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Social process theoriesSocial process theories

Psychological & sociologicalPsychological & sociological

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Social processSocial process

Criminality is a function of individual Criminality is a function of individual socialization and the social psychological socialization and the social psychological interactions people have with the various interactions people have with the various institutions and processes of societyinstitutions and processes of society

Socialization: process by which an Socialization: process by which an individual’s behavior is shaped in individual’s behavior is shaped in conforming with the standards of the conforming with the standards of the cultureculture

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Social process (cont)Social process (cont)

Agents of socializationAgents of socialization FamilyFamily SchoolSchool PeersPeers MediaMedia Authorities--employers, CJSAuthorities--employers, CJS If these relationships positive, law-abidingIf these relationships positive, law-abiding

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The Family & CrimeThe Family & CrimeCharacteristics of families Characteristics of families

A variety of studies have been doneA variety of studies have been done Common patternsCommon patterns Two-way street: easy babies have less Two-way street: easy babies have less

maladjustment than difficult babiesmaladjustment than difficult babies 1. Inconsistent discipline (not to be confused 1. Inconsistent discipline (not to be confused

with being lenient--”woodshed” theory is too with being lenient--”woodshed” theory is too simplistic)simplistic)

Consider this from a learning theory Consider this from a learning theory standpointstandpoint

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Family characteristicsFamily characteristics

2. Poor supervision2. Poor supervision 3. High levels of family conflict, escalation3. High levels of family conflict, escalation 4. Parental deviance, such as parental 4. Parental deviance, such as parental

substance abuse, parental criminality (often substance abuse, parental criminality (often in the past) and maternal depressionin the past) and maternal depression

5. Large family size (supervision issue)5. Large family size (supervision issue) 6. Poor living conditions6. Poor living conditions

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Family characteristicsFamily characteristics

7. Abuse and neglect7. Abuse and neglect Neglect a bigger problemNeglect a bigger problem Studies surveying delinquents indicate Studies surveying delinquents indicate

higher rates (about 1/3) as compared to higher rates (about 1/3) as compared to the general populationthe general population

A New York study found that about ½ of A New York study found that about ½ of families with abuse had a child who families with abuse had a child who went to juvenile courtwent to juvenile court

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Characteristics of familiesCharacteristics of families

8. Broken homes8. Broken homes Early studies showed a relationship, later Early studies showed a relationship, later

studies have not been definitivestudies have not been definitive In the earlier studies, one parent homes In the earlier studies, one parent homes

less commonless common Stigma and difficulty of obtaining a Stigma and difficulty of obtaining a

divorcedivorce Stigma attached to unmarried mothersStigma attached to unmarried mothers

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Characteristics of familiesCharacteristics of families

This picture has changed. Single This picture has changed. Single parent homes doubled in 30 years.parent homes doubled in 30 years.

It is probably not surprising that more It is probably not surprising that more recent studies would have different recent studies would have different resultsresults

Problems with studies: records do not Problems with studies: records do not tell about home dynamics, such as level tell about home dynamics, such as level of conflict.of conflict.

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Characteristics of familiesCharacteristics of families

Single parent homes more at risk for Single parent homes more at risk for delinquency, however:delinquency, however:

Is this due to poverty, which is more Is this due to poverty, which is more likely in single parent homes?likely in single parent homes?

There is some evidence that children There is some evidence that children are more likely to be processed as are more likely to be processed as delinquents if they come from a single delinquents if they come from a single parent homeparent home

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CharacteristicsCharacteristics

The major variable appears to be The major variable appears to be amount of supervision. Families in amount of supervision. Families in which there is adequate supervision, which there is adequate supervision, whether the mother is helped by other whether the mother is helped by other relatives, paid caretakers, etc..., are not relatives, paid caretakers, etc..., are not at high risk for delinquency.at high risk for delinquency.

This is also the case for very young This is also the case for very young mothers, whose children are at risk.mothers, whose children are at risk.

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Major factorsMajor factors

AgeAge Educational levelEducational level Financial statusFinancial status Social capitalSocial capital

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Woodlawn studyWoodlawn study

This study was done in the Woodlawn This study was done in the Woodlawn area of Chicago (high crime area)area of Chicago (high crime area)

Children categorized as aggressive or Children categorized as aggressive or nonaggressive. Aggressive children in nonaggressive. Aggressive children in both one and two parent homes more both one and two parent homes more likely to be delinquent. With non-likely to be delinquent. With non-aggressive, children in single homes aggressive, children in single homes more at risk than in two parent homes.more at risk than in two parent homes.

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WoodlawnWoodlawn

Suggest that both individual and family Suggest that both individual and family factors play a role, each adding to factors play a role, each adding to possible risk or non-risk.possible risk or non-risk.

