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Module Fourteen

Creativity and Innovation

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FRAMING CREATIVITY AND INNOVATION

• CREATIVITY AND INNOVATION ARE IMPORTANT FOR ORGANIZATIONAL SUSTAINABILITY

• AT THE MOST BASIC LEVEL, CREATIVITY AND INNOVATION ARE VIEWED AS PROCESSES BY WHICH INDIVIDUALS WORKING TOGETHER IN A COMPLEX SOCIAL SYSTEM CREATE A VALUABLE, USEFUL NEW PRODUCT, SERVICE, IDEA, PROCEDURE, OR WORK PROCESS.

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CREATIVITY – TOWARD A DEFINITION• “CREATIVITY IS THE ABILITY TO BRING SOMETHING NEW

INTO EXISTANCE” (Webster Dictionary)

• “CREATIVITY IS THE ABILITY TO GENERATE NOVAL IDEAS THAT ARE USEFUL AT A GIVEN MOMENT” (Woerkum et al, 2007)

• “CREATIVITY IS THE DEVELOPMENT OF IDEAS ABOUT PRODUCTS, PRACTICES, SERVICES, OR PROCEDURES THAT ARE NOVAL AND POTENTIALLY USEFUL TO THE ORGANIZATION” (Amabile, 2003)

• CREATIVITY IS A PROCESS THAT INTEGRATES BITS AND PIECES OF INFORMATION THAT RESIDE WITHIN THE MIND OF AN INDIVIDUAL OR A COLLECTIVE OF INDIVIDUALS THAT THROUGH SYNERGISTIC PROCESS ARE LIKELY TO RESULT IN A NOVAL IDEA ABOUT PRODUCTS, PRACTICES, SERVICES, OR PROCEDURES

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Conceptual Links among Creative Persons, Processes, Situations, and Products

Individual Characteristics• Cognitive abilities/style• Personality• Intrinsic motivation• Knowledge

Group Characteristics• Norms• Cohesiveness• Size• Diversity• Roles• Task• Problem-solving approaches

Organizational Characteristics• Culture• Resources• Rewards• Strategy• Structure• Technology

CreativeBehavior

OrganizationalCreativity

Creative Situation• Enhancers• Constraints

Input(Creative persons, groups,organization)

Transformation(Creative processcreative situation)

Output(Creativeproduct)

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Characteristics of Adaptors and Innovators

For problem solving

For solutions

Tend to take the problem as defined and generate novel creative idea aimed at “doing things better.” Immediate high efficiency is the keynote of high adaptors.

Generally generates a few well-chosen and relevant solutions that they generally find sufficient but that sometimes fail to contain ideas needed to break the existing pattern completely.

Innovators

Source: Adapted with permission from M. J. Kirton, “ Adaptors and Innovators: Problem solvers in Organizations,” in Innovation: A Cross-Disciplinary Perspective, K. Gronhaug and G. Kaufmann, eds, (Oslo: Norwegian University Press, 1988), p.72

Implications Adaptors InnovatorsImplications Adaptors Innovators

Tend to redefine generally agreed problems, breading preciously perceived restraints, generating solutions aimed at “doing things differently.”

Produce numerous ideas, many of which may not be either obvious or acceptable to others. Such a pool often contains ideas, if they can be identified, that may crack hitherto intractable problems.

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Characteristics of Adaptors and Innovators

For policies

For organizational fit

For potential creativity

Prefer well-established structured situations. Best at incorporating new data or events into existing structures of policies.

Essential to the ongoing functions, but in times of unexpected changes may have some difficulty moving out of their established roles.

Capable of generating original, creative solutions, but which reflect their overall approach to problem solving.

Innovators

Source: Adapted with permission from M. J. Kirton, “ Adaptors and Innovators: Problem solvers in Organizations,” in Innovation: A Cross-Disciplinary Perspective, K. Gronhaug and G. Kaufmann, eds, (Oslo: Norwegian University Press, 1988), p.72

Implications Adaptors InnovatorsImplications Adaptors Innovators

Prefer unstructured situations. Use new data as opportunities to set new structures or policies accepting the greater attendant risk.

Essential in times of change or crisis, but may have some trouble applying themselves to ongoing organizational demands.

Capable of generating original, creative solutions, but which reflect their overall approach to problem solving.

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Characteristics of Adaptors and Innovators

For collaboration

For perceived behavior

High adaptors do not get along easily with innovators. Middle adaptors may act as bridges.

Seen by innovators as sound, conforming, safe, predictable, relevant, inflexible, wedded to the system, and intolerant of ambiguity.

