Unit 5 - States of Consciousness

1. Consciousness

a. Definition: our awareness of ourselves and our environment

b. The early days of psychology were all about consciousness

i. Psychology was the description and explanation of states of consciousness (Ladd, 1887)

c. In the beginning of the 20th century, behaviorists (see unit 6) became more influential - Psychology must discard all reference to consciousness (John B. Watson, 1913)

d. After 1960, advances in neuroscience led to the ability to study conscious states empirically

i. Psychologists were affirming the importance of cognition, and mental processes.

ii. Now, the importance of studying and understanding consciousness and its various states is almost universal

2. Sleep and Dreams

a. Definition of sleep: Periodic, natural loss of consciousness as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation. (Adapted form Dement, 1999)

b. Even when asleep our brains still perceive sensory input

i. A babys cry arouses a mother

ii. Someone speaking our name awakens us

iii. EEGs show our auditory cortex responds to sounds

iv. We move around in bed, but do not fallout, so touch and body location are still active

c. Asleep or awake, most of our information processing is outside our awareness

3. Biological rhythms and sleep

a. Circadian Rhythm

i. Definition: our biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of body temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24 hour cycle

ii. Our bodies follow an approximately 24 cycle for some functions

1. Body temperature rises for morning, peaks during the day, and begins to drop around bed time

2. Memory and thinking are sharpest at peak of your circadian rhythm.

3. Bright light in morning triggers light sensitive retinal proteins, starting the circadian clock

a. The proteins signal to the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

b. Definition of suprachiasmatic nucleus: a pair of grain-of-rice-sized cell clusters in the hypothalamus

i. Each cluster has approximately 20,000 cells

c. The SCNs activity causes the brains pineal gland to decrease production of the sleep inducing hormone melatonin in the morning and increase it at night

iii. Bright light at night delays the resetting of our biological clock

1. This fact useful to minimize jet-lag for those who travel across many time zones.

2. Artificial light is blamed for many young peoples 25 hour circadian rhythm, out of step with nature

a. Until about age 20 +/-, most people prefer getting up late and staying awake deep into the night

b. After age 20 +/-, most people begin to migrate toward getting up earlier, and going to bed earlier

b. Sleep stages

i. Sleep has an approximately 90 minute cycle of stages

1. Sleep begins as different sections of the cortex stop communicating

2. The stages discovered by accident in 1952, when a grad student tested a repaired EEG on his 8 year old son overnight. (Aserinsky, 1988, Seligman & Yellen, 1987)

ii. Researchers use EEG and other sensors to monitor brain and body activity during sleep research

1. Just before sleep, when the subject is relaxed but awake, the EEG will show Alpha waves.

a. Definition of Alpha waves: the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state.

2. Transition to sleep is marked by the slowed breathing and the irregular brain waves of Stage One sleep.

a. Stage one sleep is usually brief

b. Some experience short hallucinations

i. Definition of hallucinations: false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of external visual stimulus.

c. Some experience a falling or floating sensation, called hypnagogic sensations.

i. These sensations can be incorporated into memories

ii. May account for claims of alien abduction.

3. Relaxing more deeply after the brief stage one sleep is the beginning of Stage Two sleep.

a. Stage two lasts about 20 minutes

b. EEG will record sleep spindles

i. Definition of sleep spindles: bursts of rapid, rhythmic brainwave activity

c. Still able to awaken easily

d. But, clearly, very asleep

4. At the end of stage two, there occurs the transitional, Stage Three sleep

a. Only lasts a few minutes

b. The brain begins emitting Delta waves

i. Definition of Delta waves: the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep

5. After a few minutes of stage three transition, the brain enters Stage Four sleep

a. Stages three and four together last about 30 minutes

b. In stage four it is very hard to waken

c. The brain continues to emit delta waves

d. Sleep walking and/or bed-wetting in children tends to occur near the end of stage four sleep

6. About 1 hour after falling asleep, the brain leaves stage four sleep, and returning through stages three and two, enters Stage Five sleep, REM sleep (Rapid Eye Movement sleep)

a. Definition of REM sleep: a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active.

