1 chapter 1 – exploring life. 2 why study biology? science science systematic method of inquiry...
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Chapter 1 – Exploring Chapter 1 – Exploring LifeLife
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Why Study Biology?Why Study Biology? ScienceScience
Systematic method of inquirySystematic method of inquiry BiologyBiology
Scientific study of lifeScientific study of life Important to study and understand Important to study and understand
sciencescience Awareness and appreciation of lifeAwareness and appreciation of life Important in decisions of lifeImportant in decisions of life
o Issues dealing with biology arise dailyIssues dealing with biology arise daily
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Science, Technology, and Science, Technology, and SocietySociety
The goal of science -- understanding natural The goal of science -- understanding natural phenomenaphenomena
The goal of The goal of technology – technology – applying scientific applying scientific knowledge for some specific purposeknowledge for some specific purpose
Science and technology -- interdependentScience and technology -- interdependent Science -- marked by “discoveries” Science -- marked by “discoveries” Technology -- marked by “inventionsTechnology -- marked by “inventions””
Science + Technology?Science + Technology? DNADNA
Ethical issues?Ethical issues?
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Building on the Work of Building on the Work of OthersOthers
CooperationCooperation Professionals, graduate students, undergraduate studentsProfessionals, graduate students, undergraduate students
CommunicationCommunication RepeatabilityRepeatability
Different groups often work on same researchDifferent groups often work on same research Model Organisms (e.g., Model Organisms (e.g., Drosophila melanogaster Drosophila melanogaster or or
Arabidopsis thalianaArabidopsis thaliana)) Diverse viewpoints -> SerendipityDiverse viewpoints -> Serendipity
Printing press -- China (paper and ink) and Europe Printing press -- China (paper and ink) and Europe (mass production in mills)(mass production in mills)
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Logical ThoughtLogical Thought Induction (Inductive Reasoning) – deriving Induction (Inductive Reasoning) – deriving
general principles from particular facts or general principles from particular facts or occurrences (esp. when repeated)occurrences (esp. when repeated) The sun always rises in the east!The sun always rises in the east!
Deduction (Deductive Reasoning) – Deduction (Deductive Reasoning) – deriving a conclusion from the stated deriving a conclusion from the stated premises by reasoning from the general to premises by reasoning from the general to the specificthe specific IfIf organisms are made of cells (premise 1), organisms are made of cells (premise 1),
and and if if humans are organisms (premise 2), humans are organisms (premise 2), thenthen humans are composed of cells (deductive humans are composed of cells (deductive prediction)prediction)
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Inquiry -- search for information Inquiry -- search for information and explanationand explanation
The process of science:The process of science: Discovery science: describing natureDiscovery science: describing nature
o _________ Reasoning ?_________ Reasoning ? Hypothesis-based science: explaining Hypothesis-based science: explaining
naturenatureo _________ Reasoning ?_________ Reasoning ?
Scientific InquiryScientific Inquiry
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Discovery ScienceDiscovery Science
Describes nature Describes nature Examples of discovery science:Examples of discovery science:
understanding cell structureunderstanding cell structure expanding databases of genomesexpanding databases of genomes
Induction in Discovery ScienceInduction in Discovery Science Generalizations based on specific Generalizations based on specific
observationsobservations
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Types of DataTypes of Data Data are Data are
recorded recorded observationsobservations
Two types of Two types of data:data: Quantitative Quantitative
data: data: numerical numerical measurementsmeasurements
Qualitative Qualitative data: recorded data: recorded descriptionsdescriptions
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Hypothesis-Based Hypothesis-Based ScienceScience
Proposing and testing hypothesesProposing and testing hypotheses Hypotheses -- hypothetical explanationsHypotheses -- hypothetical explanations
deductive reasoningdeductive reasoning tentative answer to a well-framed questiontentative answer to a well-framed question an explanation on trial -- making a an explanation on trial -- making a
prediction that can be tested prediction that can be tested and falsifiedand falsified can can NOTNOT prove ….. prove …..
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The Scientific MethodThe Scientific Method ObservationObservation
Many ways to make Many ways to make observationsobservations
Leads to (a) Leads to (a) questionquestiono Why?Why?o How?How?