Innovators

Source: Adapted with permission from M. J. Kirton, “ Adaptors and Innovators: Problem solvers in Organizations,” in Innovation: A Cross-Disciplinary Perspective, K. Gronhaug and G. Kaufmann, eds, (Oslo: Norwegian University Press, 1988), p.72

Implications Adaptors InnovatorsImplications Adaptors Innovators

High innovators do not get along easily with adaptors. Middle innovators may act as bridges.

Seen by adaptors as unsound, impractical, risky, abrasive, often shocking their opposites and creating dissonance.

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Components of Individual Creativity

IncludesKnowledge about the domainTechnical skills requiredSpecial domain-relevant “talent”

Depends onInnate cognitive abilitiesInnate perceptual and motor skillsFormal and informal education

IncludesAppropriate cognitive styleImplicit or explicit heuristics for generating novel ideasConducive work style

Depends onTrainingExperience in idea generationPersonality characteristics

IncludesAttitudes toward the

taskPerceptions of own motivation for undertaking the task

Depends onInitial level of intrinsic motivation to the taskPresence or absence of salient extrinsic constraints in the social environmentIndividual ability to cognitively minimize extrinsic constraints

Source: Adapted with permission from T.M. Amabile, “From Individual Creativity to Organizational innovation,” in Innovation: A Cross-Disciplinary Perspective, K. Gronhaug and G. Kaufmann, eds, (Oslo: Norwegian University Press, 1988), p. 149.

Domain-Relevant Skills Creativity-Relevant Skills Task Motivation

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The Imperatives

of Creativity *

Creativity imperativesCognitive characteristics

Intelligence, Knowledge, Problem findingImagination/use of imagery

Aesthetic sensitivityPersonality characteristics

Persistence, Curiosity

Courage/risk takingSelf-confidence,

Intrinsic motivationWork behavior orientationIndependence of judgment

Communication Collaboration

Achieving recognitionShaping the environment

* Contributed by Professor Nirmal K. Sethia, Department of Management & Organization, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089-1421. We are grateful to Professor Sethia.

Creative Work

Creative Individual

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How to turn a potentially creative person into an actively creative person?* (1)

• Freedom: Freedom from external constraints can lead to creative behavior. The notion of freedom includes the following managerial actions:– Provide freedom to try new ways of performing tasks.– Permit activities or tasks to be different for different individuals.– Allow an appropriate amount of time for the accomplishment of

tasks.– Allow time for non–task–related thinking and development of

creative ideas.– Encourage self–initiated projects.– Respect an individual’s need to work alone.– Encourage divergent activities by providing resources and room.

* Adopted and modified from Isaksen, 1987

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How to turn a potentially creative person into

an actively creative person? (2)• Support: Non–controlling support can be given

in the following ways:– Support and reinforce unusual ideas and responses

of individuals.– Communicate confidence in the individuals.– Tolerate complexity and disorder.– Provide constructive feedback.– Reduce concern over failure.– Create a climate of mutual respect and acceptance

among individuals.– Encourage interpersonal trust.– Listen to individuals.

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How to turn a potentially creative person into

an actively creative person? (3)• Participation: Involving the individual in the decision–

making process as well as the problem–solving process (participation) provides motivation that encourages creative behavior. Participation can be enhanced in the following ways:– Encourage individuals to have choices and to be part of the

goal–setting process.– Encourage involvement of those interested in the problem —

don’t limit involvement across jobs, departments, and divisions.– Challenge individuals to find new tasks and problems.– Encourage questioning.– Encourage a high quality of interpersonal relationships including

a spirit of cooperation, open confrontation of conflicts, and the expression of ideas.

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TEAM CREATIVITY

• THE SOCIAL CONTEXT SEEMS TO PLAY A CRITICAL ROLE IN THE FOSTERING OF CREATIVITY

• AS OF LATE IT HAS BEEN ARGUED THAT ORGANIZATIONAL MECHANISMS THAT TRIGGER AND ENHANCE TEAM CREATIVITY ARE LIKELY TO BE MORE SUSTAINABLE WORK PLACES. YET, OUR UNDERSTANDING OF TEAM CREATIVITY IS IN ITS INFANCY

• TEAM CREATIVITY IS AN INTRIGUING AREA THAT REQUIRES FURTHER STUDY

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MANAGING TEAM CREATIVITY*

• 1. Protect the creative team – the need to shield the team from the commentaries of others in the company, such that the creative process is allowed to emerge in its natural course.

• 2. Safeguard the artistic process – the need to establish barriers around the product development such that time-to-market pressures and other time constrains do not disrupt the process.

• 3. Develop an inventive communication – managing at the intersection of known and unknown, routine and none routine, art and commerce, means translating the creative language to the language of the company.

* Adopted and modified from Bangle, 2001