b. NOTE; all other sleep stages are called NREM sleep (Non-Rapid-Eye-Movement sleep)

i. Definition of NREM sleep: all of the other four sleep stages: (Stages One, Two, Three, and Four)

c. For the first approximately 10 minutes, brain waves become rapid and saw-tooth shaped, similar to Stage One sleep

d. Unlike stage one, REM sleep has significant changes on body activity:

i. Heart rate increases

ii. Breathing becomes rapid and irregular

iii. Every 30 seconds or so, the eyes rapidly move under closed eyelids

iv. Except during very scary dreams, sexual arousal occurs for both sexes

v. The cortex is active, but the brain stem blocks outgoing messages

1. Body is effectively paralyzed (except for an occasional twitch)

2. Very difficult to waken

e. REM announces the beginning of dreaming

i. REM dreams are:

1. Often emotional

2. Usually in story form

3. Have rich hallucinatory detail

a. Visual

b. Auditory

c. Body sensations

d. Motion

ii. Even those who report never dreaming, can remember dreams 80% of the time if awakened from REM sleep.

7. The sleep cycle repeats approximately every 90 minutes

a. As sleep lengthen, stage four shortens, then disappears

b. REM sleep, and stage two sleep periods lengthen

c. Overall average is approximately 20 to 25% REM sleep each night

d. Most people spend about 600 hours per year dreaming, or more than 100,000 dreams in a lifetime

4. Why do we sleep?

a. Our bodies and brain need sleep

i. When undisturbed, most adults will sleep 9 hours

ii. Sleep patterns vary

1. Some do well with less than 6 hours/night

2. Others need 9+ hours to feel well

3. Cultural differences in sleep patterns also exist

iii. Our brains maintain a sleep deficit log for at least two weeks

1. If we continually miss sleep, we feel lousy

2. You cannot recover several nights of sleep deficit in one marathon sleep

b. The effects of sleep loss

i. Hundreds of studies have shown that not getting enough sleep can result in:

1. A depressed mood

2. Tiredness (obviously)

3. Lack of concentration

a. Estimates are 20% of US traffic accidents are caused by lack of sleep

4. Difficulty studying

5. Poor decision making

6. Irritability

7. Weight gain

a. Increases appetite and eating

b. Increases stress hormone cortisol, which stimulates fat production

c. Increases hormone ghrelin (hunger arousing)

d. Decreases hormone leptin (hunger suppressant)

8. Lowers immunity

9. Can create hypertension and memory impairment

ii. Several examples of high profile disasters that occurred when participants were tired or drowsy

1. 1989 Exxon Valdez oil tanker wreck

2. 1984 Union Carbide Bhopal, India gas plant disaster

3. 1979 Three Mile Island nuclear leak

4. 1986 Chernobyl Nuclear plant disaster

c. Sleep theories

i. Science does not have all the answers as to why humans seem to need so much sleep.

ii. The most widely supported theory of how our sleep needs evolved, has five components:

1. Sleep protects

a. Staying inactive and in shelter at night was safer for early man

i. Walking, climbing, and running for hunting or gathering was dangerous in the dark.

ii. If one has to be inactive, sleeping is a good way to pass the time

b. Thus a broad principle of sleep: each species sleep pattern tends to suit its ecological niche (in other words, is adaptive for survival and reproduction)

2. Sleep helps us recuperate

a. Helps to restore and repair brain tissue

b. Sleep gives neurons time to repair themselves

3. Sleep helps make memories (improving encoding)

a. People recall tasks they have trained for after sleeping or napping

b. Neural activity during slow-wave sleep (stages 3 and 4) reenacts and promotes recall of novel experiences (Peigneux et al., 2004; Riberiero et al., 2004)

4. Sleep feeds creative thinking

a. Occasionally, dreams fuel noteworthy science, art, and literature

b. Problems are solved more easily after sleeping on it (sleeping after initial efforts at a solution)

5. Sleep may play a role in the growth process

a. During deep sleep the pituitary gland releases a growth hormone

b. As we age, we need less of this hormone, and spend less time in deep sleep

5. Sleep Disorders

a. Most common sleep disorder is insomnia

i. Definition of insomnia: recurring problems falling or staying asleep

ii. Affects 1 in 10 adults, and 1 in 4 older adults

iii. Most common quick fixes to insomnia actually make it worse

1. Alcohol

2. Sleeping pills

3. They can reduce REM sleep

4. Can create dependency, and worsening symptoms on withdrawal

b. More disrupting and serious are:

i. Narcolepsy

1. Definition: a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times

2. Attacks usually only last 5 minutes

3. Can occur after strenuous effort or high stress

4. Estimated to effect 1 in 2000

5. New research is finding physiological causes for narcolepsy (it is not just in your head)

6. May be related to underproduction of orexin (also called hypocretin) a neurotransmitter linked to alertness (Taheri et al.,2002; Thannickal et al., 2000)

