1

Rosa ParksRosa Parks

2

• Rosa Parks was a quiet black seamstress who sparked the Montgomery bus boycott by refusing to give up her bus seat for a white man in December 1955.

3

New LookNew Look

4

• Reflecting Eisenhower’s preferences for nuclear deterrence rather than ground force involvement against the Soviet Union, the New Look emphasized the massive retaliatory potential of a large nuclear stockpile. Eisenhower worked to increase nuclear spending and decrease spending on ground troops.

5

New York Times Co. v. New York Times Co. v. U.S.U.S.

6

• In 1971, New York Times Co. v. U.S. firmly protected freedom of the press. The Justice Department tried to block The New York Times from publishing the Pentagon Papers. The Supreme Court, however, overturned the Justice Department’s order to restrict free press in the interests of national security.

7

Nixon DoctrineNixon Doctrine

8

• Announced in July 1969 as a corollary to Nixon’s efforts to pull American troops out of Vietnam, the Nixon Doctrine pledged a change in the U.S. role in the Third World from military protector to helpful partner.

9

Richard NixonRichard Nixon

10

• Richard Nixon, a Republican, served as President from 1969 until his resignation on August 9, 1974. Nixon oversaw a moderately conservative domestic program, gradually pulled troops out of Vietnam, and improved relations with the nation’s communist enemies. He was forced to resign after being implicated in the Watergate scandal.

11

North Atlantic Treaty North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)Organization (NATO)

12

• Formed in 1949 too counter the Soviet threat in Eastern Europe, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization prepared Western European powers and the U.S. to fight as a unified coalition. Throughout the Cold War, NATO was the primary Western alliance in opposition to communist forces.

13

Oliver NorthOliver North

14

• Lieutenant Colonel Oliver North, a member of the National Security Council, was involved in the Iran-Contra scandal. In 1987, investigations revealed that North had headed the initiative to funnel funding from arms sales to Iran secretly and illegally to the Contras in Nicaragua, who fought against an anti-U.S. regime. North was later convicted of obstructing justice and lying to Congress.

15

Mikhail GorbachevMikhail Gorbachev

16

• Mikhail Gorbachev was the last Soviet political leader, becoming general secretary of the Communist Party in 1985 and then president of the USSR in 1988. Gorbachev helped ease tension between the U.S. and the USSR, work that earned him the Nobel Peace Prize in 1990. he oversaw the fall of the Soviet Union and resigned as president on December 25, 1991.

17

Thurgood MarshallThurgood Marshall

18

• Thurgood Marshall, a black attorney, successfully argued the case of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka in front of the Supreme Court in 1954. In 1967, Marshall became the first African-American appointed to the Supreme Court.

19

McCarthyism McCarthyism

20

• McCarthyism refers to the extreme anticommunism in American politics and society during the early 1950s. The term derives from the actions of Senator Joseph McCarthy, who led an intense campaign against alleged subversives during this period.

21

Medical Care ActMedical Care Act

22

• An element of President Johnson’s Great Society program, in 1965, the Medical Care Act created Medicare to provide senior citizens with medical insurance and Medicaid to provide welfare recipients with free health care.

23

Miranda v. ArizonaMiranda v. Arizona

24

• Miranda v. Arizona (1966) is a Supreme Court case that protects the rights of the accused. The arresting officer in the Miranda case did not make the defendant aware of his Fifth Amendment rights against self-incrimination. Police are required to make suspects aware of their “Miranda rights,” as they are now known, which includes the right to remain silent and the right to have an attorney present during questioning.

25

New FrontierNew Frontier

26

• John F. Kennedy’s domestic policy, the “New Frontier,” focused on reform at home and victory in the Cold War abroad.

27

National Organization for National Organization for Women (NOW)Women (NOW)

28

• The National Organization for Women, formed in 1966, functions to advocate for, and raise public awareness of, women’s issues. NOW was a central part of the 1960s women’s liberation movement.

29

Engle v. VitaleEngle v. Vitale

30

• In 1962, Engle v. Vitale ruled that school prayer is unconstitutional. New York state had permitted “nonsectarian” prayer in public schools, but Engle v. Vitale ruled that this was unconstitutional. The Supreme Court later ruled that Bible could not be read in public schools.

31

Medgar Evers Medgar Evers

32

• Medgar Evers was an NAACP leader in Mississippi. In 1963, following President Kennedy’s speech for civil rights, Medgar Evers was assassinated in Jackson, Mississippi.

