04 peterson 1992 cognates of personal control

8/11/2019 04 Peterson 1992 Cognates of Personal Control

1/7

Applied PreventivePsychology

1:111-117 (1992). Cam bridge Unive rsityPress. Printed in the U SA.

Cop yright 1992 AA APP 0962-1849/92 $5.00 + .00

C o g n a t e s o f pe r s o na l co nt r o l: L o c u s

se lf -e ff icacy an d exp lan ator y s ty le

o f c o nt r o l

C H R I S T O P H E R P E T E R S O N

Univers i ty o f Michigan, A nn Arb or

A L B E R T J . S T U N K A R D

University o f Pennsylvania, P hiladelphia

Abstract

Theories o f personal control are extremely popu lar in con temp orary psychology. W hat are the relat ionships

am ong such ap paren t ly s imilar not ion s as locus o f control , sel f-efficacy, and explana tory s tyle? Although these

cognates have similar correlates, they are not necessarily interchangeable. Our conceptual analysis suggests

that they exist a t di fferent levels of abs tract ion an d general ity. T hey interact wi th o ne an other to influence

behavior. Th ey are no t simply al ternative ways of ta lking abo ut the same pheno men on. Person al con trol

should be regarded as multidimensional.

K e y w o r d s

Exp lanatory s tyle , Locus o f control , Persona l control , Self-efficacy

Persona l con tro l

r e f e r s t o a p e r s o n ' s b e l i e f s a b o u t h o w

w e ll h e o r s h e c a n b r i n g a b o u t g o o d e v e n t s a n d a v o i d b a d

e v e n t s . I n a p r e v i o u s p a p e r , w e g e n e r a l i z e d a c r o s s i t s

c o g n a t e s ( P e t e r s o n & S t u n k a r d , 1 9 8 9 ) . H e r e w e d o t h e

o p p o s i te , d r a w i n g d i s t i n c ti o n s a m o n g t h r e e p a r t i c u l a r l y

w e l l - k n o w n r e n d i t i o n s : l o c u s o f c o n t r o l , s e l f -e f f ic a c y , a n d

e x p l a n a t o r y s t y le . T h e s e n o t i o n s h a v e a t t r a c t e d a g r e a t

d e a l o f r e s e a r c h a t t e n t i o n , b u t u s u a l l y w i t h i n d i f f e r e n t

t r a d i ti o n s . A s a s t e p t o w a r d b r i d g i n g t h e s e li n e s o f w o r k ,

w e e x a m i n e t h e m e a n i n g s o f t h e se c o g n a t e s .

T h e E m e r g e n c e o f T h e o r ie s o f P e r s o n a l C o n t r o l

T h e o r i st s t h r o u g h o u t t h is c e n t u r y h a v e b e e n c o n c e r n e d

w i t h s i m i l a r n o t i o n s ( P e t e r s o n , 1 9 91 ; W e i n e r , 1 9 90 ). A c -

c o r d i n g t o t h e e a r l y f o r m u l a t i o n s , a b a s i c a s p e c t o f

h u m a n n a t u r e i s a d r i v e t o m a s t e r t h e e n v i r o n m e n t . E x -

p r e s s i o n o f t h i s m o t i v e i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h e f f e c ti v e a d a p -

t a t i o n ; i t s t h w a r t i n g r e s u l t s i n p o o r f u n c t i o n i n g . T h e s e

e a r l y i d e as w e r e s y n t h e s i z ed b y R o b e r t W h i t e ( 19 59 ) i n

h i s cl a ss ic p a p e r o n c o m p e t e n c e . A c c o r d i n g t o W h i t e ,

p e o p l e a r e m o t i v a t e d t o i n t e r a c t i n a n e f fe c ti v e w a y w i t h

t h e w o r l d . T h e m o t i v a t i o n t o b e c o m p e t e n t h e c a l l e d

This paper is based on a report submitted to the Henry J. Kaiser

Foun dation. W e thank Lisa M. Bossio for h er editorial advice.