ii. Sleep Apnea

1. Definition: a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings

2. Affects millions of people

a. As many as 1 in 20 may be affected

b. Not discovered until modern sleep research began

3. Sufferers intermittently stop breathing while asleep

a. Lack of air decreased blood oxygen awakens them

b. They snort air for a few seconds (hence reports of loud snoring) and return to sleep

c. This behavior pattern deprives the person of slow wave sleep (stages 3 and 4)

d. Sufferers usually have no memory of the episodes

e. Causes fatigue and depression

4. Sleep apnea is associated with obesity

a. As obesity has increase, so has sleep apnea

b. Mostly in overweight men

5. Can be managed with a mask and air pump

iii. Night terrors

1. Definition: a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during stage four sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered

2. Affects mostly children who may:

a. Sit up

b. Walk around

c. Talk incoherently

d. Experience a doubling of heart and breathing rates

e. Appear terrified

f. Not wake up fully during the episode

g. Remember little or nothing in the morning

c. Children can also be prone to sleep talking and sleep walking

i. Both are relatively harmless

ii. And tend to run in families (a genetic link)

iii. Young children, with the deepest and longest stage four sleep are most likely to sleep walk, talk (and have night terrors)

d. As children get older, sleep walking, talking and night terrors decrease and usually disappear

6. Dreams

a. Definition: a sequence of images emotions and thoughts passing through a sleeping persons mind. Dreams are notable for their hallucinatory imagery, discontinuities, incongruities, and for the dreamers delusional acceptance of the content; and later difficulties in remembering it

b. Discovering the link between REM sleep and dreams was a major step in understanding the weird and unusual nature of dreaming

c. What we dream

i. REM dreams hallucinations of the sleeping mind (Loftus and Kethcam, 1994)

1. Are vivid, emotional and bizarre

2. Unlike daydreams, which involve familiar reality

3. So vivid we may confuse them with reality

ii. We spend six years of our lives dreaming

1. Many are not pleasant

a. 8 in 10 involve at least one negative event or emotion

b. People commonly dream of:

i. Being attacked

ii. Failing repeatedly at a task

iii. Being rejected

iv. Experiencing misfortune

2. Dreams with sexual imagery are less common than most assume

a. 1 dream in 10 for young men

b. 1 dream in 30 for young women

iii. Most dreams manifest content incorporate traces of the previous days non-sexual experiences and preoccupations (De Koninck, 2000)

1. Definition of manifest content: according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream (as distinct from its latent, or hidden context)

2. Some examples:

a. After suffering a trauma, people often report nightmares

b. People in hunter-gatherer societies dream of animals vastly more oftener than city dwellers

c. Musicians dream of music twice as often as non-musicians

3. Sensory stimuli in the sleep environment can intrude on dreams

a. Odor, or phone ringing, can be incorporated into dreams

b. Spraying water on a dreamers face can induce dreaming of waterfalls, leaky roofs, or being sprayed in the face with water

4. Sleep learning is a myth (or a scam, depending on circumstances)

a. We typically forget all information from immediately before, and during sleep

b. We can learn to associate a sound with an electric shock while dreaming, but will not typically remember it

d. Why we dream? ( What are the proposed explanations of why we dream?)

i. To satisfy our own wishes

1. Proposed by Freud in 1900 (in The Interpretation of Dreams)

2. He thought dreams provided a safety valve to discharge unacceptable feeling

3. Believed dreams contained latent content which could be discovered through therapy

a. Definition of latent content: according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content)

b. Believed most adult dreams latent context was linked to erotic wishes

c. Considered dreams a key to understanding inner conflicts

4. His theories about dreams have mostly been discarded

ii. To file away memories

1. Some researches see dreams as information processing

a. Sift

b. Sort

c. And fix each days experiences

2. There is data showing getting good REM (sleep stage when dreams mostly occur) sleep remember learning better

3. Brain scans confirm connection between REM sleep and memory

4. Direct connection between good REM (dreaming) sleep and good grades in high school (Wolfson & Carskadon, 1998)

a. High school students with good grades averaged:

