1 psychological well-being - gross national...

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Psychological Well-being

Tshoki Zangmo*

1.1 Introduction

The literature on psychological well-being has progressed rapidly since the emergence of the field over five decades ago. As recent surveys show psychologists and other social scientists have taken huge steps in their understanding of the factors influencing psychological/ subjective well-being. Psychological well-being refers to how people evaluate their lives. According to Diener (1997), these evaluations may be in the form of cognitions or in the form of affect. The cognitive part is an information based appraisal of one’s life that is when a person gives conscious evaluative judgments about one’s satisfaction with life as a whole. The affective part is a hedonic evaluation guided by emotions and feelings such as frequency with which people experience pleasant/unpleasant moods in reaction to their lives. The assumption behind this is that most people evaluate their life as either good or bad, so they are normally able to offer judgments. Further, people invariably experience moods and emotions, which have a positive effect or a negative effect. Thus, people have a level of subjective well-being even if they do not often consciously think about it, and the psychological system offers virtually a constant evaluation of what is happening to the person. In this paper we have defined psychological well-being in terms of internal experience of the respondent and their own perception of their lives. We focused both on momentary moods and long term states of their mental well-being. Current social indicators can capture phenomena such as crime, divorce, environmental problems, infant mortality, gender equality, etc. Thus,

* Information and Media Officer, The Centre for Bhutan Studies.

Gross National Happiness Survey Findings

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they can capture aspects of quality of life that add to the description drawn by economic indicators. However, these social indicators fail to capture the subjective well-being of people because they do not reflect the actual experiences such as the quality of relationships, the regulation of their emotions and whether feelings of isolation and depression pervade in their daily life. On the other hand, economic indicators fail to include side effects and the tradeoffs of market production and consumption. For example, the environmental costs of industries certainly are not observed from the national accounts. Another disadvantage of economic and social measures in terms of their links to psychological well-being is that they are based on models of rational choice, whereby people follow a set of logical rules when making development plans. However, works by Kahneman (1994) in psychology and economics reveal that people do not always make rational choices, and that these choices do not necessarily enhance psychological well-being. Currently in Bhutan, economic and social indicators are available and frequently updated as most organisations do some research on it. Even the media and policies provide emphasis on such indicators, while no national measures of psychological well-being exist. The measurement of psychological well-being has advanced so much over the years that it is time to give a privileged place to people’s well-being in policy debates. A GNH society calls for the inclusion of well-being indicators at par with economic ones. Media should provide attention to how a society is progressing in terms of psychological well-being and politicians should base their campaigns on their plans for reducing distress, increasing life satisfaction and happiness level. Psychological well-being leads to desirable outcomes, even economic ones, and does not necessarily follow from them. In a very intensive research done by Diener and his colleagues, people who score high in psychological well-being later earn high income and perform better at work then people who score low in well-being. It is also found to be related to physical health. In addition, it is often noticed that what a society measures will in turn influence the things that it seeks. If a society takes great effort to measure productivity, people in the society are likely to focus more on it and sometimes even to the detriment of other values. If a society regularly assesses well-being, people will provide their attention on it and learn more about its causes. Psychological well-being


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is therefore valuable not only because it assesses well-being more directly but it has beneficial consequences.

1.2 Psychological Well-being Indicators

1.2.1 Sense of satisfaction

1.2.1.1 Sources of happiness

Psychological well-being interview started with an open ended question, asking respondents the sources of their well-being and happiness. The main objective of this question was to gather direct insight information on the perception of happiness and to obtain conditions that would favour happiness. The respondents were given an option of listing at least seven factors that were important for them to lead a happy and contented life. Figure 1.1 List of factors considered important to lead a happy and contended life

0.40%

0.80%

2.90%

3.70%

5.30%

8.50%

8.50%

9.20%

11.60%

13.50%

14.10%

14.90%

16.10%

16.30%

21.50%

26.10%

26.60%

26.90%

32.40%

51.50%

Travelling

Sports

Environment

Communication facilities

National security

Job

Community relationship

Faith and spiritual practices

Health infrastructure and facilities

Good governance

Housing

Land

Basic needs

Electricity

Agricultural productivity

Family relationship

Good health

Education

Access to roads

Financial security

Note: The factors mentioned by the respondents are mutually inclusive


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1.2.1.1.1 Financial security

A majority of the respondents (51%) reported financial security to be the number one factor in leading a happy and content life. Within this category, respondents are mainly concerned with the presence of an adequate income to provide a decent standard of living. Some respondents also mentioned the need of money for future security.

