpose The purpose of research can be a complicated issue and

varies across different scientific fields and disciplines to solve problems to make a sound decision; is very vital to our everyday

decision making. to obtain academic degrees to unveil the truth to acquaint with the facts/happening to find out causal/underlying relationships

Importance/Purpose to fulfill an academic requirement for example as partial

fulfillment for the award of a doctorate degree. to solve practical problems of the society for enjoyment; some people enjoy the intellectual

challenge of creative work delegation by some authority; a researcher may be called

upon to study a specified phenomenon by some higher authority.

to generate new theories, confirm existing ones or disapprove the previous ones

to be informed about the situation to contribute to the existing body of knowledge. This is

mainly triggered by curiosity about a subject.

Importance/PurposeThe purposes may be : Explanation - Possibly the most cited reason for conducting

research is to use it to explain why something is occurring. Prediction - Research is used to help assess a situation and

predict what may happen in the future. Monitoring - Many decisions made must be monitored to

insure that goals are being attained. Exploratory/Formulative/Discovery/New improved situation

– finding out new situation Hypothesis Testing - Finally, research helps test theories

about some issues. Hypothesis testing, which is at the heart of scientific research, relies on statistical analysis to help evaluate a hypothesis.

Descriptive – characteristics of a particular individual, thing Diagnostics – testing frequency at which something occurs

Importance/PurposeResearch in whatever field of inquiry has four purposes:

Describing and explaining: This is the attempt to understand the world we live in. Research is concerned with acquiring knowledge, establishing facts and developing new methods.  

Prediction: In research, predictions are usually stated as hypotheses, i.e. clear unambiguous statements which can be subjected to scientific verification or refutation. We are able to say that given these conditions then this is likely to happen.

Control: Control represents the way in which research can be applied to real problems and situations, thus helping us to shape our environment. When we understand the relationship between variables we are able to control our environment to suit our interests.

Characteristics Gathering new data or using existing data for a new purpose. Directed towards the solution of a problem. Relies on empirical evidence, i.e. on events or data that can be

verified by observation. Systematic in procedures of planning, collection of data,

analysis and reporting. It follows clearly stipulated procedures. Generalizing findings to larger groups by discovering general

principles that will be helpful in predicting future occurrences. Requires careful and accurate observation and description. Logical and objective; every possible step is taken to ensure

validity of procedure, tools and conclusions. Research findings sometimes contrary to popular belief.

Characteristics Empirical. Research is based on direct experience or

observation by the researcher. Logical. Research is based on valid procedures and principles. Cyclical. Research is a cyclical process because it starts with a

problem and ends with a problem. Analytical. Research utilizes proven analytical procedures in

gathering the data, whether historical, descriptive, experimental and case study. 

Critical. Research exhibits careful and precise judgment. Methodical. Research is conducted in a methodical manner

without bias using systematic method and procedures. Replicability. The research design and procedures are

replicated or repeated to enable the researcher to arrive at valid and conclusive results.

Characteristics Reliability Validity Systematic Critical Rigorous Accuracy Credibility Generalizability. Empirical Systematic Controlled

Characteristics Characteristics of the Researcher

Intellectual Curiosity. A researcher undertakes a deep thinking and inquiry of the things, and situations around him/her.

Prudence. The researcher is careful to conduct his/her research study at the right time and at the right place wisely, efficiently, and economically. 

Healthy Criticism. The researcher is always doubtful as to the truthfulness of the results.

Intellectual Honesty. An intelligent researcher is honest to collect or gather data or facts in order to arrive at honest results.

Intellectual Creativity – A productive and resourceful investigator always creates new researches.

CharacteristicsQualities of a Good researcher:

Research-oriented Efficient Scientific Effective Active Resourceful Creative Honest Economical Religious

Types of Research Descriptive vs. Analytical Applied vs. Fundamental Quantitative vs. Qualitative Conceptual vs. Empirical Some Other Types of Research - based on either the purpose of research, or the time required to accomplish research, on the environment in which research is done, or on the basis of some other similar factor

one-time research or longitudinal research field-setting research or laboratory research or simulation research clinical or diagnostic research Exploratory Historical research conclusion-oriented

Research Approaches Quantitative approach Qualitative approach

Typologies BASIC RESEARCHAlso called Pure or fundamental Research, it is undertaken for

increase in knowledge. It is conducted to satisfy any curiosity such as: (a) what makes things happen, (b) why society changes and (c) why social relations are in a certain way. In fact, it is the source of most new theories, principles and ideas. The main motivation is to expand man's knowledge. To sum up, basic research is purely theoretical to increase our understanding of certain phenomena or behavior but does not seek to solve any existing problem.

Applied researchIt is use of basic research or past theories, knowledge and methods

for solving an existing problem. It deals with practical problems. In the present world situation, more emphasis is being given to applied research to solve problems arising out of overpopulation and scarcity of natural resources. Applied research should not be treated the same as Research & Development (R&D) which is involved in developing ideas/products demanded by the existing clients.