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Hypothesis #1:Dead batteries
Hypothesis #2:Burnt-out bulb
Observations
Question
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Hypothesis #1:Dead batteries
Hypothesis #2:Burnt-out bulb
Test prediction
Test falsifies hypothesis
Prediction:Replacing batterieswill fix problem
Prediction:Replacing bulbwill fix problem
Test prediction
Test does not falsify hypothesis
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Deduction: The “If…then” Logic of Deduction: The “If…then” Logic of Hypothesis-Based ScienceHypothesis-Based Science
Flow of logic from the general to Flow of logic from the general to the specificthe specific If a hypothesis is correct, then we If a hypothesis is correct, then we
can expect a particular outcomecan expect a particular outcome
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EXPLORATIONAND
DISCOVERY
FORMINGAND
TESTINGHYPOTHESES
SOCIETALBENEFITS
ANDOUTCOMES
COMMUNITYANALYSIS
ANDFEEDBACK
The The Process Process
of of ScienceScience
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Mimicry and CamouflageMimicry and Camouflage One species resembling something else One species resembling something else
for “personal gain!”for “personal gain!” Cryptic coloration – camouflageCryptic coloration – camouflage Aposematic coloration – warning colorationAposematic coloration – warning coloration Batesian mimicry – harmless species Batesian mimicry – harmless species
resembling a harmful oneresembling a harmful one Müllerian mimicry – two or more species Müllerian mimicry – two or more species
resembling each otherresembling each other Also seen in reproductive strategies Also seen in reproductive strategies
(wasps/orchids) and predation (angler (wasps/orchids) and predation (angler fish)fish)
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A Case Study: A Case Study: Investigating Coat Investigating Coat
Coloration in Mouse Coloration in Mouse PopulationsPopulations
Color patterns vary widely -- Color patterns vary widely -- sometimes between members of the sometimes between members of the same speciessame species
Peromyscus polionotus Peromyscus polionotus with different with different color patterns -- different environmentscolor patterns -- different environments The beach mouse lives on white sand The beach mouse lives on white sand
dunes dunes The inland mouse lives on darker soilThe inland mouse lives on darker soil
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Florida
Inland population
Beachpopulation
Beach population
GULF OF MEXICO
Inland population
Camouflage Coloration in Camouflage Coloration in MiceMice
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Overarching Hypothesis – camouflage Overarching Hypothesis – camouflage coloration benefits by protecting from coloration benefits by protecting from predationpredation Specific Hypothesis – mice with coloration Specific Hypothesis – mice with coloration
that didn’t match the habitat would be preyed that didn’t match the habitat would be preyed on more heavily than the native well-matched on more heavily than the native well-matched mice.mice.
Camouflage Coloration in Camouflage Coloration in MiceMice
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Light models Dark models Light models Dark models
Camouflaged Non-camouflaged Non-camouflaged Camouflaged(control) (experimental) (experimental) (control)
Beach habitat Inland habitat
Pe
rce
nta
ge
of
att
ac
ke
d m
od
els 100
50
0
Results
Camouflage Coloration in Camouflage Coloration in MiceMice
““hundreds” of plastic micehundreds” of plastic mice Repeatability!Repeatability!
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The Myth of The Myth of thethe Scientific Scientific MethodMethod
Idealized process of inquiryIdealized process of inquiry Rarely true textbookRarely true textbook RepeatabilityRepeatability
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VariablesVariables
Only test one thing at a time!Only test one thing at a time! IIndependent – the thing ndependent – the thing II
manipulatemanipulate E.g., fertilizerE.g., fertilizer
Dependent variable – the thing that Dependent variable – the thing that you’re investigatingyou’re investigating How much to the plants actually grow?How much to the plants actually grow?
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The idea of The idea of CONTROLCONTROL What makes the difference?
Random chance Experimental design
Experimental group vs control group Variable of interest changes Control variability
Control groups Positive control Negative control
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Theories in ScienceTheories in Science
Theory -- broader than a hypothesisTheory -- broader than a hypothesis A scientific theory:A scientific theory:
Must explain a body of factsMust explain a body of facts Be able to predict future similar occurrences Be able to predict future similar occurrences Be falsifiable and survive empirical experimentationBe falsifiable and survive empirical experimentation supported by a large body of evidencesupported by a large body of evidence
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Characteristics of Living Characteristics of Living OrganismsOrganisms
OrderOrder Evolutionary adaptationEvolutionary adaptation Responses to the environmentResponses to the environment RegulationRegulation Energy processingEnergy processing Growth and developmentGrowth and development ReproductionReproduction
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Order
Energy processing
Growth anddevelopment
Regulation
Reproduction
Responseto the
environment
Evolutionaryadaptation
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Viruses: A Nasty PuzzleViruses: A Nasty Puzzle
Like living organisms:Like living organisms: Contain DNAContain DNA ReproduceReproduce EvolveEvolve
Lack characteristics of life:Lack characteristics of life: Not made of cells:Not made of cells:
o Just genetic material and proteinJust genetic material and protein Lack homeostasis, reproduction, and energy collectionLack homeostasis, reproduction, and energy collection
o Depend on cells to do these functionsDepend on cells to do these functions
Giant viruses …..Giant viruses …..