1.2.1.1.2 Access to roads

As a landlocked country, road access is vital part to Bhutan’s trade and commerce both within and outside her boundary. 32% of the respondents identified access to roads as a key source of happiness. Majority of the respondents who listed this were people from rural areas, mainly from the eastern region. A few respondents also expressed the convenience of better road conditions. The country depends on a single East-West national highway running through the middle of the country. The absence of farm and feeder roads in most of the villages has constrained travel in that part of Bhutan and adversely affected the economy. Connecting the less-developed eastern part to the country’s road network would certainly increase their level of happiness.

1.2.1.1.3 Education

Education is the key step to move towards any achievement, especially understanding of GNH values and then bringing these concepts to practice. Education received a high priority with 26% of the respondents stating education to be central to happiness. They referred to accessibility and establishment of good schools equipped with facilities such as libraries, spacious classrooms and good teachers. Bhutan already sees this as an important component of development as number of schools is increasing every year and so many interests are being shown in improving education both by government and the public at large.

1.2.1.1.4 Good health

Good health of the respondents as well as of the family members was mentioned as an important condition for happiness. Some explained factors such as possession of a healthy body and absence of disability.

1.2.1.1.5 Family relationships

Family is one of the most important social structures in Bhutan and is still thriving strong as people are still accustomed to relating not only to family members but also to friends and neighbours. The Bhutanese population firmly believes that families enables them to feel a sense of belonging and are often quoted as a source of comfort, security,


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protection and warmth. These statements are supported by the current result of 26% of the respondents stating good family relationships to be a potential source of happiness. Here, they mentioned the importance of understanding amongst family members, having ample family time and a faithful marriage.

1.2.1.1.6 Agricultural productivity

Agriculture in Bhutan plays a dominant role in the economy and remains the primary source of livelihood for majority of the population. Agriculture is described as labour intensive with often relatively low intensity of farming outputs due to the rough geographic terrain of the country. Probably for this reasons, agricultural productivity was also regarded to be vital with 21.5% saying that increase in crop productivity would certainly increase their happiness level. The respondents referred to the availability of agricultural equipments and proper irrigation channels. A few of them also emphasized the importance of having some governmental support against harm from wild animals.

1.2.1.1.7 Electricity

Firewood has traditionally been a major source of energy. However, the use of firewood has not only adverse effects on forests but also on health of household members as it demands rigorous physical labour and involves working in smoky surroundings. Perhaps, that’s why respondents who listed electricity are mostly from remote areas where the use of firewood still represents the main source of energy.

1.2.1.1.8 Basic needs

Foods, shelter, clothing and clean drinking water were the listed items under this category.

1.2.1.1.9 Land

Respondents who listed land are the ones who consider ownership of land as an important determinant of happiness. Forest has the highest percentage of land coverage in Bhutan while agriculture makes up only about 7%, mostly located in steep areas. With increasing population and urbanization, loss of agricultural land to developmental activities and fragmentation into smaller plots has augmented pressure on land usage in the country. Respondents pointed out that possessing more agriculture land would enable them to grow more crops and thereby increase their well-being.


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1.2.1.1.10 Housing

This category includes respondents who expressed needs for house ownership and housing repairs. Some of them also pointed out the importance of availability of good housing at reasonable rates for renting. As mentioned above the rapid growth of urban centers has induced pressure on the existing housing infrastructures.

1.2.1.1.11 Good governance

Respondents cited good developmental plans and absence of corruption as some of the factors under good governance. A few respondents emphasized the importance of having a government with a strong judicial system.

1.2.1.1.12 Health infrastructure and facilities

Under this category, respondents mentioned the need of better medical facilities, more hospitals and more doctors in the country. Institutional health facilities were earlier concentrated in the urban areas but today emphasis has also shifted to rural areas where majority of the population live.

1.2.1.1.13 Faith and spiritual practices

About 9% of the respondents said that the practicing dharma, receiving blessings from renowned lamas and being able to visit various religious

sites would enhance their happiness. The practice of spirituality provides a lot of skillful means for achieving happiness, and therefore accomplishing GNH would require spirituality to be understood and fully incorporated by the Bhutanese population.

1.2.1.1.14 Community relationships

Bhutan comprise of cohesive societies where community relationships are given a priority. Local communities take responsibility for building harmonious community relations, but lately this has been challenging partly because of the loss of community structures in urban areas. Respondents here considered good relationships with neighbours, friends and community members to be vital for happiness.

1.2.1.1.15 Job

Job satisfaction was also listed as an important determinant of happiness. Respondents mentioned the needs for employment opportunities and factors such as good working environments, equal pay for equal value of work for job satisfaction.