i. 25 minutes more sleep

ii. Went to bed 40 minutes earlier

b. When compared to lower achieving students

iii. To develop and preserve neural pathways

1. Some researchers speculate dreams have a physiological function

2. Neural activity during dreams provides the brain with periodic stimulation

a. Stimulating experiences are shown to preserve and develop neural pathways

b. May be why infants have so much REM sleep

iv. To make sense of neural static

1. Some theorize dreams caused by neural activity spreading upward form the brain stem

2. One theory, the activation-synthesis theory proposes:

a. This activity is random

b. Dreams are a way for the brain to make sense of the inputs

3. These internal stimuli activate areas of the brain that process visual signals, but not the visual cortex.

4. PET scans show increased activity in the amygdala, in the emotion-related limbic system

v. To reflect cognitive development

1. Some researchers discount both Freud and the activation-synthesis theorists

2. They see dreams as part of brain maturation and cognitive development

a. They point to the changes that occur to dream content and style as we age

b. Dreams overlap with waking cognitive functions

c. They draw on our developing concepts and knowledge

vi. While there is disagreement on why we dream, there is no disagreement that we need enough REM sleep

1. When we are deprived of REM sleep, we move into REM sleep quicker and quicker after falling asleep

2. When we then do fall asleep, we experience increased REM sleep, known as REM rebound

a. Definition of REM rebound: the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeatedly awakening during REM sleep)

3. Most other mammals experience REM rebound

a. The need for REM sleep is deeply biological

b. Does not occur in non-mammals

vii. Dreams appear to serve both physiological and psychological functions.

1. Another example of how biological and psychological explanations of behavior are partners, not competitors, in defining us

7. Hypnosis

a. Definition: a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur

i. Hypnosis starts with a few minutes of hypnotic induction

1. Definition of hypnotic induction: statements, suggestions, and orders from the hypnotist that enhance and focus the susceptibility to suggestion in the mindset of the subject. Statements such as your eyelids are getting heavy

ii. The power of hypnosis is not in the hypnotist, but in the subjects openness to suggestion

b. Can anyone experience hypnosis?

i. At some level everyone is open to suggestion

1. One test for suggestibility (ease of accepting hypnotic suggestions) is the pastoral sway test

2. Definition of pastoral sway: the subject is asked to stand upright with eyes closed. When told you are swaying back and forth, most people will sway at least a little. More sway = more suggestibility

ii. Highly imaginative people (those who become deeply absorbed in imaginative activities, such as games, movies, books) are the most suggestible (approximately 20% of population)

iii. Many researchers call the openness to hypnotic suggestions hypnotic ability: the ability to focus totally on a task, become imaginatively engrossed in it, to entertain fanciful possibilities

c. Can hypnosis enhance recall of forgotten events?

i. Hypnotically refreshed memories combine fact with fiction

ii. American, Australian, and British courts ban testimony from those who have been hypnotized

iii. An example: the majority of those who report alien abduction (UFO) believe in UFOs, are highly open to hypnotic suggestion, and have been hypnotized

d. Can hypnosis force people to act against their will?

i. The overt behaviors of hypnotic subjects are well within normal limits, (Nicholas Spanos, 1982)

ii. Principle: an authoritative person in a legitimate context can induce people, whether hypnotized or not, to perform some unlikely acts

e. Can hypnosis be therapeutic?

i. Hypnotherapists try to help patients harness their own healing powers (Baker, 1987)

1. Posthypnotic suggestions have helped alleviate:

a. Headaches

b. Asthma

c. Stress-related skin disorders

2. Definition of posthypnotic suggestion: a suggestion, made during a hypnotic session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors

ii. Hypnosis seems especially helpful in treating obesity

iii. Drug, alcohol, and smoking addictions have not responded well to hypnotherapy

f. Can hypnosis alleviate pain?

i. Yes - (Druckman & Bjorl, 1994; Patterson, 2004)

ii. Nearly 10% of people can be hypnotized deeply enough to undergo major surgery without anesthesia

1. 50% can gain some relief from pain

a. Some dentists use hypnosis to reduce stress and minor pain during treatment

b. Hypnotized surgical patients in some studies:

i. Required less medication

ii. Recovered sooner

iii. Left the hospital sooner

2. Surgical hypnotism has flourished in Europe

g. Explaining the hypnotized state

i. Hypnosis as a social phenomena

1. Some researchers believe hypnotic phenomena reflect the normal consciousness and the power of social influence (Lynn et al., 1990; Spanos and Coe, 1992)

2. Does not mean subjects are faking hypnosis

a. Subjects feel and behave appropriately for a good hypnotic subject

b. More like and trust in the hypnotist yields more willingness to allow manipulation