Send correspondence and reprint requests to Christopher Peterson,

Department of Psychology,Universityof M ichigan, 580 Union Drive,

Ann A rbor, MI 48109.

111

e f fec tance mot iva t ion . The

e x p e r i e n c e o f e f f e c ti v e in t e r a c -

t i o n w i t h t h e w o r l d h e c a l le d a f e e l in g o f efficacy.

I n t h e 1 9 60 s, a n i m p o r t a n t c h a n g e in p s y c h o l o g y - - t h e

c o g n i t i v e r e v o l u t i o n - - h a d s w e e p i n g c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r

t h e o r ie s o f p e r s o n a l c o n t r o l . T h i s c h a n g e a r o s e f r o m r ec -

o g n i t io n o f t h e i n a d e q u a c y o f f o r m u l a t i o n s i g n o r in g t h e

m e n t a l l if e o f p e o p l e a n d f o u n d e x p r e s s i o n in a h o s t o f

c o g n i t i v e th e o r i e s ( G a r d n e r , 1 9 85 ). I n t h e s e t h e o r i e s , t h e

t e r m i n o l o g y o f i n f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s i n g r e p l a c e d t h a t o f

s t im u l i a n d r e s p o n s es , o f n e e d s a n d d r i v e s . T h e o r i e s o f

p e r s o n a l c o n t r o l w e r e n o t l o s t in t h e c o g n i t i v e r e v o l u ti o n ;

t h e y w e r e s i m p l y r e c a s t i n t h e n e w l a n g u a g e . E f f e c t a n c e

b e c a m e n o t a m o t i v e , w i t h b i o l o g i c a l c o n n o t a t i o n s , b u t

a n i d e a ( b e l ie f , e x p e c t a t i o n , a t t r i b u t i o n , p e r c e p t i o n ) . T h e

e a r l y t h e o r is t s e m p h a s i z e d d r i v e s t o m a s t e r t h e e n v i r o n -

m e n t , w h e r e a s t h e n e w g e n e r a t i o n o f t h e o r i s t s s p o k e o f

b e l ie f s a b o u t w h e t h e r o r n o t t h i s c o u l d b e d o n e .

S o m e h a v e d e c r i e d o n e a s p e c t o f t h e i m p a c t o f t h e

c o g n it iv e r e v o l u ti o n o n t h e p s y c h o l o g y o f h u m a n b e h a v -

i o r . A v i e w o f p e o p l e a s i n f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s o r s i s n e c e s -

s a r il y in c o m p l e t e b e c a u s e it c o n t a i n s n o g o a l o r v a l u e t o

e x p l a i n t h e e n d t o w h i c h i n f o r m a t i o n i s p r o c e s s e d .

R e c o g n i z i n g t h i s p r o b l e m , c o g n i t i v e t h e o r i s t s u s u a l l y

s p e a k o f p e o p l e ' s p e r s o n a l c o n t r o l w i t h r e s p e ct t o g o o d

o r b a d e v e n t s, t h e r e b y i m p l y i n g t h a t p e r s o n a l c o n t r o l i s

d e p l o y e d i n a h e d o n i s t i c co n t e x t . H o w e v e r , t h i s a ss u m p -

t i o n i s r a r e l y e x p l i c it , a n d r e s e a r c h e r s m a y r u n a f o u l o f it

w h e n c o n c e r n e d w i t h c o m p l e x b e h a v i o r .


2/7

1 1 2 P e t e rso n a n d S tu n k a rd

R e c a s t i n g e f f e c t an c e mo t iv a t i o n i n t e r ms o f b e l ie f s h a d

tw o e f fec ts . F i r s t , the a t ten t ion of r e sea rche r s was d i -

r ec ted toward spec i f ic a spec ts of the pe r son . Be l ie f s a re

a lw a y s a b o u t s o m e th in g . Mo t iv a t i o n c a n b e g en e r a l, b u t

be l ie fs a re a lways spec if ic . P red ic t ion i s g rea t ly impro ved

by su ch specif ic i ty (e .g. , Fish bein & Ajzen, 1974) .