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1.2.1.1.16 National security

The national security perspective examined here pertains to sovereignty of Bhutanese state, its territorial independence and security from external threats. Absence of terrorists and civil war were some of listed items under this category. Bhutan has always been an independent country and has enjoyed political stability since the establishment of monarchy in 1907 and maybe in view of that fact, only 5% of the respondents mentioned national security as one of the basis for happiness.

1.2.1.1.17 Communication facilities

Some respondents reported the need to own radios, television sets and telephones as contributors to well-being.

1.2.1.1.18 Environment

Perhaps, due to the already existing good policies on conservation of our pristine environment, only few respondents (2.90%) expressed that protection and preservation of the environment such as forests, rivers, etc was a crucial source of happiness.

1.2.1.1.19 Sports

Traditional sports and games form a crucial part of the Bhutanese national culture. Government has been introducing policies that encourage modern sports along with safeguarding the traditional ones. This might be the reason why, only a low percent of respondents consider playing traditional and modern sports as a source of happiness.

1.2.1.1.20 Travelling

A small percentage of the respondents who were employed have cited the importance of traveling abroad as a source of happiness.

1.2.1.2 Happiness level

A self reported happiness score, based on a 10 point scale, is one of the primary means of evaluating the sense of psychological well-being of the respondents. One is rated as “not a very happy person” and 10 is rated as “a very happy person”. The average happiness score was found to be 6.15. This method of testing happiness level is a commonly used measure of subjective well-being. This scale will be essential for developing causal relationships by analysing it with different economic and social variables.


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Figure 1.2 Happiness level

0.742.21

4.94

9.36

26.71

15.46 14.93

11.88

5.997.78

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

For international comparison, the 10 point scale was rescaled to 11 point scale. It was also found from past research studies that 11 point scale’s estimated mean happiness is significantly more precise than that of 10. The following table shows average happiness level of the SAARC countries on an 11 point scale. The data was obtained from World Database of Happiness, Correlation Findings. Unfortunately, it did not cover data on Maldives and hence, could not be ranked amongst the countries. Table 1.1 Average happiness levels of SAARC countries

Countries Source of data Year of survey

Range 0-10

Bhutan GNH National Survey

2007-2008 6.15

Pakistan World Database of Happiness

2006 6.12

India World Database of Happiness

2006 5.97

Nepal World Database of Happiness

2006 4.55

Sri Lanka World Database of Happiness

2006 4.34

Bangladesh World Database of Happiness

2006 4.31

Afghanistan World Database of Happiness

2006 4.03


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1.2.1.3 Life quality

Life quality usually refers to the degree to which a person’s life is desirable versus undesirable, often with an emphasis on external components, such as physical health, leisure, work, environment, financial states, etc. According to Ed Diener (2005), life quality is often expressed as more objective and describes the circumstances of a person’s life and also his or her reaction to those circumstances. It is intended to represent a broad, reflective evaluation one makes of one’s life as a whole. The respondents were asked to rate themselves on life quality scale of one to five whereby, one stood for “very poor” and five for “very good”. 51% of the respondents reported to having neither poor nor good life quality. Life quality is well associated with happiness level. It revealed a highly significant correlation value of 0.33. Table 1.2Quality of life

Quality of life Percentage

Very good 4.32%

Good 33.47%

Neither good nor poor 51.16%

Poor 8.53%

Very poor 2.53%

1.2.1.4 Life Enjoyment

This quality of life enjoyment question is aimed to measure the degree of enjoyment felt by the respondents. They were asked to rate their enjoyment of life from a range of “not at all” to “an extreme amount”. Findings show that 58% of the respondents enjoy life quite a lot. Table 1.3 Life enjoyment

Frequency Percentage

An extreme amount 74 7.78

Quite a lot 560 58.99

A little 300 31.55

Not at all 16 1.68

Total 950 100


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1.2.1.5 Life satisfaction

This question is used to indicate how satisfied people are in various areas, but they might also indicate how much people like their lives in each area, how close to the ideal they are in each area and how much enjoyment they experience in each area. GNH requires the measurement of satisfaction levels as it is reveals judgments people make in evaluating some of the major dimensions of life. The respondents were asked their satisfaction levels in four domains vital for GNH: health, finances, major occupations and family relationships. Studies have shown that a strong relationship exists between subjective health satisfaction measures and happiness (Haring and Witter 1984). It has been suggested that such measures reflect not only the actual physical condition but also the emotional state (Hooker and Siegler 1992). Current data reveals that, 58% of the respondents were satisfied with their health conditions whereas only 8% reported of not being satisfied. This health satisfaction level showed a correlation of 0.13 with the happiness variable. Work tends to be an integral and defining aspect in adult life. As such, we included job satisfaction as another domain that has an important association with happiness. Correlation analysis has revealed that job satisfaction is positively related to life quality and happiness. Majority of the respondents (63%) were satisfied with their major occupations while 31% were fairly satisfied. However, respondents were not very satisfied with their finances, as only 29% reported being satisfied. Satisfaction with family relationships has been found to be substantially related to general well-being (Dush and Amato 2005). Findings imply that of all the satisfaction in various areas, family relationships obtained the highest rating with only 1% of the sample population reporting not satisfied. A high percent (90%) of the respondents were satisfied in relationship with their immediate family members. This statistic may signify the existence of strong ties amongst the family members in Bhutan.