3. Social influence theory advocates believe hypnotic behavior (like other behaviors associated with supposed altered states) is an extension of everyday social behavior, not something unique to hypnosis (Spanos, 1994,1996)

ii. Hypnosis as divided consciousness

1. Distinctive brain activity occurs during a deep hypnotic state

a. When hypnotized subjects imagined a color, visual areas of the brain activated as though actually seeing the color

2. Researcher Ernest Hilgard (1986,1992) believed hypnosis was not only a social phenomena but involved a special state of dissociation

a. Definition of dissociation: a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others

b. Hilgard regarded hypnosis as a form of everyday mind split, such as doodling while listening to a teacher

3. Hypnotic pain relief may result from another form of dual processing, selective attention

a. Pet scans of hypnotized subjects show reduced activity in the brain region that processes painful stimuli, but normal activity in the sensory cortex, receiving the raw inputs

b. Hypnosis may block our attention to the pain, not the pain itself

4. Opinions are converging (creating a unified account of hypnosis) that hypnosis is an extension both of normal principles of social influence, and of everyday dissociations between our conscious awareness and unconscious behaviors

8. Drugs and consciousness

a. Psychoactive drugs

i. Definition: a chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods

ii. Examples:

1. Alcohol

2. Marijuana

3. Nicotine

iii. They alter perceptions and moods through their actions at the neural synapses

iv. Three major categories of psychoactive drugs

1. Depressants

a. Definition: drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions; such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates

2. Stimulants

a. Definition: drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions; such as caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, cocaine, and ecstasy

3. Hallucinogens

a. Definition: psychedelic (mind-manifesting) drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input; such as LSD

b. Dependence and addiction

i. Continued use of psychoactive drugs produces tolerance in the user

1. Definition of tolerance: the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug; usually results in the user to taking larger and larger doses to experience the same level of drug effect

2. The brain adapts its chemistry to offset the drugs effect

a. A process known as neuroadaptation

3. Tolerance does not mean the body becomes immune to damage from the drug

a. Continued and increased use of any psychoactive drug accelerates damage to:

i. Brain tissue

ii. Heart

iii. Liver

iv. Kidneys

ii. Users who stop taking psychoactive drugs often experience withdrawal

1. Definition of withdrawal: the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug

iii. The body and mind of users may develop two types of dependence:

1. Physical dependence

a. Definition: a physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued

2. Psychological dependence

a. Definition: a psychological need to use a drug, such as to relieve negative emotions

c. Misconceptions about addiction

i. Definition of addiction: compulsive drug craving and use, despite adverse consequences

ii. Worldwide, estimates are 90 million people suffer addiction to alcohol and other psychoactive drugs

1. The odds of becoming addicted after trying various drugs:

a. Marijuana - 9%

b. Alcohol - 15%

c. Heroin - 23%

d. Tobacco - 32%

iii. Three commonly believed myths about addiction:

1. Addictive drugs quickly lead to addiction for most people

a. Only around 10% of users have trouble controlling psychoactive drug use

b. Even for cocaine (highly addictive) only15% become addicted within 10 years of first use

2. People need professional therapy to overcome addiction

a. Recovery rates (kicking the habit) between those using therapy and those going it alone are not very different

b. Example: most of the 41 million Americans who stopped smoking did it on their own

3. Some psychologists believe we should include a whole spectrum of repetitive, pleasure seeking behaviors as being potentially addictive

a. Many troubling bad habits are being labeled addiction

i. Gambling

ii. Over eating

iii. Shopping (especially TV shopping channel addiction)

iv. Exercise

v. Sex

b. Some can become pathological, and there is some evidence that addiction cure therapies can help those trapped in a negative cycle of behavior

4. There is a movement toward addictions are diseases and need treatment, not censure.

a. Many addicts use this philosophy as an excuse to not try kick their habit (its not my fault.I have a disease)

b. There is an ongoing debate among psychologists about the issue

d. Depressants and their effects

i. Alcohol

1. Disinhibition

a. Increases harmful tendencies (anger and aggression)

b. Increases helpful tendencies (oversized tipping after drinking)

c. Urges felt and controlled while sober are acted upon after drinking

2. Slowed neural processing

a. Slows sympathetic nervous system activity

b. In large doses

i. Reactions slow

ii. Speech slurs

iii. Skilled performance deteriorates (driving)

c. Drinking takes away the desire not to drive after drinkingbecause I feel fine

3. Memory disruption

a. Prevents recent memories from being encoded

b. Suppresses REM sleep, when memories are fixed

c. Prolonged and excessive drinking can shrink the brain

d. Alcohol affects females more due to the lack of an stomach enzyme that digests alcohol

i. Girls and young women become addicted to alcohol easier than boys and young men

ii. They are at more risk of lung, brain , and liver damage at lower doses than men