Typologies Research may be Obtrusive or Non-Obtrusive Obtrusive research - where the researcher introduces

conditions that influence participants. Where the researcher manipulates

the environment. Non-obtrusive research - where researcher avoids

influencing subjects in any way and tries to be as inconspicuous as possible.

Action research is a methodology that combines action and research to examine specific questions, issues or phenomena through observation and reflection, and deliberate intervention to improve practice.

Typologies Applied research is research undertaken to solve practical problems rather than to acquire knowledge for knowledge sake.

Basic research is experimental and theoretical work undertaken to acquire new knowledge without looking for long-term benefits other than the advancement of knowledge.

Clinical trials are research studies undertaken to determine better ways to prevent, screen for, diagnose or treat diseases.

Epidemiological research is concerned with the description of health and welfare in populations through the collection of data related to health and the frequency, distribution and determinants of disease in populations, with the aim of improving health.

Evaluation research is research conducted to measure the effectiveness or performance of a program, concept or campaign in achieving its objectives.

Typologies Literature review is a critical examination, summarisation, interpretation or evaluation of existing literature in order to establish current knowledge on a subject.Qualitative research is research undertaken to gain insights concerning attitudes, beliefs, motivations and behaviours of individuals to explore a social or human problem and include methods such as focus groups, in-depth interviews, observation research and case studies.Quantitative research is research concerned with the measurement of attitudes, behaviours and perceptions and includes interviewing methods such as telephone, intercept and door-to-door interviews as well as self-completion methods such as mail outs and online surveys.

Typologies Service or program monitoring and evaluation  involves

collecting and analysing a range of processes and outcome data in order to assess the performance of a service or program and to determine if the intended or expected results have been achieved.

Ex-post research: relation between dependable and independent variables

Experimental/Laboratory research: Survey research: Historical research: describes what was-mostly non

obtrusiveDescriptive research: describes what is-mostly non-

obtrusiveCorrelation research: makes comparisons, looking for

trends or tendencies

Research Process

Research Process1. Formulating the research problem2. Extensive literature review3. Developing the hypothesis4. Preparing the research design 5. Determining sample design 6. Collecting the data7. Execution of the project 8. Analysis of data9. Hypothesis testing10. Generalization and interpretation 11. Preparation of report of presentation of results

Developing of working hypothesis a) Discussions with colleagues and experts about

the problem, its origin and the objectives in seeking a solution;

b) Examination of data and records, if available, concerning the problem for possible trends, peculiarities and other clues;

c) Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar problems; and

d) Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field interviews on a limited scale with interested parties and individuals with a view to secure greater insight into the practical aspects of the problem.

Preparing the research design 1. The means of obtaining the information;2. The availability and skills of the

researcher and his staff (if any);3. Explanation of the way in which selected

means of obtaining information will be organised and the reasoning leading to the selection;

4. The time available for research; and5. The cost factor relating to research, i.e.,

the finance available for the purpose.

Determining sample design Deliberate sampling Simple random sampling Systematic sampling Stratified sampling Quota sampling Cluster sampling and area sampling Multistage sampling Sequential sampling

Deliberate sampling It is a kind of non-probability sampling that

involves the selection of components based on factors excluding random chance.

The researcher purposively or deliberately selects certain units of the universe to form a sample that would represent the universe.

Simple random sampling It is a kind of probability sampling, which

provides each member of the population with a calculable and non-zero probability of selection in the sample.

Since every member is given an equal chance of being selected, this type of sampling is thus considered as a reliable way of selecting a sample from a given population.

Systematic sampling In this method, elements from a large

population are selected at periodic intervals according to a random starting point, i.e., every nth element is selected for the sample, where n can be any random position of an element.

Stratified sampling In this method, the researcher divides the

entire population into different subgroups or strata, and then randomly selects elements proportionally from the strata to include in the sample.

Quota sampling It is a non-probability sample in which the

researcher selects random units for a sample according to certain given criteria or quota.

Elements are selected according to pre-specified criteria in such a way that the sample represents the same characteristics of the population under study.

Cluster sampling Cluster sampling is a sampling technique

used when "natural" but relatively homogeneous groupings are evident in a statistical population.

It is often used in marketing research. Area sampling – geographical cluster

Multistage sampling Multi-stage sampling represents a more

complicated form of cluster sampling in which larger clusters are further subdivided into smaller, more targeted groupings for the purposes of surveying

Sequential sampling Sequential sampling is a non-probability

sampling technique wherein the researcher picks a single or a group of subjects in a given time interval, conducts his study, analyzes the results then picks another group of subjects if needed and so on.

Collecting the data By observation Through personal interview Through telephone interviews By mailing of questionnaires Through schedules

Preparation of report Introduction Summary of findings Main report Conclusion

Criteria for good research Good research is systematic Good research is logical Good research is empirical Good research is replicable

Problems Encountered by Researchers in India The lack of a scientific training in the methodology of

research There is insufficient interaction There is the need for generating the confidence that

data will not be misused Research studies overlapping one another There does not exist a code of conduct for

researchers Difficulty of adequate and timely secretarial

assistance Library management and functioning is not

satisfactory at many places