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Figure 1.3 Life satisfaction

29%

58% 63%

90%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

Financial

security

Health Major

occupations

Family

relationships

Major life domains

1.2.2 Social support

Social support is a broad concept which refers to help available in times of need that others can provide. Social support can manifest in many forms, such as providing information, companionship, financial assistance and emotional support (Cohen and Wills 1985). Research studies have shown that social support facilitates both coping with specific stressors and contributes to a sustained well-being throughout the life span (Ryan and La Guardia 2000). In order to capture some of these aspects of social support, respondents were asked whether assistance was available during sickness and at times of financial or emotional needs. 53% of the respondents reported that help was available during sickness most of the time while 2% reported that help was not available during sickness. It was observed that 11% did not have any support available in terms of finances and emotional support. A GNH community requires developing a social network of relatives, friends, neighbours, etc who provide necessary social support in times of need. Social support is said to increase one’s sense of belonging, purpose and self-worth, promoting positive mental health, and thereby contributing to a higher well-being.


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Figure 1.4 Social support

2.74%

44.09%

53.16%

30.89%

57.86%

11.25%

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

120%

None of the time Some of the time Most of the time

Financial/Emotional supportDuring sickness

1.2.3 Stress

1.2.3.1 Self reported stress level

Studies have revealed stress to be highly correlated with ill-being. Although the exact mechanisms are not fully understood, past studies show that the negative emotional and cognitive effects of stress may alter the immune response and increase susceptibility to disease. In addition, stress is said to prompt changes in health behaviour as individuals try to cope. For example, someone under pressure may take up smoking or begin to smoke more. Excessive eating, an unhealthy weight gain, and increased alcohol consumption are other potential responses. Stress shows a negative correlation of -0.0018 with happiness. Stress can have a major impact on whether one is happy or not. Therefore, it is important to reflect on the stress levels of the population. The data shows that 12% of the respondents are very stressful. This 12% of the stressed respondents comprises mostly of farmers and housewives with long working hours. Virtually all of the farmers who were interviewed said that stress was a major problem in their lives. The very nature of farming is itself the cause of many strains for farming families in Bhutan. Farmers traditionally work long hours, often in bad weather. Moreover, due to the steep terrain, most of the farmers have to put in extra labour. This survey has confirmed that of all the occupational groups, farmers are experiencing considerable stress.


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Table 1.4 Self reported stress levels Stress levels Percentage

Very stressful 12%

Somewhat stressful 41%

Not at all stressful 47%

1.2.3.2 Sources of stress

Respondents who reported that they were stressed were asked to list down its causes. This question was asked to identify the problem areas that were triggering stress. Additionally, understanding the sources of stress is also considered an important part of stress management and may assist policy makers to think of possible means to overcome the stressful situations. About 35% reported financial insecurity as the source of stress followed by death and illness in the family and social relationships, which include factors such as misunderstanding amongst friends and family, divorces, enmity in the community, etc. Labour pressure is another determinant of stress. Respondents mostly referred to labour shortage and woola. Farm labour shortage is one of the

concerns faced by Bhutanese farmers that have resulted in low agriculture productivity. Respondents also expressed their worry over woola which demands physical labour and hence, transforms most of

their free time into work. 11% reported agricultural constraints which includes problems with wildlife and lack of proper irrigation facilities. Educational concerns mainly include academic competencies and problems faced by students studying in boarding school due to lack of proper hostel facilities. A small percentage of respondents reported emotional concerns such as low self-esteem and confidence levels as a source of stress.