33

Fair DealFair Deal

34

• The Fair Deal was Harry S. Truman’s attempt to extend the policies of the New Deal. Beginning in 1949, the Fair Deal included measures to increase the minimum wage, expand Social Security, and construct low-income housing.

35

The Feminine MystiqueThe Feminine Mystique

36

• Betty Friedan’s The Feminine Mystique, published in 1963, was a rallying cry for women’s liberation movement. It denounced the belief that women should be tied to the home and encouraged women to get involved in activities outside their home and family.

37

Loving v. VirginiaLoving v. Virginia

38

• This 1967 case declared all laws against interracial marriage unconstitutional.

39

March Against DeathMarch Against Death

40

• The March Against Death was a high point for the student antiwar movement and a poignant symbol of antiwar sentiment in the U.S. In November 1969, 300,000 people marched in a long, circling path through Washington, D.C., for 40 hours straight, each holding a candle and the name of a soldier killed or a village destroyed in Vietnam.

41

Moon landingMoon landing

42

• On July 20, 1969, astronaut Neil Armstrong and Colonel Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr. became the first people to walk on the moo. They went to the moon in Apollo 11, and used a landing module called the Eagle. The moon landing was televised, and symbolized the scientific political power of the U.S.

43

Mutual Assured Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD)Destruction (MAD)

44

• The U.S. policy of MAD, acknowledged that both the U.S. and the Soviet Union had large enough nuclear arsenals to destroy each other many times over. Developed in the early 1960s, it was America’s form of defense against Soviet attack: MAD promised that whoever launched an attack would, in turn, be attacked, resulting in absolute nuclear devastation on both sides.

45

NASANASA

46

• National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) was founded in 1958 to compete with Russia’s space program. During the late 1960s to early 1980s, NASA sent expeditions to the moon, and developed and managed the space station and space shuttle programs.

47

John F. KennedyJohn F. Kennedy

48

• John F. Kennedy, a Democrat, served as president from 1961 until his assassination in November 1963. A young charismatic leader, he cultivated a glorified image in the eyes of the American public. Kennedy’s primary achievements came in the realm of international relations, most notably the peaceful resolution of the Cuban Missile Crisis.

49

Martin Luther King Jr.Martin Luther King Jr.

50

• King first rose to national prominence as a civil rights leader during the 1956 Montgomery bus boycott. Throughout the late 1950s and early 1960s, King tirelessly led the struggle for integration and full equality through nonviolent means. He was assassinated in 1968.

51

Henry KissingerHenry Kissinger

52

• Henry Kissinger as national security adviser and secretary of state under Nixon. A major proponent of détente, Kissinger often met secretly with communist leaders in efforts to improve East-West cooperation.

53

Korean Conflict (War)Korean Conflict (War)

54

• On June 25, 1950, troops from Soviet-supported North Korea, invaded South Korea. Without asking for a declaration of war, Truman committed U.S. troops as part of a United Nations “police action.” The Korean Conflict (War) was conducted by predominantly American forces under the command of General Douglas MacArthur. Limited fighting continued until July 1953, when an armistice restored the pre-war border between North and South Korea at the 38th Parallel.

55

Limited Test-Ban TreatyLimited Test-Ban Treaty

56

• In July 1963, JFK and Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev agreed to the Limited Test-Ban Treaty, which prohibited undersea and atmosphere testing of nuclear weaponry. This agreement was characteristic of a period of lessening tensions between the world’s two superpowers, known as détente.

57

Malcolm XMalcolm X

58

• A major advocate of Black Power, Malcolm X helped lead the Nation of Islam to national prominence. In 1965, he was assassinated after a well-publicized break with the Nation of Islam over his newfound dedication to cross-cultural unity.

59

Hydrogen bombHydrogen bomb

60

• In 1950, the U.S. began the hydrogen bomb program and two years later, exploded the first hydrogen bomb. The Soviet Union exploded one in 1953. During the U.S. test at Bikini Atoll in 1954, the hydrogen bomb yielded greater fallout than expected. These events ignited the U.S. to propose a resolution to use atomic energy only for peaceful means.

61

Inflation Inflation

62

• Inflation is the increase of available paper money and bank credit, leading to higher prices and less valuable currency.

63

Iran-Contra affairIran-Contra affair

64

• In 1987, investigations exposed evidence that profits from U.S. arms sales to the anti-American government in Iran had been used to illegally finance the Contras in Nicaragua. The Contras were a rebel group fighting against the Sandinista regime in Nicaragua, which had communist ties. Colonel Oliver North, member of the National Security Council, was convicted of organizing this illegal operation from within the White House.