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OrderOrder Part 1 Part 1
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ahXIMUkSXX0
Part 2 Part 2 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lOIP_Z_-0Hs
Part 3Part 3
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=14-NdQwKz9w
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A Hierarchy of Biological A Hierarchy of Biological Organization -- Organization --
EcologicalEcological
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A Hierarchy of Biological A Hierarchy of Biological Organization -- Organization --
OrganismalOrganismal
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New Properties Emerge at New Properties Emerge at Each Level in the Each Level in the
Biological HierarchyBiological Hierarchy Life can be studied at different levels -- molecular to planetaryLife can be studied at different levels -- molecular to planetary Study can be divided into different Study can be divided into different kindskinds of organization of organization
BiologicalBiological Taxonomic Taxonomic
Study can be divided into different levels of biological Study can be divided into different levels of biological organizationorganization
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Looking at BiologyLooking at Biology Emergent propertiesEmergent properties – – arrangement and arrangement and
interactions as complexity increasesinteractions as complexity increases Can characterize nonbiological entities as wellCan characterize nonbiological entities as well
o For example, a functioning bicycle …..For example, a functioning bicycle …..
ReductionismReductionism -- reduction of complex systems to -- reduction of complex systems to more manageable simpler componentsmore manageable simpler components For example, studying the molecular structure of DNA For example, studying the molecular structure of DNA
helps us to understand the chemical basis of inheritancehelps us to understand the chemical basis of inheritance
UnderstandingUnderstanding -- balances reductionism with -- balances reductionism with emergent propertiesemergent properties Studying the interactions of DNA with other moleculesStudying the interactions of DNA with other molecules
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Structure and FunctionStructure and Function
Often relatedOften related Leaves for photosynthesisLeaves for photosynthesis Hummingbird wingsHummingbird wings
Basic unit? The cellBasic unit? The cell
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Two Main Forms of CellsTwo Main Forms of Cells Characteristics shared by all cells: Characteristics shared by all cells:
Plasma membranePlasma membrane CytosolCytosol RibosomesRibosomes DNA -- genetic informationDNA -- genetic information
EukaryoticEukaryotic divided into membrane-bound organellesdivided into membrane-bound organelles DNA – linear strands in nucleusDNA – linear strands in nucleus
ProkaryoticProkaryotic lack organelleslack organelles DNA -- single, circular strandDNA -- single, circular strand
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Membrane
Cytoplasm
EUKARYOTIC CELL PROKARYOTIC CELL
DNA(no nucleus)
Membrane
1 µm
Organelles
Nucleus (contains DNA)
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Eukaryotic cell
Membrane
Cytoplasm
Membrane-enclosed organelles
Nucleus(membrane-enclosed)
DNA (throughoutnucleus) 1 µm
Prokaryotic cell
Membrane
DNA(no nucleus)
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Plant vs AnimalPlant vs Animal
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OrganellesOrganelles Major OrganellesMajor Organelles
Mitochondria – sites of cellular Mitochondria – sites of cellular respirationrespiration
Chloroplasts – sites of photosynthesisChloroplasts – sites of photosynthesis Peroxisomes – sites of HPeroxisomes – sites of H22OO22 production production Central VacuoleCentral Vacuole
Minor OrganellesMinor Organelles Smooth Endoplasmic ReticulumSmooth Endoplasmic Reticulum LysosomesLysosomes
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Site of Aerobic Site of Aerobic RespirationRespiration
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Inner membrane
Cristae
Matrix
100 nmMitochondrialDNA
Freeribosomes in themitochondrialmatrix
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Chloroplast
ChloroplastDNA
RibosomesStroma
Inner and outermembranes
Granum
Thylakoid1 µm
Site of PhotosynthesisSite of Photosynthesis
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Reproduction drives Reproduction drives ContinuityContinuity
Genes -- Genes -- units of inheritanceunits of inheritance Genes -> chromosomesGenes -> chromosomes DNA -> genesDNA -> genes
Cell Division – basis for growth, repair and Cell Division – basis for growth, repair and reproductionreproduction
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DNA, the Genetic DNA, the Genetic MaterialMaterial
Eukaryotic chromosomes -- one Eukaryotic chromosomes -- one long DNA molecule with hundreds or long DNA molecule with hundreds or thousands of genesthousands of genes
GenesGenes -- units of inheritanceunits of inheritance DNA -- controls growth, DNA -- controls growth,
development and maintenancedevelopment and maintenance
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Nucleus
DNA
(a) DNA double helix (b) Single strand of DNA
A
T
G
G
T
A
T
A
C
A
C
T
A
C
Nucleotide
Cell
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Lenscell
(a) Lens cells aretightly packed
with transparentproteins called
crystallin.