4. Reduced self-awareness and self-control

a. Not only is judgment impaired, but self-awareness is reduced (Hull et al., 1986)

b. Some drinkers take advantage of this to suppress their awareness personal failure

i. Business failure

ii. Athletics

iii. Romance

iv. Low self esteem

c. Reduces understanding of future consequences

5. Expectancy effects

a. Alcohols effect is a combination of brain chemistry effects, and user expectations

b. Subjects who think they are drinking alcohol feel different and act with less inhibition and guilt, even when given a non-alcoholic drink (Abrams and Wilson, 1983)

6. Alcohol + sex the perfect storm

a. Majority of over 600 studies show correlation between alcohol consumption and risky sex

b. Three factors influence the degree of correlation

i. Underlying third variables, such as:

1. Sensation seeking

2. Peer influences

ii. Desire for sex

1. Leads men to drink

2. And to convince their partners to drink

iii. Drinking disinhibits, and sexually aroused men can become aggressive

1. Drinking women can be attracted to men they would not be seen with when sober

2. The restraining forces of reason weaken and yield under the pressure of their desires (Sheila Murphy et al., 1998)

ii. Barbiturates

1. Definition: drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment

2. Barbiturate drugs, also called tranquilizers mimic the effects of alcohol

3. Some are used as sleep or stress relief therapy

a. Nembutal

b. Seconal

c. Amytal

4. In large doses they can:

a. Impair memory

b. Impair judgment

c. Be fatal

5. Combined with alcohol the total depressive effects on the body and brain can be lethal

iii. Opiates

1. Definition: opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety

2. Include narcotics prescribed for pain

a. Codeine

b. Morphine

3. Abuse of opiates causes:

a. Constricted pupils

b. Slowed breathing

c. Lethargy

d. Reduced pain and anxiety

e. A state of blissful pleasure

4. But the pleasure comes at a terrible price:

a. Craving for the next fix

b. Larger and larger doses for the same experience

c. Extremely uncomfortable withdrawal symptoms

d. The brain stops producing its natural opiate the endorphins

e. Unchecked abuse of opiates many times leads to death from an overdose

e. Stimulants

i. Methamphetamine (derived from amphetamine)

1. Definition of amphetamines: drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded up body functions and associated energy and mood changes

2. Definition of methamphetamine: a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with speeded-up bodily functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, it appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels

3. Methamphetamine effects are strong and long lasting

a. About 8 hours of high energy and euphoria

b. Triggers the release of dopamine, which is the neurotransmitter that stimulates the brain cells enhancing energy and mood

c. Men release more dopamine per dose, and have higher addiction rates

4. Over time, it reduces baseline dopamine levels, permanently depressing brain function

a. Side affects:

i. Irritability

ii. Insomnia

iii. Hypertension

iv. Seizures

v. Social isolation

vi. Depression

vii. Violence

b. Classified as one of the most dangerous drugs

ii. Caffeine

1. The worlds most widely consumed psychoactive substance

2. Now, not only found in coffee and tea, but in:

a. Fruit juices

b. Mints

c. Energy drinks, bars and gels

d. Soap

3. Coffee and teas vary in amount of caffeine

a. A cup of drip coffee has more than a shot of espresso

b. A mild dose typically affects the body for 3 to 4 hours (long enough to disrupt sleep if taken in the evening)

4. Regular use with high doses creates tolerance, its stimulating effects lessen

5. Stopping caffeine use can create withdrawal symptoms

a. Fatigue

b. Headaches

iii. Nicotine

1. Each year, worldwide, tobacco kills 5.4 million people (World Health Organization)

a. Equal to 25 fully loaded jumbo jets each day

b. Equal to 3 times the number 9/11 deaths each day

c. What would happen if terrorists caused that many deaths each day?

