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Long-Term MemoryLong-Term Memory IntroductionIntroduction

STM versus LTM STM versus LTM Episodic MemoryEpisodic Memory Semantic MemorySemantic Memory Procedural MemoryProcedural Memory

Encoding in Long-Term MemoryEncoding in Long-Term Memory Depth of Processing (or Levels of Depth of Processing (or Levels of

Processing)Processing) Self Reference EffectSelf Reference Effect Encoding Specificity PrincipleEncoding Specificity Principle Emotions, Moods, and MemoryEmotions, Moods, and Memory

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Long-Term Memory 2Long-Term Memory 2

Retrieval in Long-Term MemoryRetrieval in Long-Term Memory Explicit versus Implicit MemoryExplicit versus Implicit Memory Very Long-Term MemoryVery Long-Term Memory ExpertiseExpertise AmnesiaAmnesia

Autobiographical MemoryAutobiographical Memory Flashbulb MemoriesFlashbulb Memories Schemas & Autobiographical Schemas & Autobiographical

MemoryMemory Source MonitoringSource Monitoring Eyewitness TestimonyEyewitness Testimony

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Tulving’s Memory ModelTulving’s Memory Model

EpisodicEpisodic

SemanticSemantic

ProceduralProcedural

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Encoding in LTMEncoding in LTM

Levels (depth) of processingLevels (depth) of processing

Self-Reference EffectSelf-Reference Effect

Encoding Specificity PrincipleEncoding Specificity Principle

Emotion and Memory Emotion and Memory

Mood and MemoryMood and Memory

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Levels of Processing FrameworkLevels of Processing Framework

Craik & Lockhart (1972)Craik & Lockhart (1972) Type of ProcessingType of Processing

Physical Processing > shallowPhysical Processing > shallow

Meaningful Processing > deepMeaningful Processing > deep

Trace byproduct of processingTrace byproduct of processing Deeper processing leads to more durable Deeper processing leads to more durable

tracestraces

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Levels of Processing Levels of Processing DemonstrationDemonstration

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Maintenance Rehearsal Maintenance Rehearsal vs.vs.

Elaborative RehearsalElaborative Rehearsal

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Research on LOP and Similar Research on LOP and Similar ThemesThemes

Tulving (1975)Tulving (1975)

Generation Effect (1978)Generation Effect (1978) e.g.e.g. lightlight d_ _ k (generation)d_ _ k (generation)

vs.vs.

lightlight dark (read)dark (read)

Faces - e.g. Sporer (1991)Faces - e.g. Sporer (1991)

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Judge how wide theJudge how wide the person’s nose is: person’s nose is:

1 2 3 4 5very thin average very wide

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12

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Judge how honest this face is:

1 2 3 4 5very dishonest very honest

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ExplanationsExplanations

DistinctivenessDistinctiveness

ElaborationElaboration

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Self-Reference EffectSelf-Reference Effect Rogers, Kuiper, & Kirker (1997)Rogers, Kuiper, & Kirker (1997)

Process list of words:Process list of words: Physical characteristicsPhysical characteristics Acoustic characteristicsAcoustic characteristics Semantic characteristicsSemantic characteristics Self - (reference)Self - (reference)

Robust effectRobust effect

Symons & Johnson (1997)Symons & Johnson (1997) Meta-analysisMeta-analysis

ExplanationsExplanations

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Rogers, et. al., 1977Rogers, et. al., 1977

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Revisions to LOPRevisions to LOP

Moscovitch & Craik (1975) Moscovitch & Craik (1975)

-Encoding Specificity Principle-Encoding Specificity Principle

Bransford & FranksBransford & Franks

- Transfer Appropriate Processing- Transfer Appropriate Processing

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Effects of ContextEffects of Context

Geiselman & Glenny (1977)Geiselman & Glenny (1977)

Outshining hypothesisOutshining hypothesis

H

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Effects of ContextEffects of Context

Baddeley - scuba divingBaddeley - scuba diving

Remembering names - faces as Remembering names - faces as contextual cuescontextual cues

Practical Application - imaginary Practical Application - imaginary reinstatementreinstatement

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Geiselman & Glenny Geiselman & Glenny (1997)(1997)

Encoding(Imagined)

female voice male voice

Test (ActualSpeaker)

male female male female

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How can we use theHow can we use theEncoding Specificity PrincipleEncoding Specificity Principle

to improve memory for to improve memory for events?events?