(b) How do lens cells make crystallin proteins?Crystallin gene
DNA
mRNA
Chain of aminoacids
Protein
Crystallin protein
TRANSCRIPTION
TRANSLATION
A C C A A A C C G A G T
T G G T T T G G C T C A
U G G U U U G G C U C A
PROTEIN FOLDING
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Genomics: Large-Scale Genomics: Large-Scale Analysis of DNA Analysis of DNA
SequencesSequences GGenome enome – entirety of genetic instructionsgenetic instructions GenomicsGenomics – study within and between – study within and between
speciesspecies Depends onDepends on
““High-throughput” technologyHigh-throughput” technology BioinformaticsBioinformatics Interdisciplinary research teamsInterdisciplinary research teams
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EcologyEcology ImportanceImportance
Interactions of environment and organismsInteractions of environment and organisms Necessary to study impact of interactionsNecessary to study impact of interactions ExamplesExamples
o Introduced species: zebra musselsIntroduced species: zebra mussels Economic costEconomic cost
o Habitat restorationHabitat restoration Long-leaf pine forest & red-cockaded woodpeckerLong-leaf pine forest & red-cockaded woodpecker
o Damage to biosphere: chlorofluorocarbonsDamage to biosphere: chlorofluorocarbons Health and organism damageHealth and organism damage
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A Closer Look at A Closer Look at EcosystemsEcosystems
Organisms interact Organisms interact environmentenvironment other organismsother organisms
Organisms and environment affect Organisms and environment affect each othereach other
Ecosystem dynamics:Ecosystem dynamics: Cycling of nutrientsCycling of nutrients Food WebsFood Webs Energy flowEnergy flow
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Energy FlowEnergy Flow Energy/Nutrients flows through Energy/Nutrients flows through
biological systemsbiological systems Sun Sun Producers Producers Consumers Consumers
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Producers and Producers and ConsumersConsumers
Plants are producersPlants are producers Convert sunlight energy to chemical Convert sunlight energy to chemical
energyenergy ConsumersConsumers
Harvest energy developed by producersHarvest energy developed by producers Often several levels of consumersOften several levels of consumers
o 1°, 2°, 3°1°, 2°, 3°
DetrivoresDetrivores
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Trophic Trophic StructureStructure
Feeding Feeding relationships relationships between between organismsorganisms
FoodFood chainschains link link trophic levelstrophic levels
Food webs – link Food webs – link food chainsfood chains
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Grouping Species: The Grouping Species: The Basic IdeaBasic Idea
Taxonomy -- names and classifies Taxonomy -- names and classifies species species
Kingdoms and domains -- broadest Kingdoms and domains -- broadest units of classificationunits of classification
King Philip Cleverly Ordered Fried King Philip Cleverly Ordered Fried Green squidGreen squid … …
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Ursidae
Ursus
Carnivora
Mammalia
Chordata
Animalia
Eukarya
Species Genus Family Order Class Phylum Kingdom DomainUrsusamericanus(Americanblack bear)
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Families, Genera & Families, Genera & SpeciesSpecies Family – Ursidae Family – Ursidae
GeneraGenera AiluropodaAiluropoda HelarctosHelarctos MelursusMelursus TremarctosTremarctos UrsusUrsus
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Families, Genera & Families, Genera & SpeciesSpecies Family Ursidae – species Family Ursidae – species Ursus Ursus
americanusamericanus Species in different generaSpecies in different genera
Ailuropoda melanoleucaAiluropoda melanoleuca – Giant Panda – Giant Panda Helarctos malayanus – Helarctos malayanus – Sun BearSun Bear Melursus ursinus – Melursus ursinus – Sloth BearSloth Bear Tremarctos ornatus – Tremarctos ornatus – Spectacled BearSpectacled Bear
Species in the same genusSpecies in the same genus Ursus arctos – Ursus arctos – Brown BearBrown Bear Ursus arctos horribilis – Ursus arctos horribilis – Grizzly BearGrizzly Bear
Ursus arctos Ursus arctos ssp. ssp. horribilishorribilis Ursus maritimus – Ursus maritimus – Polar BearPolar Bear
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Binomial Scientific Binomial Scientific NamesNames The The scientific namescientific name of an organism is formed of an organism is formed