2. By 2030, that number may be 8 million per year (WHO, 2008)

3. A lifelong smoker (teen age to death) has a 50% chance of dying from smoking

4. Eliminating smoking would increase life expectancy more than any other preventative measure available

5. So, why does anyone ever take up smoking?

a. Most smokers start when teenagers

b. Teens are attracted to social pressures

i. Glamorous role models who smoke

1. Movies

2. TV

ii. Acceptance into the cool group

iii. Friends who smoke

c. Teens whose parents and best friends are non-smokers, almost never start smoking

6. Those addicted to nicotine find it very hard to quit

a. It creates a powerful addiction

b. As quickly addictive as heroin or cocaine

c. Each year fewer than one-in-seven who try, succeed

d. Extended usage creates tolerance

e. Nicotine withdrawal symptoms

i. Craving

ii. Insomnia

iii. Anxiety

iv. Irritability

f. Nicotine, like other addictive drugs, is:

i. Compulsive

ii. Mood altering

iii. Reinforcing

7. Smoking delivers first effects in 7 seconds

a. Triggers release of epinephrine and nonrepinephrine

b. Diminishes appetite

c. Boosts alertness and mental efficiency

d. Stimulates the release of neurotransmitters that:

i. Calm anxiety

ii. Reduce pain sensitivity

iii. Dopamines and natural opioids (Nowak,1994; Scott et al., 2004)

e. Those with any brain injury causing loss of the insula (prune-sized frontal lobe region active by drug craving) can quit smoking instantly

8. 50% of all Americans who have smoked have quit

a. 81% of those still smoking want to quit

b. Non-smokers are healthier and happier

i. Smoking correlates to increased:

1. Depression

2. Chronic disabilities

3. Divorce

iv. Cocaine

1. Cocaine use offers a fast track from euphoria to crash

a. Cocaine enters the blood stream quickly

b. The resultant rush depletes the brains supply of dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine

c. Within 15 to 30 minutes, the drug wears off

i. Creating a crash

ii. Resulting in agitated depression

2. Nearly 50% of drug using high school aged users smoked crack

a. Faster working

b. Briefer, more intense high

c. More intense crash

d. More intense craving for more (which wanes after a few hours, but usually returns several days later (Gawin, 1991)

3. Repeated cocaine use can cause:

a. Aggression

b. Reduced inhibition to causing pain to others

c. Emotional disturbances

d. Suspiciousness

e. Convulsions

f. Cardiac arrest

g. Respiratory failure

4. Its effects, like all psychoactive drugs, depend:

a. on dosage

b. on the situation

c. user expectations

v. Ecstasy

1. Definition: a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin producing neurons and to mood and cognition

2. Chemical name: methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA)

3. Both a stimulant and a mild hallucinogen

a. Derived from amphetamines

b. Triggers dopamine release

c. It releases stored serotonin, and blocks its reabsorption

i. Prolongs serotonins feel good flood

ii. About 30 minutes after taking, user enters a 3-4 hour period of emotional elation and connectedness to those around them

4. Ecstasy has troubling side effects

a. Dehydration

i. With exertion can cause

1. Severe overheating

2. Increased blood pressure

3. Even death

b. Long-term leaching of serotonin can damage the serotonin producing neurons, leading to increased risk of permanently depressed mood

c. Suppressed immune system

d. Impaired memory

e. Disruption of effective sleep

f. Hallucinogens - or psychedelics (mind-manifesting)

i. LSD

1. Definition: a powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid (lysergic acid diethylamide)

2. Synthetic, created in 1943 by Albert Hofmann

3. LSD and other powerful hallucinogens are chemically similar, and block, a subtype of serotonin

4. An LSD trip can range from euphoric to detachment to panic

5. The users mood, expectations and environment color the experience

ii. Perceptual distortions and hallucinations can be similar no matter how they are caused in the brain

a. Drugs

b. Loss of oxygen

c. Extreme sensory deprivation

d. Temporal lobe seizures

e. Solitary, long distance sailors

f. Isolated polar explorers

2. The experience usually begins with simple geometric forms

a. Lattice work

b. Spider web

3. The next phase has more meaningful images

a. A tunnel or funnel

b. Replays of past emotional experiences

4. At the hallucinogenic peak:

a. The user may feel detached from their body

b. Experience dreamlike scenes so real they may cause panic and even self-harm

5. These hallucinations are striking similar to near-death experiences

a. Definition of near-death experience: an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death; often similar to drug induced hallucinations

i. Such as revival from a heart attack or drowning

ii. Heart resuscitation after an electric shock

b. There is some evidence to conclude the brain manufactures these hallucinations due to oxygen deprivation

iii. Marijuana

1. Marijuana is the leaves and flowers of the hemp plant

a. Cultivated for 5000 for its fibers (making rope and cloth)

b. Usually smoked or eaten

2. The major ingredient is THC

a. Definition of THC: the major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations

b. Chemical name: delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol

c. When smoked it reaches the brain in about 7 seconds, with great effect

d. When eaten, peak effect is reached slower and unpredictably

3. Like alcohol marijuana produces:

a. Relaxation

b. Disinhibition

c. Euphoric high (not always)