65

Iron Curtain Iron Curtain

66

• The “Iron Curtain,” a term coined by Winston Churchill, referred to the area of Eastern Europe controlled indirectly by the USSR, usually through puppet governments. This area was cut off from noncommunist Europe.

67

Lyndon B. Johnson Lyndon B. Johnson

68

• Lyndon B. Johnson was Kennedy’s vice president, and became president in 1963 after Kennedy’s assassination. He served until 1968, but declined to run again. Johnson’s presidency is most known for his attempts to enact his Great Society Program at home and his decision to commit troops to fighting in the Vietnam War.

69

Alger Hiss Alger Hiss

70

• In 1948, Time editor Whittaker Chambers accused longtime government worker Alger Hiss of spying for the USSR. After a series of highly publicized hearings and trials, Hiss was convicted of perjury in 1950 and sentenced to five years imprisonment, emboldening conservations to redouble their efforts to root out subversives within the government.

71

Ho Chi Minh Ho Chi Minh

72

• Ho Chi Minh was the leader of Vietnamese revolutionaries and Communists called the Viet Minh, and later called the Viet Cong. He fought for control of Vietnam against the French and other anti-Communists, leading to the division between South and North Vietnam, and subsequently, to the Vietnam War.

73

Freedom rideFreedom ride

74

• The freedom ride was a 1961 program led by the Congress of Racial Equality and the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, in which black and white members of the two organizations rode through the South on Public buses to protest segregation in interstate transportation.

75

J. Edgar HooverJ. Edgar Hoover

76

• J. Edgar Hoover served as head of the FBI from 1924 until his death 1972. He aggressively investigated suspected subversives during the Cold War.

77

House Un-American House Un-American Activities CommitteeActivities Committee

78

• During the period of McCarthyism, the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) provided the congressional forum in which many hearings about suspected communists in the government took place.

79

DétenteDétente

80

• Détente refers to a relaxation of tensions between the U.S. and USSR in the 1960s and 1970s. During this period, the two powers signed treaties limiting nuclear arms productions and opened up economic relations. One of the most famous advocates of this policy was President Richard Nixon’s secretary of state, Henry Kissinger.

81

Great Society Great Society

82

• Lyndon B. Johnson’s program for domestic policy, the Great Society, aimed to achieve racial equality, an end to poverty, and improvements in healthcare. Johnson pushed a number of Great Society laws through Congress early in his presidency, but the Great Society failed to materialize fully, as the administration turned its attention toward foreign affairs.

83

Gulf of Tonkin Resolution Gulf of Tonkin Resolution

84

• Passed by the Senate in 1964 following questionable reports of a naval confrontation between North Vietnamese and U.S. forces, the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution granted President Johnson broad wartime powers without explicitly declaring war.

85

Gerald FordGerald Ford

86

• Gerald Ford, a Republican, took over the presidency from Richard Nixon, after the Watergate scandal prompted Nixon to resign, on August 9, 1974. Ford pardoned Nixon and pushed a conservative domestic policy, but he was little more than a caretaker of the White House until his defeat in the election of 1976.

87

Helsinki AccordsHelsinki Accords

88

• In 1975, Gerald Ford and Soviet Premier Leonid Brezhnev, along with the leaders of 31 other states, signed the Helsinki Accords to solidify European boundaries and promise to respect human rights and the freedom to travel.

89

Civil Rights Act of 1968Civil Rights Act of 1968

90

• The Civil Rights Act of 1968 outlawed discrimination in the rental or sale of housing and apartments. It also provided further protection for civil rights leaders and more penalties for rioters.

91

Ronald ReaganRonald Reagan

92

• Ronald Reagan, a Republican, occupied the White House from 1981 to 1989. His presidency revolved around two goals: economic prosperity and victory in the Cold War. In pursuit of these goals, he initiated major tax cuts and a massive military build up.

93

National War Labor BoardNational War Labor Board

94

• The National War Labor Board monitored the efforts of organized labor during WWII. Although the board restricted wage increases, it also encouraged the extension of many fringe benefits to American workers.

95

Silent MajoritySilent Majority

96

• Richard Nixon portrayed himself as the voice of the “silent majority” during the campaign of 1968. According to Nixon, the silent majority was tired of chaos, student protests, and civil rights agitation and was eager for a conservative federal government.