from the genus name and specific epithetfrom the genus name and specific epithet Each two-part scientific name is unique and Each two-part scientific name is unique and
recognized worldwiderecognized worldwide Names are treated as Latin and always Names are treated as Latin and always
underlinedunderlined or or italicizeditalicized The first letter of the genus name is The first letter of the genus name is alwaysalways
capitalizedcapitalized The first letter of the species name is The first letter of the species name is alwaysalways lower lower
casecase Authorities, “variety,” etc. unitalicized.Authorities, “variety,” etc. unitalicized.
Species name is Species name is alwaysalways paired with its genus paired with its genus namename Homo sapiensHomo sapiens
Specie == MoneySpecie == Money57
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Biological DiversityBiological Diversity
Biologists have named about 2 million speciesBiologists have named about 2 million species
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Biological DiversityBiological Diversity
ATBI in Great Smoky Mountains National Park
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Biological DiversityBiological Diversity
Estimates of total species range from 10 million to over 200 millionEstimates of total species range from 10 million to over 200 million
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History of Classification History of Classification SchemesSchemes
Until 1969 – 2 Kingdoms (Plant & Until 1969 – 2 Kingdoms (Plant & Animal)Animal)
1969 – Robert Whittaker: 5 1969 – Robert Whittaker: 5 KingdomsKingdoms all bacteria in Kingdom Moneraall bacteria in Kingdom Monera
1990 – Carl Woese: 3 Domains1990 – Carl Woese: 3 Domains
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The Five Kingdoms of The Five Kingdoms of LifeLife
ProkaryotesProkaryotes ArchaeaArchaea BacteriaBacteria CyanobacteriaCyanobacteria
AnimalsAnimalsPlantsPlantsFungiFungiProtistsProtists
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Kingdoms and DomainsKingdoms and Domains
ProkaryotesProkaryotes Archaea – Archaea – Domain ArchaeaDomain Archaea Bacteria Bacteria – – Domain BacteriaDomain Bacteria Cyanobacteria Cyanobacteria – – Domain BacteriaDomain Bacteria
Animals – Animals – Domain EukaryaDomain EukaryaPlants Plants – – Domain EukaryaDomain EukaryaFungi Fungi – – Domain EukaryaDomain EukaryaProtists Protists – – Domain EukaryaDomain Eukarya
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Biological DiversityBiological Diversity
Bacteria 4 µm 100 µm
0.5 µm
Kingdom PlantaeProtists
Kingdom AnimaliaKingdom FungiArchaea
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Classification & BiologyClassification & Biology TaxonomyTaxonomy – study of how things are – study of how things are
classified classified Phylogenetics -- Phylogenetics -- Reconstructing Reconstructing
evolutionary historyevolutionary history
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Systematics:Systematics:Links Taxonomy and Links Taxonomy and
PhylogenyPhylogeny Systematists Systematists
depict depict evolutionary evolutionary relationships in relationships in branching branching phylogenetic phylogenetic treestrees
Carnivora
Pantherapardus
(leopard)
Mephitismephitis
(striped skunk)
Lutra lutra(European
otter)
Canisfamiliaris
(domestic dog)
Canislupus(wolf)S
pec
ies
Gen
us
Fam
ilyO
rder
Felidae Mustelidae Canidae
Panthera Mephitis Lutra Canis
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Cladistics / PhylogeneticsCladistics / Phylogenetics Clades can be Clades can be
nested in nested in larger clades, larger clades, but not all but not all groupings or groupings or organisms organisms qualify as qualify as cladesclades
Carnivora
Pantherapardus
(leopard)
Mephitismephitis
(striped skunk)
Lutra lutra(European
otter)
Canisfamiliaris
(domestic dog)
Canislupus(wolf)S
pec
ies
Gen
us
Fam
ilyO
rder
Felidae Mustelidae Canidae
Panthera Mephitis Lutra Canis
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The Tree of LifeThe Tree of Life
Related organisms -- similar adaptationsRelated organisms -- similar adaptations Such kinships connect life’s unity and Such kinships connect life’s unity and
diversity to descent with modificationdiversity to descent with modification Natural selection eventually produces Natural selection eventually produces
new species from ancestral speciesnew species from ancestral species
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Homologies and “Tree Thinking”