S e c o n d , t h e a t t e n t i o n o f r e s e a rc h e r s w a s a l s o d i r e c t e d

o n to t h e a c tu a l e n v i r o n me n t a n d t h e w a y t h a t a p e r s o n

in te rac ts wi th i t . W hereas m ot ives r e s ide wi th in a pe r so n ,

b e l ie f s r e f er t o b o th t h e p e r s o n a n d a s p e c t s o f hi s o r h e r

w o r ld . A g a in , c u r r e n t o p in io n h o ld s t h a t b e h a v io r i s

n o t w e l l e x p l a in e d b y l o o k in g j u s t w i th in t h e p e r s o n . I n -

s t e a d , u n d e r s t a n d in g i s g r e a t ly b o l s t e r e d b y t a k in g i n to

a c c o u n t b o th i n d iv id u a l a n d s i t u a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s -

t ic s ( e.g. , Bow ers , 1973; End le r & M agn usso n , 1976; Mis-

chel, 1979).

T h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f p e o p l e ' s b e l i e f s a b o u t c o n t r o l

w e r e e x a min e d i n a v a r i e ty o f p a ra d ig m s i n t h e 1 9 60 s in

w h ic h c o n t r o l w a s o p e r a t i o n a l i z e d a s c h o i c e, p r e d i c ta b i l -

i t y , a n d c o n t i n g e n c y . R e s e a r c h r e s u l ts c o n v e r g e d , s h o w -

ing tha t cont ro l was usua l ly bene f ic ia l .

M u c h o f th e r e s e a rc h o n p e r s o n a l c o n t r o l h a s t a k e n

place wi th in soc ia l psychology , r e f lec t ing a conce rn wi th

the soc ia l envi ronment in fos te r ing or inh ib i t ing pe r -

c e iv e d c o n t r o l a n d s h o w in g t h e i n f lu e n c e o f p e r s o n a l i t y

p s y c h o lo g y , i n c o n c e iv in g p e r s o n a l c o n t r o l a s a n i n d iv id -

ua l d i f f e rence , and of c l in ica l psycholo gy , in des igning

in t e rv e n t i o n s t o c o m b a t d i s o r d e r s o f p e r s o n a l c o n t r o l .

P e o p l e d o n o t n e e d t o e x e r c is e c o n t r o l t o b e n e f i t f r o m

i t (Aver i l l, 1973 ; Mi l le r , 19 79; Th om pso n, 1981) . The

m ere pe rcep t ion of cont ro l i s suff ic ien t to r ed uce s t r e ss ,

i n c r e a s e mo t iv a t i o n , e n c o u r a g e p e r f o r ma n c e , a n d s o

for th . For ins tance , Glass and S inge r (1972) exposed

l a b o r a to r y s u b j e c ts t o b u r s t s o f a v er s iv e n o i s e. H a l f t h e

s u b j e c ts w e r e to ld t h a t t h e y c o u ld t e r min a t e t h e n o i s e b y

p u s h in g a b u t t o n ; t h e o th e r s u b j e c t s w e r e n o t g iv e n t h i s

ins t ruc t ion . Al l were then te s ted a t a proof reading ta sk .

T h e s u b j e c t s w h o b e l i e v e d t h e ms e lv e s t o h a v e c o n t r o l

o v e r t h e o r i g in a l n o i s e , e v e n t h o u g h t h e y n e v e r p u s h e d

th e b u t t o n , d id b e t t e r t h a n t h e o th e r s u b j e c ts , d e s p i t e th e

f a c t t h a t b o th g r o u p s e x p e r i e n c e d t h e i d e n t i c a l ( a n d i n

ac tua l i ty uncont ro l lab le ) no ise .