97

The RosenbergsThe Rosenbergs

98

• In 1950, the Rosenberg's were accused of spying for the Soviets. They countered the accusation by saying they were being persecuted because of their Jewish background and leftist beliefs. In a trial closely followed by the American public, the Rosenberg's were convicted and sentenced to death. They were executed on June 19, 1953.

99

Roe v. WadeRoe v. Wade

100

• The 1973 Supreme Court case Roe v. Wade legalized most first- and second-trimester abortions in the U.S. This landmark decision represented a major achievement for the women’s liberation movement.

101

Truman DoctrineTruman Doctrine

102

• In March 1947, Truman proclaimed before Congress that the U.S. would support people anywhere in the world facing “attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures.” The Truman Doctrine committed the U.S. to a role as a global policeman.

103

Southern Christian Southern Christian Leadership Conference Leadership Conference

(SCLC)(SCLC)

104

• In 1957, Martin Luther King Jr. and other prominent clergymen founded the SCLC to fight against segregation using nonviolent means.

105

ReaganomicsReaganomics

106

• Reaganomics refers to Ronald Reagan’s economic philosophy that a capitalist system free from taxation and government involvement would be most productive. Reagan’s supply-side economics postulated that the property of a rich upper-class would “trickle-down” to the poor.

107

Tripartite PactTripartite Pact

108

• Signed in September 1940, the Tripartite Pact allied Germany, Italy, and Japan, all of which were engaged in aggressive expansion. These nations comprised the Axis powers.

109

To To SecureSecure These Rights These Rights

110

• A sign of progress for the civil rights movement during Truman’s presidency, the Presidential Committee on Civil Rights formed in 1946. In 1947, the Committee produced a report, To Secure These Rights, that called for the elimination of segregation.

111

Unrestricted Unrestricted submarine warfaresubmarine warfare

112

• Unrestricted submarine warfare referred to the German U-boat policy in which submarines attacked any ship – military, merchant, or civilian – without warning. After a period during which Germany practiced limited submarine warfare as promised by the Sussex Pledge, the resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare in January 1917 pushed the U.S. even closer to war.

113

United NationsUnited Nations

114

• Fifty-one countries founded the United Nations on October 24, 1945. Its central mission was to preserve peace and global stability through international cooperation and collective security. Still in operation today, the UN now claims 189 countries as members.

115

Harry S. TrumanHarry S. Truman

116

• Truman became president after FDR died in office in April 1945, and he served until 1953. Truman is known for his decision to drop the atomic bomb on Japan and for his subsequent role in the Cold War conflict, when he proved instrumental in committing the U.S. to action against the threat of Soviet aggression in Europe. At home, Truman attempted to extend the New Deal policies of his predecessor in what he called the Fair Deal.

117

Berlin BlockadeBerlin Blockade

118

• In June 1948, the Soviets attempted to cut off Western access to Berlin by blockading all road and rail routes to the city 90 miles inside East Germany. In response, the U.S. began an airlift of supplies to the city, a campaign known as “Operation Vittles.” The blockade lasted until May 1949.

119

Atlantic CharterAtlantic Charter

120

• On August 9, 1941, FDR met with British Prime Minister Winston Churchill on a British ship off he coast of Newfoundland. The two discussed military strategy and issued the Atlantic Charter on August 14, which outlined their ideal postwar world. The Atlantic Charter condemned military aggression, asserted the right to national self-determination, and advocated disarmament.

121

Axis PowersAxis Powers

122

• The axis powers of WWII included Germany, Italy, and later, Japan. The 3 powers signed the Tripartite Pact in September 1940.

123

Battle of BritainBattle of Britain

124

• Conducted during the summer and fall of 1940, the Battle of Britain was a period of continuous bombing of London by the German air force, in preparation for a German amphibious assault. Hitler hopes the bombing would destroy British industry and morale, but the British successfully staved off the German invasion.

125

Battle of the BulgeBattle of the Bulge

126

• Lasting from December 16, 1944, to January 16, 1945, the Battle of the Bulge was the final German offensive in the West, as Hitler amassed his last reserves against Allied troops in Belgium and Luxembourg. Germany made a substantial bulge in the Allied front line, but the Allies recovered and repelled off the Germans, clearing the way for an Allied march toward Berlin.