HomologyHomology – similarity from common ancestry – similarity from common ancestry Evolutionary/ Phylogenetic treesEvolutionary/ Phylogenetic trees -- --
hypotheses about relationships between hypotheses about relationships between organismsorganisms Often nested patterns Often nested patterns
Different types of data …Different types of data … anatomical anatomical DNA sequence dataDNA sequence data Morphology Morphology EnvironmentEnvironment
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LE 25-11bLE 25-11b
Turtle Leopard
Hair
Amniotic egg
Four walking legs
Hinged jaws
Vertebral column
Salamander
Tuna
Lamprey
Lancelet (outgroup)
Cladogram
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Phylogenetic GroupingsPhylogenetic Groupings Monophyletic -- ancestral species Monophyletic -- ancestral species
and all its descendantsand all its descendants Paraphyletic -- ancestral species and Paraphyletic -- ancestral species and
some, but not all, of the descendantssome, but not all, of the descendants Polyphyletic -- various species that Polyphyletic -- various species that
lack a common ancestorlack a common ancestor
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LE 25-10aLE 25-10a
Grouping 1
Monophyletic
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LE 25-10bLE 25-10b
Paraphyletic
Grouping 2
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LE 25-10cLE 25-10c
Polyphyletic
Grouping 3
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TaxonomyTaxonomyA Constant State of FluxA Constant State of Flux
Classifications Change ……Classifications Change …… Systematists regularly propose changes Systematists regularly propose changes
in classificationin classification Classifications Change When New Classifications Change When New
Information Is DiscoveredInformation Is Discovered
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Early Biological Early Biological ThoughtThought
Expressed by ancient Expressed by ancient Greek philosophersGreek philosophers Plato (427-347 B.C.)Plato (427-347 B.C.) Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) Aristotle (384-322 B.C.)
arranged all organisms arranged all organisms on a linear scale of on a linear scale of increasing complexity increasing complexity (“ladder of Nature”)(“ladder of Nature”)
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The Three Domains of LifeThe Three Domains of Life
Source: Wikipedia
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See also: See also: http://comenius.susqu.edu/biol/202/taxa.htm
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Unity in the Diversity of Unity in the Diversity of LifeLife
Underlying diversity – unityUnderlying diversity – unity Evident in details of cell structureEvident in details of cell structure
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DNA -- made up of two long chains DNA -- made up of two long chains in a double helixin a double helix Four “letters”Four “letters” Twenty “words”Twenty “words”
Unity of pathwaysUnity of pathwaysUnity of structuresUnity of structures
Unity in the Diversity of Unity in the Diversity of LifeLife
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LE 1-16aLE 1-16a
Cilia of windpipe cellsCilia of Paramecium
15 µm 5 µm
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LE 1-16bLE 1-16b
Cilia of windpipe cellsCilia of Paramecium
Cross section of cilium,as viewed with anelectron microscope
0.1 µm
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Living Organisms EvolveLiving Organisms Evolve Individual organisms change rapidlyIndividual organisms change rapidly
Growth of individualGrowth of individual A seed becomes a treeA seed becomes a tree
Groups of organisms change slowlyGroups of organisms change slowly SpeciesSpecies
o Group of interbreeding organismsGroup of interbreeding organismso Produce fertile offspringProduce fertile offspring
EvolutionEvolutiono Characteristics of a species changing over timeCharacteristics of a species changing over time
Individuals change – populations evolveIndividuals change – populations evolve
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Adaptation: Adjusting to Adaptation: Adjusting to Environmental Environmental
ChallengesChallenges Change/ MutationChange/ Mutation Acted on by natural selectionActed on by natural selection Over time -- adaptive evolutionOver time -- adaptive evolution
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Natural versus Natural versus Artificial Artificial SelectionSelection
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