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Figure 1.5 Perceived sources of stress

1.58%

2.96%

4.74%

5.73%

10.67%

11.07%

11.26%

13.44%

20.95%

34.19%

35.77%

Not able to pursue religious activities

Food insecurity

Psychological concerns

Children's future

Bureaucratic red tape

Educational

Agricultural constraints

Labour pressure

Social relationships

Death and illness

Financial insecurity

Note: The sources mentioned by the respondents are mutually inclusive

1.2.3.3 General health questionnaire (GHQ)

GHQ is a well known instrument for measuring minor psychological distress and is often considered as an important determinant of psychological well-being. Therefore, GHQ was asked to get some general idea of the state of mental health. It consists of 12 questions that would provide a possible indication of depression and anxiety, confidence and concentration levels. GHQ is calculated and interpreted using the Likert scale with lowest score at 0 and highest possible score at 36. A low score between the ranges of 0-15 indicates normal mental well-being, a median score between 16-20 indicates some mental distress and a high score of 21-36 indicates severe mental distress. The questions were asked based on the reflection made over the past one month. 5% suffered from severe mental distress and would reveal a population projection of 21,000 people. Majority of them were women. Table 1.5 GHQ

GHQ levels Percentage

Normal mental well-being 85%

Some mental distress 10%

Severe mental distress 5%


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1.2.4 Spirituality

Spirituality is sometimes associated with religious beliefs and sometimes it is seen as quite independent of any religious understanding. Spirituality currently is viewed as an attitude which admits that certain material aspects of life is detrimental to human well-being. So, the assumption here is that a spiritual person is more likely to reflect on issues beyond the worldly matters and thereby, would find this to be a contributing factor to the general sense of well-being. When asked how spiritual do you consider to be, every one reported that they were spiritual at some level. Table 1.6 Self reported spiritual level

The following table shows the responses to the questions asked in the survey on some of the practices of the Bhutanese people that may be understood as acts of demonstrating spirituality. Table 1.7 Spirituality

Sl no. Spirituality Frequency Percentage

1 Do you recite prayers:

Daily 363 38.41

Occasionally 459 48.57

Not at all 123 13.02

Total 945 100

2 Do you practice meditation:

Daily 13 1.37


Not at all 857 90.4

Total 948 100

3 Do you visit local temples and places of spiritual significance:

Daily 28 2.95


Not at all 33 3.48

Total 948 100

Level of spirituality Percentage

Very 39%

Moderately 61%

Not at all 0%


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4 Do you discuss spiritual issues with your children:

Daily 84 12.21


Not at all 277 40.26

Total 688 100

5 Do you consider Karma in the course of your daily life:

Always 428 45.01

Sometimes 494 52.05

Never 28 2.94

Total 950 100

As given in the above table, only 13% of the respondents do not recite prayers at all. It may be concluded that still a majority of Bhutanese recite prayers. Prayer recitation is found to be directly proportional to happiness level. Table 1.8 Frequency of prayer recitation by mean happiness level

Frequency of prayer recitation Mean happiness level

Daily 6.16

Occasionally 6.15

Not at all 6.12

Meditation is known to have enormous health benefits. Meditation is often considered as a stress management tool useful for reducing anxiety. Long term meditators often notice improvement in their mood and general well-being. As per a research (Penn’s Stress Management Program), meditation is said to bring our brainwave pattern into an alpha state and this alpha state is the level of consciousness that promotes the healing state. Although, the clear benefits of meditation on well-being are known, a majority of the respondents (90%) do not meditate at all. In terms of consideration of karmic effect, the cause and effect relationship, only 45% consider it daily. For Bhutanese, an understanding of the dynamics between causes and effects are critical to each individual’s pursuit for happiness as it tends to provide a clear understanding and cultivation of GNH values such as bringing about better situations for the good of the people. Further, constant discussion of spiritualism is said to create awareness of its importance not only to the children but is also said to improve one’s spirituality level. However,


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about 40% of the respondents never discuss spiritual issues with their children. Culture of youth is different today, and the indifferent attitude of many youth towards spiritualism is becoming increasingly visible. Parents should take spiritualism seriously and facilitate in engaging the youth in practices of spirituality.

1.2.5 Emotional well-being

When people evaluate their psychological well-being, the ratio of their pleasant to unpleasant emotions over time plays pivotal role. Past studies reveal that when a person is happy, the frequency of positive emotions tends to be more. According to Diener (1993) emotions are central to well-being for several reasons. First, people seem to feel some effect on a continual basis to personal experience. Second, these effects are related to a person’s evaluation of life because an emotion arises from the evaluations a person makes of events in his or her life. For example, a person who interprets his or her life as comprised of desirable events will experience more pleasant than unpleasant emotions over time. So, by including the spectrum of emotional well-being as one of our indicators, we not only increase our understanding of the good life and happiness, we also broaden our knowledge of the processes underlying emotions more generally.