N u m e r o u s t h e o ri e s o f p e rs o n a l c o n t r o l c o m p e t e i n t h e

profess io na l l i te ra ture . W e cons ide r seve ra l o f these in

tu r n a n d c o n c lu d e t h a t t h e s e c o g n a t e s a r e n o t s t r i c t l y

in t e rc h a n g e a b l e ; t h e r e a r e g o o d r e a s o n s t o k e e p i n min d

th e d i s t i n c t i o n s a mo n g t h e m.

L o c u s o f C o n t r o l

Ju l ian B . Ro t te r (1954, 1966, 1975) pro po sed an inf luen-

t i a l c o g n a t e o f p e rs o n a l c o n t r o l w i th in t h e c o n t e x t o f hi s

s o c i a l l e a r n in g t h e o r y . A c c o r d in g t o R o t t e r , r e i n f o r c e -

m e n t s t r e n g th e n s r e s p o n s e s t o t h e d e g r e e t h a t t h e i n d iv id -

u a l e x p e c t s t h e r e sp o n s e t o l e a d t o f u r t h e r r e w a r d s . T h i s

expec ta t ion , in tu rn , i s de te rmined f i r s t by ta sk- spec i f ic

cha rac te r i s t ic s and second by gene ra l ized expec ta t ions

a b o u t t h e n a t u re o f r ew a r d , w h i c h R o t t e r t e r m e d locus o f

control

I n i ts e x t r e me c a s e s , l o c u s o f c o n t r o l i s r e p r e s e n t ed b y

an in te rna l ( I ) o r ien ta t ion , in which the ind iv idua l be -

l ie v e s t h a t r e w a r d s a r e b r o u g h t a b o u t b y h i s o w n a c t i o n s ,

ve r sus an ex te rna l (E) or ien ta t ion , in which the ind iv id-

u a l b e l ie v e s t h a t r e w a r d s a r e d u e t o t h e o p e r a t i o n o f

c h a n c e f a c to r s , f a te , o r p o w e r f u l o th er s . L o c u s o f c o n t r o l

i s the re fore an ind iv idua l d i f f e rence , measured by re -

sponses to the Rot te r (1966) I -E sca le or s imi la r se l f -

r e p o r t i n s t ru me n t s , w h ic h a s c e r t a in t h e d e g r e e t o w h ic h

s o me o n e e n d o r s e s i n t e rn a l v e r s u s e x t e rn a l s t a t e me n t s .

T h o u s a n d s o f in v e s t i g a ti o n s h a v e l o o k e d a t l o c u s o f

cont ro l . Pha res (1978) sum mar ized the thrus t o f these

in v e s t ig a t i o n s b y n o t i n g t h a t O u r s u r v e y o f t h e I - E li te r -

a tu r e h a s r e v e a l e d t h e t y p i c a l i n t e r n a l t o b e o n e w h o

a c t iv e ly c o me s t o g r i p s w i th t h e w o r ld . C o m p a r e d t o t h e

exte rna l , the in te rna l i s r e s i s tan t to soc ia l p ressure and

dedica ted to the pursu i t o f exce l lence (p . 295). L ike

o t h e rs w h o c o m m e n t o n t h e l oc u s o f co n t r o l a r ea o f

re sea rch , Pha res add ed a d isc la imer tha t in te rna l i ty i s no t

necessa r i ly goo d. S t i ll , the bu lk of the s tud ies sho w tha t

i n a r e s p o n s iv e e n v i r o n me n t - - a n d t h i s q u a l i f i c a t i o n i s

c r i t i c a l- - i n d iv id u a l s w i th a n i n t er n a l l o c u s o f c o n t r o l a c -

c rue to themse lves a l l manner of bene f i t s .

R o t t e r ( 1 97 5 ) s t re s s e d t h a t l o c u s o f c o n t r o l i s b u t o n e

o f t h e d e te r min a n t s o f h o w a p e r s o n r e s p o n d s t o e v e n t s .