4. But, unlike alcohol, marijuana can produce:

a. Mild hallucinations

b. Sensitivity to:

i. Colors

ii. Sounds

iii. Tastes

iv. Smells

5. THC and byproducts stay in body for a month or more

a. Creates a negative-tolerance effect

b. Regular users may get high using less drug than occasional users to get the same effect

6. Studies have shown (Hall, 2006;Murray et al., 2007; Patton et al., 2002) regular, extended use greatly increases a users risk of:

a. Anxiety

b. Depression

c. Schizophrenia

7. The National Academy of Sciences (1982, 1999) and the National Institute on Drug Abuse (2004) have identified the following negative consequences of marijuana use:

a. Motor coordination inhibition (driving impairment)

b. Impaired perceptual skills

c. Impaired reaction time

d. Memory formation disruption

e. Prenatal exposure impairs brain development in babies

f. Heavy adult use over a 20 year period shrinks brain tissue

8. THC-sensitive receptors have been found in the brains:

a. Limbic system

b. Frontal lobes

c. Motor cortex (Iverson, 2000)

d. Called cannabinoid receptors

e. This may explain why THC has pain reducing qualities

i. Several states have made medical marijuana legal when prescribed for pain relief

ii. Used for aids patients

iii. Glaucoma sufferers

iv. Neuropathy patients

f. Since marijuana smoke has some of the some toxicity as tobacco smoke, most doctors prescribe medically inhalers delivering THC

9. Influences on drug use

a. Patterns of drug use

i. In the 1970sdrug use among North American youths increased

1. Then it declined through the 1980s and early 1990s

2. Marijuana use peaked in 1978, fell though 1992, then has been rising, but very recently tapering off again

ii. Three factors identified that influence drug use in young people

1. Biological

2. Psychological

3. Social

b. Biological influences on drug use

i. Some people appear biologically vulnerable to drug use

ii. Adopted children are more susceptible to alcohol dependence if one or both biological parents have a history

iii. Identical twins have more susceptibility if one has a dependence

iv. 6 year old boys who are excitable, impulsive and fearless are more likely to drink, smoke and do drugs

v. Researches have identified genes common to those predisposed to alcohol dependence

1. The genes seem to produce deficiencies in dopamine system

2. Desire for replacement dopamine drives repeated drug use, once tried

c. Psychological influences

i. Feelings that ones life is directionless and meaningless

ii. When unmarried adults leave home, drug and alcohol use increase

1. When they marry and have children, drug use decreases

iii. Significant stress or failure

iv. Depression

v. Eating disorders

vi. Sexual or physical abuse as children

d. Social influences

i. Most early drinking is done for social purposes

ii. Social and cultural forces influence all drug use

1. A 2003 survey found marijuana use varied:

a. 1 to 3% in Romania and Sweden

b. 20 to 22% in Britain, Switzerland, and France

2. African-American teens have sharply lower rates of drinking, smoking, and cocaine use (Johnston et al., 2007)

3. Alcohol and other drugs use extremely low for:

a. Orthodox Jews

b. Mormons

c. Amish

d. Mennonites

4. Relatively drug free rural areas constrains development of drug use culture

iii. Peers are heavy influences of drug use

1. If your friends do drugs, odds are you will

2. If your friends do not, you probably will not

3. Not only actual drug use, but your perception that your friends are using drugs will influence your decision

a. Teens overestimate how many of their friends smoke marijuana (Wren, 1999)

b. College students overestimate their friends enthusiasm for drinking and drug use (Prentice and Miller, 1993; Self, 1994)

4. We also select as friends those who share our likes and dislikes

a. Non-drug users hang out with other non-users

b. Drug users hang out with other users

e. What to do about it?

i. People rarely abuse drugs if they:

1. Understand the physical and psychological costs

2. Feel good about themselves

3. Like the direction their life is taking

4. Are in a peer group that does not abuse drugs

ii. Three channels for influencing drug use:

1. Educate young people about the true costs

2. Help young people boost self esteem and purpose in life

3. Modify or inoculate them from negative peer group influences