1 writing systems. 2 writing the word writing has three related but distinct meanings : 1.system or...
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WRITING SYSTEMS
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Writing
• The word writing has three related but distinct meanings :
1. system or characters
2. penmanship or handwriting
3. composition
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Writing
• Writing, is the symbolic representation of language in storable graphic form.
• It is a comparatively recent cultural development, having occurred over the past five thousand years.
• We have no idea where speech began, but we know that writing originated only in certain areas of the world.
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Speech and Writing
As different as they are, speech and writing share one major characteristic: just as spoken language shows an arbitrary link between sound and meaning, the various symbols and techniques used in written language show an arbitrary link between symbol and sound
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Writing Systems
• People wrongly assume that Latin or Roman characters are the only writing system
• Many written languages not only do not use the Roman alphabet; they use no alphabet at all
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Writing
All writing can be grouped into two basic types, called logographic and phonographic (depending n the technique of linguistic representation they use)
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Logographic Writing
• The term logographic refers to a type of writing in which symbols represent morphemes or entire words
• Logographic writing is the oldest type of genuine writing
• Ancient Mesopotamian cuneiform inscriptions, Egyptian hieroglyphics, and primordial Chinese characters were all highly logographic in their early stages
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Logographic Writing
• In fact, all writing systems maintain some logographic symbols
• Conventional abbreviations such as &, %, $, and the like are logographic, as are the symbols for numerals
• To a certain extent, logographic writing can be read independently of its language of origin
• For example, the Arabic numbers 1, 2, 7, 10 and so on can be read in any language
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Logographs
• The word logograph comes etymologically from two Greek words :
logos word / sign
graph write
• Logographs are also known as ideographs
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Logographic Writing
• It must be noted that a logographic writing system, like a pictographic one is nonarbitrary in that there is nearly a one- to-one correlation between signifier (character) and signified (object, attitude or idea)
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Phonographic Writing• No writing system is purely logographic• Nor can it be, since using a separate symbol to
write each word in a language is simply to cumbersome
• Throughout human history, writing systems have always evolved signs that represent some aspect of pronunciation
• In phonographic writing (from Greek phonos ‘sound’), the symbols represent syllables or segments
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Syllabic Writing
• As the name suggests, syllabic writing employs symbols to represent syllables
• A set of syllabic symbols is called a syllabary• A syllabaric system is more arbitrary and more
economical than a pictographic or logographic system
• The only major language in use today, that is written as a syllabary is Japanese
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Alphabetic Writing
• Alphabetic writing represents consonant and vowel segments
• Unlike the International Phonetic Alphabet, which is devised to represent details of pronunciation, ordinary alphabets generally ignore non-phonemic phenomena
• Thus the spelling of English wordslike pan and nap represents the phonemes /p/, / n/, and /ae/, but ignores consonant aspiration, vowel nasalization, stress etc
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Alphabetic Writing
• The word alphabet is a shortened form of the names of the first two letters in the Greek system, alpha and beta
• An alphabet system, unlike the others, is based on the sounds that comprise morphemes -- and not on the shapes of objects, nor on the morphemes, nor on the syllables, but on sounds that make up syllables and morphemes
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The History of Writing
• Writing systems emerged and spread around the earth over a long period of time
• Though we can trace the spread of some systems over a wide area, writing may have emerged independently in several different places
• It is surprising that we cannot say with certainty how a comparatively recent cultural phenomenon like writing originated
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The History of Writing
• We do know that writing developed in historically recorded stages, the earliest of which involves direct representation of objects and which is sometimes called prewriting
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Prewriting• Figures and scenes depicted on cave walls and
rock faces in the Americas, Africa, and Europe, twelve thousand years ago or perhaps even earlier may have been forerunners of writing
• Some of these petroglyphs (scenes painted on stone) may represent a type of proto-literate stage that did not evolve into a full-fledged writing system. These drawings depict a wide range of human and animal activity, and may even have been intended for purposes of linguistic communication
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Pictographs• Whatever their purpose, there is little doubt that
pictures were among the precursors of the written word
• Early writing systems evolved from pictorial representations called pictograms/pictographs or picture writing
• Pictographs contain characters which are essentially pictorial rather than graphic
• advantage ?? (one need not know the language to interpret the characters )
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Pictographs• Each pictograph was an image of the object or
objects (and in some cases, concepts) it represented, and, as far as we know, offerred no clues to pronunciation
• Pictograms are still used today, and they reflect the memory-aid nature of this form of prewriting. Signs indicating roadside services are pictographic in nature. The Canadian Olympic Association has developed a standard set of pictograms to indicate sporting events
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Rebuses and the Emergence of Writing
• This major development in the history of writing took place around 3000BC with the first use of Sumerian symbols to represent sound rather than just meaning
• Known as the REBUS principle, this innovation allowed a sign to be used for any word that was pronounced like the word whose meaning it originally represented
( Rebuses are puzzles whose solutions depend partly on recognising pictures, partly on recognising
letters and partly on recognising sound)
+ T N + - C
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Towards Syllabic Writing
• Thanks to the rebus principle, concepts that could not be directly depicted by a picture/pictogram could be represented in writing
• Once the breakthrough towards phonographic writing had been made, it did not take long (in historical terms) before syllabic writing began to emerge
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Syllabic Writing
• Within about five to six hundred years, signs that clearly represent not just homophonous words, but parts of words--specifically syllables--had become well established in Sumerian writing
• Sumerian writing, however, never developed in to a pure syllabary
• Logographic elements were interpersed with syllabic ones
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Hieroglyphics
• At about the same time Sumerian pictography was flourishing, a similar system of pictorial communication was in use in Egypt
• The Egyptian signs have become known as hieroglyphics (meaning ‘sacred inscriptions, in Greek)
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The Emergence of Alphabets
• In the Middle east, alphabetic writing was slowly emerging from mixed writing systems
• The Semitc people of ancient Phoenicia (modern Lebanon) had devised a writing system of twenty-two consonantal signs as early as 1000BC
• This system was written horizontally, right to left• This ultimately lead to the development of many
alphabetic writing systems, including both the Greek and Latin alphabets
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Alphabets
• A great number of alphabetic systems evolved and flourished in addition to the Greek and Latin alphabets
• Some of these are Runic writing, Cyrillic script, the Roman alphabet
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Some Non-European Writing Systems
• Chinese writing - the Chinese system of writing developed out of pictograms that eventually came to represent morphemes (most of which are also words)
• Japanese writing- the writing system of modern japanese is arguably the most complicated in the entire world. Its use requires knowledge of three distinct scripts, including a pair of syllabaries-- katakana and hiragana (which were created by modifying Chinese characters)
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Summary
• The development of writing has been one of humanity’s greatest intellectual achievements
• From pictograms, and logograms, the graphic representation of language has developed through syllabic writing to the alphabet
• This was achieved through the creation of a relationship between graphic symbols and sounds