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AttachmentAttachment

Final family characteristic predictive of Final family characteristic predictive of delinquency: delinquency:

9. Attachment--lack of a warm, 9. Attachment--lack of a warm, supportive parent-child relationshipsupportive parent-child relationship

Attachment: a strong affectional tieAttachment: a strong affectional tie Babies do not show an obvious Babies do not show an obvious

preference for a particular adult during preference for a particular adult during the first few months of lifethe first few months of life

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Attachment (cont)Attachment (cont)

At around 4-5 months, begin to At around 4-5 months, begin to distinguish and exhibit “stranger anxiety”distinguish and exhibit “stranger anxiety”

Typically develop a preference, usually Typically develop a preference, usually for one person (usually the mother)for one person (usually the mother)

Prefers that person to all others, seeks Prefers that person to all others, seeks comfort, etc...comfort, etc...

Must happen within the first two yearsMust happen within the first two years

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Attachment (cont)Attachment (cont)

Children who do not form a strong Children who do not form a strong attachment typically have problems, attachment typically have problems, including school difficulties, lack of including school difficulties, lack of empathy for others, and dysfunctional empathy for others, and dysfunctional relationshipsrelationships

In some cases there may even be In some cases there may even be failure to thrivefailure to thrive

Harlow’s monkeysHarlow’s monkeys

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Attachment (cont.)Attachment (cont.)

Factors which hinder attachment/ Factors which hinder attachment/ bondingbonding

Unattractiveness, illness, irritable baby, Unattractiveness, illness, irritable baby, handicaps, chronic stress, chaotic handicaps, chronic stress, chaotic environmentenvironment

Protective factorsProtective factors Being attractive, healthy, an “easy” baby, Being attractive, healthy, an “easy” baby,

stable environment stable environment

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Attachment (cont.)Attachment (cont.)

When child becomes attached, prefers When child becomes attached, prefers that person to all others, comforted by that person to all others, comforted by presence, seeks approvalpresence, seeks approval

Mother is also attached to the childMother is also attached to the child Adaptive from an evolutionary Adaptive from an evolutionary

standpoint--adult must gain something, standpoint--adult must gain something, or would not take care of the childor would not take care of the child

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Attachment (cont)Attachment (cont)

Bond affects cognitive development--the Bond affects cognitive development--the thinking is that the adult gives the child thinking is that the adult gives the child a secure base from which to explorea secure base from which to explore

Bond affects social competence laterBond affects social competence later From a learning theory standpoint, love From a learning theory standpoint, love

and approval play a significant role in and approval play a significant role in teaching behaviors.teaching behaviors.

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Attachment (cont)Attachment (cont)

If there is not a bond, then the child will If there is not a bond, then the child will not care about love and approval from not care about love and approval from the parent, and the parent will be less the parent, and the parent will be less able to control the child. In able to control the child. In adolescence, once the child is bigger adolescence, once the child is bigger and stronger, a parent can control only and stronger, a parent can control only through approval/disapproval.through approval/disapproval.

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SchoolsSchools

Offenders are more likely to have poor Offenders are more likely to have poor academic achievementacademic achievement

Fail more gradesFail more grades Truant or drop outTruant or drop out Low motivationLow motivation Feel alienated, not involved in school Feel alienated, not involved in school

activitiesactivities

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Family environmentFamily environment

Restrictive PermissiveRestrictive Permissive

Warmth Submissive ActiveWarmth Submissive Active

Compliant OutgoingCompliant Outgoing

Polite CreativePolite Creative

Hostility Withdrawn DelinquentHostility Withdrawn Delinquent

Neurotic Aggressive Neurotic Aggressive

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Schools (continued)Schools (continued)

Factors that lower delinquency Factors that lower delinquency Fair but firm rules in a nurturing Fair but firm rules in a nurturing

environmentenvironment A solid nucleus of motivated studentsA solid nucleus of motivated students Classroom size, condition of buildings, Classroom size, condition of buildings,

student-teacher ratio not predictive student-teacher ratio not predictive alonealone

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Differential associationDifferential association

Behavior is learned in interaction with Behavior is learned in interaction with other personsother persons

Principal part of the learning occurs in Principal part of the learning occurs in personal groups, such as family or personal groups, such as family or friends.friends.

Learning criminal behavior includes Learning criminal behavior includes learning techniques, rationalizations and learning techniques, rationalizations and attitudesattitudes

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Differential association (cont)Differential association (cont)

A person becomes criminal when he A person becomes criminal when he perceives more favorable to unfavorable perceives more favorable to unfavorable consequences to violating the lawconsequences to violating the law

and, when he has more rationalizations and, when he has more rationalizations favorable to violating the law than to favorable to violating the law than to obeying the lawobeying the law

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Differential association (cont)Differential association (cont)

Social support for criminality can Social support for criminality can overcome social controls. This social overcome social controls. This social support comes from associating with support comes from associating with criminal peerscriminal peers

Such associations may vary in Such associations may vary in frequency, duration, priority, and frequency, duration, priority, and intensityintensity

As frequency increases, more likelyAs frequency increases, more likely

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DA (continued)DA (continued)

Duration: longer the association, more Duration: longer the association, more likelylikely

Priority: age when one first encounters Priority: age when one first encounters criminal peers--earlier, more likelycriminal peers--earlier, more likely

Intensity: importance and prestige Intensity: importance and prestige given to the people that are learned given to the people that are learned fromfrom

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Research on DAResearch on DA

Criminal offenders do tend to have Criminal offenders do tend to have criminal friends “started running with criminal friends “started running with the wrong crowd”the wrong crowd”