1.2.5.1 Positive emotions

The respondents were asked to rate emotions they felt over the last few weeks. Five positive emotions were considered: calmness, compassion, generosity, contentment and forgiveness. Table 1.9 Frequency of positive emotions How often have you felt the following emotions? Often Sometimes Never Total

Calmness 16.67% 58.86% 24.47% 100%

Compassion 27.29% 62.49% 10.22% 100%

Forgiveness 20.93% 61.72% 17.35% 100%

Contentment 17.65% 61.51% 20.82% 100%

Generosity 28.71% 61.62% 9.67% 100%

Compassion is very coherent with the GNH values as both arise by entering into the subjectivity of others. Compassion as an approach to


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sympathy for another’s suffering is necessary to establish a compassionate society. Findings reveal that only 27.29% often feel compassionate, while about 10% are never compassionate. Calmness is an additional virtue consistent with GNH ideals, to have an open and a reflective mind. In terms of calmness, more than 20% feel that they are never calm. A majority of them are housewives with long working hours. Another positive emotion of great importance is generosity and is widely accepted in a society as a desirable habit. However, only 28% feel often generous and about 9% feel never generous. Contentment is considered as another cause of happiness as it functions as an antidote to feeling need and jealousy. There is no happiness in a person who lacks contentment because they will always suffer from feeling that they never have enough. So, demonstrating contentment acknowledges the wealth and belongings of others without craving for them. We observed that 20% are never feeling content, and 17% never had feelings of forgiveness and a study of their profile shows that majority of them are farmers with high stress levels.

1.2.5.2 Negative emotions

The following table shows the rate of frequency of negative emotions: Table 1.10 Frequency of negative emotions How often have you felt the following emotions? Often Sometimes Never Total

Anger 6.31% 67.09% 26.60% 100%

Guilt 4.63% 44.27% 51.10% 100%

Selfishness 2.63% 23.66% 73.71% 100%

Jealousy 1.37% 19.56% 79.07% 100%

Disappointment 6.01% 58.38% 35.62% 100%

Sadness 6.53% 55.16% 38.32% 100%

Frustration 4.63% 55.52% 39.85% 100%

About 4% are often frustrated, and these people are the ones who are unemployed and people who have high stress levels. In terms of anger, we observed that 6% are often angry, and majority this group constitute of farmers and housewives. 4% often feel guilty and in terms of disappointment 6% feel often disappointed.


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1.3 Relationship between psychological well-being and demographic variables

1.3.1 Psychological well-being by gender

Almost every study that has done comparative analysis of well-being has found only minimal gender-related differences in psychological well-being. Surveys carried in many countries have consistently found that men and women have similar levels of happiness and overall life satisfaction. However, study on life quality and happiness shows that females in Bhutan have lower life quality and a lower level of happiness. Table 1.11 Mean happiness level by gender

Gender Mean happiness

Male 6.25

Female 6.04

Figure 1.6 Life quality by gender

Analyses of almost all the satisfaction levels of specific domains reveal that men are more satisfied than women. The General Health Questionnaire which was used to measure psychological distress was also observed to be higher for females (see table 1.12). We know that women’s life conditions are now dramatically different from what they were just a few decades ago. There is, now, an increasing number of

3.35

3.21

3.10

3.15

3.20

3.25

3.30

3.35

3.40

Male Female

Male Female1 Very poor

5 Very good

Mea

n life q

ua

lity


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working women. Looking at the positive side of a changed society, we may see that women empowerment and more possibilities of self actualization have emerged. Nevertheless, the time pressure and stress may have increased for many women because of the dual responsibility at home and work. Figure 1.7 Life satisfaction by gender Table 1.12 GHQ by gender

Gender GHQ (level of stress)

Male 1.14

Female 1.28

The overall findings indicate that females in Bhutan have a lower well-being than males. The government should continue to create an enabling policy environment in which women’s concerns can be reflected, articulated and readdressed even by the NGOs and corporate sectors. There should be constant efforts to develop women specific and women related policies in various plan documents.

1.3.2 Psychological well-being by age

The relationship between happiness and age is important but current analysis do not show any clear understanding, partly due to the lack of representative samples of age groups. Nevertheless, study of the happiness level reveals that happiness peaks around the age group of 16 to 30.

2.12

2.57

2.04

2.42

0.00

0.50

1.00

1.50

2.00

2.50

3.00

Female Male

Health satisfactionFinancial security

3 Satisfied

2 Fairly satisfied

1 Not satisfied

Me

an

satisfaction

le

ve

ls


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Figure 1.8 Happiness level by age

Mean happiness level

5.50

5.60

5.70

5.80

5.906.00

6.10

6.20

6.30

6.40

Below 15 16-30 31-45 46-60 Above 60

Age group

Mean

GH

QMean happiness level

Likewise, GHQ is lowest in the age group of 16-30. As understood earlier, precise conclusions cannot be made because of the size of age groups. It might be roughly concluded that both well-being indicators, happiness and GHQ follows the international trend of being U-shaped across ages. Figure 1.9 GHQ by age

Mean GHQ

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

1.4

1.6

Below 15 16-30 31-45 46-60 Above 60

Age group

Mean

GH

Q

Mean GHQ

A linear curve was obtained when consideration of karmic effects is analysed across age. As age rises, the intensity to believe in karmic effects seems to increase as well.