127

Declaration of the Declaration of the United NationsUnited Nations

128

• On January 1, 1942, prompted by American entry into WWII, representatives of 26 nations signed the Declaration of the United Nations. They pledged support for the Atlantic Charter and vowed not to make separate peace agreements with the enemy.

129

Committee to Committee to Defend America Defend America

FirstFirst

130

• Isolationists who were opposed to FDR’s reelection in 1940 sponsored the Committee to Defend America First. Committee members urged neutrality, claiming that the U.S. could stand alone regardless of Hitler’s advances on Europe.

131

Winston ChurchillWinston Churchill

132

• Churchill served as prime minister of England from 1940 to 1945. Churchill was known for his inspirational speeches and zealous pursuit of war victory. He, FDR, and Stalin formed the Big Three who were instrumental in mapping out the post-war world order. In 1946, Churchill coined the term “iron curtain” to describe the USSR’s division of eastern Europe from the West.

133

Cash-and-carryCash-and-carry

134

• In September 1939, Congress passed an amended Neutrality Act, allowing warring nations to buy arms from the U.S. if they paid in cash and carried the arms away on their own ships. This cash-and-carry program allowed the U.S. to aid the Allies but stay officially out of the war.

135

Berlin AirliftBerlin Airlift

136

• Following WWII in 1948, West Berlin was cut off from supplies because Russia did not allow transportation between the allied-occupied West Germany and West Berlin. The U.S. and Britain sent food, fuel, and other necessities by plane (called the Berlin Airlift) to help the West Berlin allies.

137

Lend- Lease ActLend- Lease Act

138

• A key move in support of the Allied cause before the U.S. formally entered the war, the Lend-Lease Act of March 1941 allowed the president to lend or lease supplies to any nation deemed “vital to the defense of the U.S.,” such as Britain. Lend-Lease was extended to Russia in November 1941 after Germany invaded Russia.

139

Korematsu v. U.S.Korematsu v. U.S.

140

• In the 1944 case of Korematsu v. U.S., The Supreme Court upheld FDR’s 1942 executive order for the evacuation of all Japanese-Americans on the West Coast into internment camps. The camps operated until 1943.

141

HiroshimaHiroshima

142

• Hiroshima, Japan is the site of the first atomic bomb attack. On August 6, 1945, the U.S. used an atomic bomb to destroy the Japanese city, killing 70,000 of its citizens instantaneously and injuring another 70,000, many of whom later died of radiation poisoning.

143

HolocaustHolocaust

144

• The Holocaust is the name for the Nazi’s systematic persecution and extermination of European Jews from 1933 until 1945. More than 6 million Jews died in concentration camps throughout Germany and Nazi-occupied lands.

145

Strategic Arms Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty Limitation Treaty

(SALT)(SALT)

146

• In May 1972, Nixon signed SALT I, which limited each of the superpowers to 200 antiballistic missiles and set quotas for intercontinental and submarine missiles. Though largely symbolic, the agreement spawned hope for cooperation on both sides.

147

Puppet governmentsPuppet governments

148

• During the Cold War, both the U.S. and the Soviet Union set up puppet governments in developing countries in order to maintain influence over the nation in question. The superpowers each supported and funded leaders of their choice.

149

Suez CanalSuez Canal

150

• In 1956, the Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser tried to nationalize the Suez Canal, which had been owned by the British and French interests. In response, Britain, France, and Israel invaded Egypt. The U.S., United Nations, and USSR condemned the intervention and preempted the forces to withdraw in November 1956.

151

Elvis PresleyElvis Presley

152

• Elvis Presley was the most famous rock star of the 1950’s. His sexually charged dance moves and unique musical sound played a major role in defining the growing genre of rock and roll, which became prominent during the 1950’s.

153

Polio vaccinePolio vaccine

154

• The polio vaccine was created by Dr. Jonas Salk in 1955. The U.S. distributed the vaccine throughout the nation, rapidly diminishing the number of polio cases.

155

Peace CorpsPeace Corps

156

• The Peace Corps, created by JFK in 1961, sends volunteer teachers, health workers, and engineers on 2 year aid programs in Third-world countries.

157

Silent SpringSilent Spring

158

• Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring, published in 1962, exposed the environmental hazards of the pesticide DDT. Her influential book helped spur an increase in environmental awareness and concern among the American people.

159

Students for a Students for a Democratic Society Democratic Society

(SDS)(SDS)

160

• Students for a Democratic Society, created in 1962, united college students throughout the country in a network committed to achieving racial equality, alleviating poverty, and most immediately, ending the Vietnam War.