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Mood & MemoryMood & Memory

Memory for items differing in emotionMemory for items differing in emotion Pollyanna PrinciplePollyanna Principle Mood CongruenceMood Congruence

- individual differences studies- individual differences studies

- experimental manipulation of - experimental manipulation of moodsmoods

Mood-State DependenceMood-State Dependence

- Claudia Ucros (1989)- Claudia Ucros (1989)

- meta-analysis- meta-analysis

- other variables- other variables

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Study each of the words that appearStudy each of the words that appear

PicturePicture

CommerceCommerce

MotionMotion

VillageVillage

VesselVessel

WindowWindow

NumberNumber

ReindeerReindeer

CustomFellowAdviceDozenFlowerKitchenBookstore

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Explicit Memory MeasuresExplicit Memory Measures

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Implicit Memory MeasuresImplicit Memory Measures

Picture, Commerce, Motion, Village,Vessel,Window, Number, Reindeer, Custom, Fellow, Advice, Dozen, Flower, Kitchen, Bookstore

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Explicit vs Implicit Measures of Explicit vs Implicit Measures of MemoryMemory

Explicit memory measures:Explicit memory measures: recallrecall recognitionrecognition

Implicit memory measures:Implicit memory measures: Word fragment completionWord fragment completion Stem completion Stem completion Repetition primingRepetition priming

Role of conscious, deliberate recollectionRole of conscious, deliberate recollection

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The Critical DistinctionThe Critical Distinction

Explicit memory tasks require Explicit memory tasks require consciousconscious, , deliberatedeliberate recollection of previous recollection of previous experiencesexperiences

Implicit memory tasks do Implicit memory tasks do not not require require consciousconscious recollection of previous events recollection of previous events

e.g., b_ _ ke.g., b_ _ k

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Research with AmnesicsResearch with Amnesics

Warrington & Weiskrantz (1970)Warrington & Weiskrantz (1970)

TasksTasks

explicit - recognition, recallexplicit - recognition, recall

implicit - mutilated word guessingimplicit - mutilated word guessing

- stem completion - stem completion

e.g. st_ _ _ e.g. st_ _ _

ReplicatedReplicated

DissociationDissociation

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DissociationDissociation

A variable has an effect on one type of test, A variable has an effect on one type of test, but little or no effect on another type of testbut little or no effect on another type of test

A variable has one type of effect if A variable has one type of effect if measured by Test A, but a different effect if measured by Test A, but a different effect if measured by Test Bmeasured by Test B

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Research with Normal AdultsResearch with Normal Adults

Levels of processing and the Levels of processing and the

implicit / explicit distincionimplicit / explicit distincion

Picture Superiority EffectPicture Superiority Effect

Current StatusCurrent Status

- explanations- explanations

- applications- applications

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Levels of Processing: Explicit/Implict TestsLevels of Processing: Explicit/Implict Tests

truck

Semantic(pleasant vs unpleasant)

Physical, perceptualTask (# syllables orUpper/lower case?)

Higher recall,recognition *

___

Higher--or at least equal performance*

___ImplicitMemory Test(e.g. t_u_k)

ExplicitMemory Test

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QuickTime™ and aTIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor

are needed to see this picture. versus. Elephant

Picture Superiority EffectPicture Superiority Effect

1. Subjects view a series of pictures or a series of words

2. Subjects recall stimuli by writing down names of items -- recall of pictures is higher than recall of words.

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Weldon & Roediger (1987)Picture Superiority Effect

vs. ‘FROG’Encoding

Test Recall Recall

H

Compare Implicit vs. Explicit Measures

vs. ‘FROG’Encoding

Test

Recall Recall wordfragmentcompletion

f r _ g

wordfragmentcompletion

f r _ g

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Weldon & Roediger Graph Weldon & Roediger Graph (1987)(1987)

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ExplanationsExplanations

No agreed-upon explanationNo agreed-upon explanation

Context & encoding specificityContext & encoding specificity

Multiple memory systemsMultiple memory systems

e.g. Tulvinge.g. Tulving

Neuroscience accountNeuroscience account

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Applications of implicit / Applications of implicit / explicit memory research to explicit memory research to

real life problems?real life problems?