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Figure 1.10 Consideration of karmic effects in life by age

1.3.3 Psychological well-being by employment status

The survey covered diverse occupational backgrounds. When happiness level is analysed with employment status, it shows that the unemployed are the least happy followed by housewives. Table 1.13 Happiness level by employment status

Employment Status Mean happiness level

Students 6.35

Employed 6.25

Housewives 5.92

Unemployed 5.58

Even in terms of life quality, housewives and the unemployed have poorer life quality (see figure 1.11). The results also indicate that the unemployed suffer from high stress levels (see table 1.14). Besides, a comparative study of the incidence of negative emotions shows that the unemployed have the highest prevalence of such emotions. These findings support the results of past studies on the devastating effects of unemployment on individual well-being. It is known that unemployment is a major issue of concern in Bhutan. This has simply occurred because the working age population has grown faster than the number of jobs. The government should persevere to evaluate and strengthen policies in solving unemployment issues given the clear impacts of it on the general well-being.

2.22

2.41

2.46

2.4

2.5

2.05

2.1

2.15

2.2

2.25

2.3

2.35

2.4

2.45

2.5

2.55

13-17 18-30 31-45 46-60 Above 60

Consideration of Karma3 Always

2 Sometimes

1 Never


23

Figure 1.11 Life quality by employment status

3.51

3.35

3.17

3.07

2.8

2.9

3

3.1

3.2

3.3

3.4

3.5

3.6L

ife

qu

ali

ty

Students Employed Unemployed Housewives

Employment status

Table 1.14 GHQ by employment status

Employment status GHQ (Stress level)

Unemployed 1.35

Housewives 1.32

Students 1.18

Employed 1.13

1.3.4 Psychological well-being by family structure

Confirming the findings of past studies, life quality when studied with respect to the type of family structure showed that single parents are the ones who have the worst life quality. Even in terms of stress levels, single parents were the ones with highest stress levels.


24

Figure 1.12 Life quality by family structure

3.03

3.28

3.4

3.24

2.8

2.9

3

3.1

3.2

3.3

3.4

3.5

Single parent Married with

children

Married but no

children

Single

Me

an

lif

e q

ua

lity

One of the most difficult things that single parents face is coping emotions linked with being both the father and mother. Single parents might try to cope with this strain financially and emotionally. There is also growing evidence that children of single parents have greater tendency to drug dependency, crime and anti-social behaviour. Keeping in mind the impacts of single parenting on the psychological well-being, the government might want to explore ways to reduce pressure and hardships experienced by the single parents. Government assistance could be through financial aids, subsidised loan schemes, certain tax exemptions, etc. However, there has to be certain guidelines that need to be fulfilled to protect the fund from unscrupulous people. Detailed requirements must be outlined to be qualified for such assistance in order to avoid fraud and anomalous activities by people who will abuse single parenthood to illegally attain benefits and funds. Table 1.15 GHQ by family structure

Family structure GHQ (Stress level)

Single parent 1.5

Married but no children 1.25

Single 1.20

Married with children 1.16


25

1.3.5 Psychological well-being by region

Comparative analysis of happiness level among the dzongkhags reveal that Thimphu has the highest mean happiness followed by Haa. The least happy dzongkhag is Pemagatshel. Table 1.16 Mean happiness level by dzongkhags

Dzongkhag Mean happiness level

Pemagatshel 5.79

Wangduephodrang 5.92

Zhemgang 5.92

Gasa 5.97

Dagana 6.04

Samtse 6.05

Tsirang 6.15

Samdrupjongkhar 6.15

Tashiyangtse 6.16

Tashigang 6.30

Haa 6.49

Thimphu 6.63

The life quality of the people living in Thimphu is the highest while Pemagatshel has the lowest life quality. However, the occurrence of negative emotions is higher in Thimphu than in Pemagatshel. Gasa has the lowest prevalence of negative emotions. In terms of spirituality Thimphu who had the highest life quality ranks at the bottom three. Besides, Thimphu is also amongst the ones having high stress levels. Thimphu is an urban area. Such findings might indicate that urbanization does not necessarily increase well-being. Although the establishment of infrastructure such as hospitals or schools are important the non-material aspects of life, such as social relations and community relations, spirituality, etc, are also equally important, in which Thimphu is seen to rank low.