However, which came first--association However, which came first--association which led to crime, or criminal which led to crime, or criminal tendencies which led to associations tendencies which led to associations with criminal peers (birds of a feather with criminal peers (birds of a feather flocking together)flocking together)

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DA (cont)DA (cont)

Explains onset of criminalityExplains onset of criminality Explains presence of crime in all Explains presence of crime in all

segments of society, explains white segments of society, explains white collar crimecollar crime

explains why some people in high crime explains why some people in high crime areas refrain from crimeareas refrain from crime

Does not explain desistanceDoes not explain desistance

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Neutralization theoryNeutralization theory

Rationalizations which overcome Rationalizations which overcome society’s normssociety’s norms

Denial of responsibility: I didn’t mean to Denial of responsibility: I didn’t mean to do itdo it

Denial of injury: I didn’t really hurt Denial of injury: I didn’t really hurt anybody (insurance will pay for it, etc...)anybody (insurance will pay for it, etc...)

Denial of victim: They had it coming to Denial of victim: They had it coming to themthem

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Neutralization (cont)Neutralization (cont)

condemnation of others: everyone is condemnation of others: everyone is picking on me. Shift blame to others--picking on me. Shift blame to others--corrupt CJS, etc...corrupt CJS, etc...

Appeal to higher loyalties, i.e.., I did it Appeal to higher loyalties, i.e.., I did it for the groupfor the group

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Social control (Hirschi)Social control (Hirschi)

All people have the potential to violate All people have the potential to violate the lawthe law

Modern society presents many Modern society presents many opportunities for illegal activityopportunities for illegal activity

Why to people obey the law?Why to people obey the law?

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Social controlSocial control

The stronger the social bond to society, The stronger the social bond to society, less likely the person is to be delinquentless likely the person is to be delinquent

Weaker the bond, delinquency likelyWeaker the bond, delinquency likely Four components of the social bondFour components of the social bond 1. attachment 2. commitment1. attachment 2. commitment 3. involvement 4. belief3. involvement 4. belief

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Social controlSocial control

Attachment: sensitivity and interest in Attachment: sensitivity and interest in others, feelings of affection, respect to others, feelings of affection, respect to conventional (law-abiding) peopleconventional (law-abiding) people

Time, energy and efforts expended in Time, energy and efforts expended in conventional goals.conventional goals.

Involvement: in conventional activities--Involvement: in conventional activities--school, recreation, familyschool, recreation, family

Belief: share common moral beliefsBelief: share common moral beliefs

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Research on social controlResearch on social control

Hirschi asked high school students Hirschi asked high school students questions concerning:questions concerning:

feelings of affection and respect for feelings of affection and respect for parents, teachers, peers, etc.parents, teachers, peers, etc.

Plans for the future (commitment)Plans for the future (commitment) Their activitiesTheir activities Beliefs about society, right & wrongBeliefs about society, right & wrong Self reported delinquency, arrestsSelf reported delinquency, arrests

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Social control (cont)Social control (cont)

Youths strongly attached to parents and Youths strongly attached to parents and peers, less likely to be delinquentpeers, less likely to be delinquent

Delinquents: weak and distant Delinquents: weak and distant relationships (not what Sutherland relationships (not what Sutherland would expect)would expect)

Commitment to conventional goals, Commitment to conventional goals, education, jobs, etc..., less likely to be education, jobs, etc..., less likely to be delinquentdelinquent

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Social control (cont)Social control (cont)

Nondelinquents spent more time in Nondelinquents spent more time in conventional activities, such as conventional activities, such as homework, school activities, sports, homework, school activities, sports, family and community recreation, etc..family and community recreation, etc..

Delinquents--more time smoking, Delinquents--more time smoking, drinking, riding around in cars, began drinking, riding around in cars, began these behaviors youngerthese behaviors younger

No differences in terms of beliefsNo differences in terms of beliefs

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Social control (cont)Social control (cont)

Good empirical researchGood empirical research Which comes first: does a weak bond Which comes first: does a weak bond

lead to delinquency, or do delinquent lead to delinquency, or do delinquent acts lead to weakened bonds?acts lead to weakened bonds?

ImplicationsImplications

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Labelling theoryLabelling theory

““Looking-glass” self: part of the way we Looking-glass” self: part of the way we perceive ourselves is based on the perceive ourselves is based on the perceptions of othersperceptions of others

Research supportResearch support Primary deviance: deviance that is Primary deviance: deviance that is

common, that occurs but has not yet common, that occurs but has not yet been labelledbeen labelled

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Labelling (cont)Labelling (cont)

Secondary deviance: deviance that is Secondary deviance: deviance that is the result of labelling, a self-fulfilling the result of labelling, a self-fulfilling prophecyprophecy

primary deviance ceremoniesprimary deviance ceremonies

labelling secondary deviancelabelling secondary deviance

continuation of the behaviorcontinuation of the behavior

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LabellingLabelling

Implications: avoid labelling when Implications: avoid labelling when possiblepossible

Advocated: diversion, Advocated: diversion, deinstitutionalization, due processdeinstitutionalization, due process