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Ad for Experimental Ad for Experimental PsychologistsPsychologists

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ExpertiseExpertise

Influence on LTMInfluence on LTM

Definition - consistent superior performanceDefinition - consistent superior performance

- deliberate practice- deliberate practice

- at least 10 years- at least 10 years

Domain specificDomain specific

10-year rule10-year rule

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Context-Specific Nature of ExpertiseContext-Specific Nature of Expertise

Skilled memory effectSkilled memory effect ChessChess

-De Groot-De Groot

-Chase & Simon (1973):-Chase & Simon (1973):

5 second task5 second task

typical vs. random positionstypical vs. random positions

Similar effects in many domains:Similar effects in many domains:

-basketball-basketball

-x-rays-x-rays

-circuit diagrams, etc.-circuit diagrams, etc. SF (digits only)SF (digits only)

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An Expert Waiter - JCAn Expert Waiter - JC

Ericsson (1985)Ericsson (1985)

J.C. - 20 topsJ.C. - 20 tops

Comparison of J.C. to college studentsComparison of J.C. to college students

Critical difference = memory strategies and Critical difference = memory strategies and knowledgeknowledge

Follow-up study (Crutcher, Ericsson, & Follow-up study (Crutcher, Ericsson, & Bauder)Bauder)

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t-bonerarebaked potatoblue cheese

sirloinmediumriceoil and vinegar

filet mignonwell-donericethousand island

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JC’s Strategies

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Characteristics of ExpertsCharacteristics of Experts

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Autobiographical MemoryAutobiographical Memory

Memory for events and issues related to Memory for events and issues related to yourselfyourself

Naturally occurring eventsNaturally occurring events

Rapidly growing interestRapidly growing interest

Wide variety of topicsWide variety of topics

High ecological validityHigh ecological validity

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Flashbulb MemoriesFlashbulb Memories Brown & Kulik (1977)Brown & Kulik (1977)

High level of surpriseHigh level of surprise

High level of emotional arousalHigh level of emotional arousal

Recent Research (Weaver, 1993)Recent Research (Weaver, 1993)

Schemas & Autobiographical Schemas & Autobiographical MemoryMemory Generalized, abstract knowledge Generalized, abstract knowledge

structuresstructures

Memory for common, ordinary eventsMemory for common, ordinary events

Variable instantiationVariable instantiation

False memoriesFalse memories

Consistency biasConsistency bias

Repisodic MemoryRepisodic Memory

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Source MonitoringSource Monitoring

Origin of a memoryOrigin of a memory

Actual versus imagined actionActual versus imagined action

Marsh & Colleagues (1997)Marsh & Colleagues (1997)

Henkel & Colleagues (2000)Henkel & Colleagues (2000)

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Flashbulb Memory DemonstrationFlashbulb Memory Demonstration

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Schematization of MemorySchematization of Memory

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Eyewitness TestimonyEyewitness Testimony

The ‘gentleman bandit’ (1979)The ‘gentleman bandit’ (1979)

Identifying facesIdentifying faces

Recognition accuracyRecognition accuracy

Time and attentionTime and attention

Reintz, et al. (1994, p 45)Reintz, et al. (1994, p 45)

Length of retention intervalLength of retention interval

Intervening infoIntervening info

Misleading post-event infoMisleading post-event info

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Misinformation EffectMisinformation Effect

Caused by misleading information given after Caused by misleading information given after viewing an earlier eventviewing an earlier event

RI = retroactive inhibition or interferenceRI = retroactive inhibition or interference

• Classic experiment - Loftus (1978)

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Loftus (1978)Loftus (1978)Slides:

• Delay: 20 minutes to 1 week

• Question Answering

• Critical Question: consistent orinconsistent detail

• Test: Select 1 or 2 slides matchingpreviously-viewed slide

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Loftus (1978) ResultsLoftus (1978) Results