26

Figure 1.13 Life quality by dzongkhags

3.11 3.14 3.163.22 3.23

3.27 3.28 3.29

3.38 3.40 3.40

3.58

2.8

2.9

3.0

3.1

3.2

3.3

3.4

3.5

3.6

3.7

Pemag

atsh

el

Dag

ana

Tashig

ang

Wan

gduephodra

ng

Zhemgan

g

Tashiy

angt

seG

asa

Sam

tse

Haa

Sam

drupjo

ngkhar

Tsira

ng

Thimphu

Me

an

lif

e q

ua

lity

Table 1.17 Negative emotions by dzongkhags

Dzongkhag Mean negative emotion value

Gasa 1.83

Haa 1.85

Tsirang 1.87

Tashigang 1.93

Zhemgang 2.02

Pemagatshel 2.11

Tashiyangtse 2.14

Samdrupjongkhar 2.21

Samtse 2.23

Dagana 2.33

Wangduephodrang 2.47

Thimphu 2.65

1.4 Psychological well-being and social relationship

R Weiss (1974) argues that individuals require social provisions in order to maintain psychological well-being. These provisions include those that are assistance related (guidance) and those that are non-assistance related (social integration). These components provided by primary group of relationships provide the total perceived support and supply benefits to people. Weiss theory then claims that people lacking social provisions experience negative effects.


27

Figure 1.14 Life quality vs. family relationships

3.09

3.16

3.33

2.95

3

3.05

3.1

3.15

3.2

3.25

3.3

3.35

Agree Neutral Disagree

Family members argue too much

Me

an

lif

e q

ua

lity

The analysis of the life quality with various family situations supports Weiss theory of social provisions. For instance, people whose family members argue too much have a lower level of happiness and life quality. Correspondingly, respondents who have caring family members have a better life quality (see table 1.18). Table 1.18 Life quality vs. family members care about each other

Do your family members care about each other?

Life quality Stress level

Agree 3.3 1.19

Neutral 3 1.25

Disagree 2.8 1.76

These findings prove that some of the social provisions are typically provided by family members. Additionally, study of the stress levels with family relationship index show that people who live in an environment of a higher family relationship index score have a lower stress level and vice versa. Weiss states that instrumental support in times of stress is often provided by family regardless of the level of mutual affection or whether one has reciprocated in the past. Friendship is another provision which provides companionship and guidance for psychological well-being. Current analysis shows that people who socialize more with their friends are happier and have a better life quality. Friendship is even seen to have a positive effect on


28

stress levels as results indicate that people suffering from higher stress levels are the ones who socialize less. A person having better social relationships seems to have higher well-being. Table 1.19 GHQ vs. socialization with friends

Frequency of socialization with friends

Life quality

GHQ (Stress level)

Few times a week 3.36 1.7

Few times a month 3.25 1.22

Once a month 3.18 2.8

Not in last month 3.05 2.9

1.5 Summary findings

1. Financial security was reported to be the most frequently stated factor of happiness. This is followed by access to roads. Perhaps, these cited factors are because Bhutan is still very much a developing country.

2. The respondents seem to be highly satisfied with family

relationships. Good family relationship is a determinant of happiness, and such relations are sustained not necessarily when we have more money, but when we have better values and intentions.

3. Stress is highly associated with ill-being. The 5% of the

population who is reported to be very stressful requires attention. They comprise of farmers and housewives with long working hours.

4. Almost all the respondents stated to be spiritual and findings

also suggest that spirituality is related to higher level of psychological well-being. However, prayer recitation, consideration of karmic effects and aspects such as discussion of spiritual issues was observed to be low.

5. There are some general tendencies amongst respondents who are

female and single parents to have a lower psychological well-being.


29

1.6 Conclusion

As collective happiness is the goal of governance under a GNH society, psychological well-being is of great importance because it not only serves as an indicator of well-being for the community as a whole but also measures success of the government in providing well-being enhancing projects and policies. GNH calls for a holistic approach of development and so inclusion of perceptions of people and state of psychological well-being becomes crucial. Bhutan as a developing country would witness a lot of behavioural changes which might affect individual’s well-being in a number of ways. It is known that urbanization, loss of social cohesion, unemployment, uses of drugs, etc. would have impacts on well-being of the people. Under all these circumstances and situations it is important to recognise the behavioural aspects of development and keep track of the elements of well-being such as stress levels and life satisfaction. Psychological well-being indicators provide an in-depth review of how development projects impact the mind of the Bhutanese population. A GNH framework requires the incorporation of psychological well-being indicators into the policy and planning process to enhance standard indicators. Psychological well-being indicators add a value perspective beyond the cost benefit analysis in evaluating societal structure and interventions. So, if the government systematically implements and publicizes psychological well-being indicators, then it would focus the attention of policy makers and the public specifically on well-being and enable them to learn of its causes and perhaps, enable them to adopt the behaviours that promote it.

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