161

SputnikSputnik

162

• Launched by the USSR on October 4, 1957, Sputnik was the first artificial satellite to orbit the Earth. Its launching prompted the space race between the U.S. and USSR, because Americans were both jealous of Soviet technological skill and afraid that the same rockets that launched Sputnik would be used to deliver nuclear warheads anywhere on the globe.

163

Tet OffensiveTet Offensive

164

• On January 31, 1968, the first day of Tet, the Vietnamese New Year, the Vietcong and North Vietnamese Army launched a general offensive throughout South Vietnam. Although the forces did not succeed in capturing the cities, they did wreak widespread devastation, killing many thousands of American troops. The month-long attack led the American public to believe that victory in Vietnam was unattainable.

165

Adolph HitlerAdolph Hitler

166

• Hitler became Chancellor of Germany in January 1933. As chancellor, he led the nation to economic recovery by mobilizing industry for the purposes of war. His fascist Nazi Party undertook measures of mass genocide and, through efforts to gain global hegemony, ushered Europe into WWII.

167

Yalta ConferenceYalta Conference

168

• The Big 3, represented by FDR, Churchill, and Stalin, met at the Yalta Conference from February 4 to February 11, 1945. Although FDR and Churchill’s bargaining power with Stalin was severely hindered by the presence of Soviet troops in Poland and Eastern Europe, Stalin did agree to declare war on Japan soon after Germany surrendered and did approve plans for a United Nations conference in 1945.

169

War Production BoardWar Production Board

170

• Created in 1942, the War Production Board oversaw the production of the thousands of planes, tanks, artillery pieces, and munitions that FDR requested once the U.S. entered the war. The Board allocated scarce resources and shifted domestic production from civilian to military goods.

171

Munich PactMunich Pact

172

• When Hitler declared his intention to take the Czech Sudetenland by force, British and French leaders acceded to his demands by signing the Munich Pact on September 30, 1938. Intended to appease Hitler and avoid war, the pact only emboldened Hitler further. Bent on conquest, Hitler soon sent troops into many European nations.

173

NagasakiNagasaki

174

• The site of the 2nd U.S. atomic bomb attack on Japan, Nagasaki was devastated by a nuclear blast on August 9, 1945. The explosion led to 40,000 immediate deaths and 60,000 injuries.

175

Benito MussoliniBenito Mussolini

176

• Mussolini rose to power as a Fascist Italian dictator in 1922. He allied with Hitler in the Rome-Berlin Axis in 1936, uniting with 2 fascist forces and paving the way for WWII.

177

Douglas MacArthurDouglas MacArthur

178

• Douglas MacArthur commanded the U.S. army in the Pacific during WWII. He oversaw the American occupation of Japan and later led U.S. troops in the Korean War. MacArthur pushed for total victory in the Korean War, seeking to conquer all of Korea and perhaps move into China, but Truman held him back from this goal. After a month of publicly denouncing the administration’s policy. MacArthur was relieved form duty in April 1951.

179

Mao ZedongMao Zedong

180

• A Chinese political leader, Mao Zedong (1893-1976) founded the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) in 1921. In 1949, Mao’s communist forces defeated Chinese nationalist forces under Chiang Kai-shek and established the People’s Republic of China (PRC).

181

Manhattan ProjectManhattan Project

182

• The Manhattan Project was a secret American scientific initiative to develop an atomic bomb. Working for almost 3 years at Los Alamos, New Mexico, the project succeeded in detonating the first atomic blast over the desert on July 16, 1945. The bombs produced by the Manhattan Project were subsequently dropped on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

183

Francisco FrancoFrancisco Franco

184

• Francisco Franco controlled the rightist forces during the Spanish Civil War. His fascist government ruled Spain from 1939 until 1975.

185

Neutrality ActsNeutrality Acts

186

• To keep the U.S. out of another war, Congress passed a series of Neutrality Acts between 1935 and 1937. The acts made arms sales to warring countries illegal and forbade citizens to travel aboard the ships of belligerent nations.

187

Manifest DestinyManifest Destiny

188

• “Manifest Destiny” refers to the belief of many Americans in the mid-nineteenth century that is was the nation’s destiny and duty to expand and conquer the West in the name of God, nature, civilization, and progress. Journalist John L. O’Sullivan first coined the phrase “manifest destiny” in 1845, as he wrote of “our manifest destiny to overspread the continent allotted by Providence for the free development of our yearly multiplying millions.”