S o me r e s ea r c h er s , h o w e v e r , u s e l o c u s o f c o n t r o l a s a

p e r s o n a l i t y d i s p o s i t io n o u t o f c o n t e x t , e x a min in g i t s

causes , consequences , and cor re la te s and ignor ing the

f a c to r s d e e me d c r i t i c a l b y R o t t e r i n d e t e r min in g t h e

e x a c t n a tu r e o f th e s e r e la t io n s h ip s . C h i e f a mo n g t h e s e

f a c to r s a r e t h e r e in f o r c e me n t v a lu e a n d t h e p e r s o n ' s f a -

mi l ia r i ty wi th the ta sk a t hand .

T o u n d e r s t a n d t h e r e l a ti o n s h ip b e tw e e n l o c u s o f c o n -

t r o l a n d s o me b e h a v io r , t h e v a lu e o f a n y r e in f o r c e me n t

o f t h a t b e h a v io r m u s t b e k n o w n . R o t t e r ( 1 9 75 ) c r it ic i z ed

resea rch f rom the 1960s in which a r e la t ionship was

s o u g h t b e tw e e n l o c u s o f c o n t r o l a n d p o l i t ic a l a c ti v i sm.

D o e s l o c u s o f c o n t r o l p r e d i c t p a r t i c i p a t io n i n a p r o t e s t

ma r c h ? O n e p r e d i c t i o n i s th a t i n t e rn a l i ty l e a d s t o s o c i al

a c t i v i s m ( p r e s u ma b ly a n a t t e mp t t o c h a n g e t h e w o r ld

th r o u g h o n e ' s a c t i o n s ) , b u t t h i s e x p l a n a t i o n ma y b e t o o

s impl is tic. In te rna l p eople ma y not pro te s t , jo in a pro te s t

g r o u p , o r s i g n a p e t i t i o n s imp ly b e c a u s e t h e y d o n o t

b e l ie v e i n t h e c a u s e . O n t h e o th e r h a n d , v e r y e x t er n a l

p e o p l e ma y j o in a p r o t e s t g r o u p b e c a u s e t h e y li k e th e

o t h e r p e o p l e w h o a r e m e m b e r s o f t h e g r o u p , b e c a u s e i t is

l e ss b o r in g t h a n s t u d y in g , b e c a u s e i t w i ll u p s e t t h e i r p a r -

e n t s i f t h e y f i n d o u t , b e c a u s e i t i s th e c o n f o r min g t h in g t o

do , and so on (Rot te r , 1975, p . 270) .

R o t t e r ( 1 97 5 ) a l s o p o in t e d o u t t h a t l o c u s o f c o n t r o l, a s

a b r o a d b e l ie f , i s l es s l i k ely t o b e r e l a t e d t o b e h a v io r t o


3/7

Cognates o f Personal Control 113

the degree tha t the pe r son i s in a s i tua t ion tha t i s s t ruc -

t u r e d , f a mi l i a r , a n d u n a mb ig u o u s . I n s u c h c i r c u m-

s t a n ce s , a p e r s o n ' s s p e c i fi c e x p e c t a t i o n a b o u t t h e n a tu r e

o f r e w a r d t a k e s o v e r . R o t t e r ( 19 7 5) c i t e d t h e e x a mp le o f

t h e r e l a ti o n s h ip b e tw e e n l o c u s o f c o n t r o l a n d a c a d e mic

achievement . At ea r ly ages , in te rna l i ty pred ic ts grades .

A t o ld e r a g e s , i t d o e s n o t . T h i s ma k e s p e r f e c t s e n s e ,

b e c a u s e w i th a g e t h e s t u d e n t l e a rn s mo r e a b o u t t h e s p e -

c if ic ta sks r equ i red to ach ieve spec i f ic ou t com es in pa r t ic -

u la r subjec ts .

L o c u s o f co n t r o l r e se a rc h m a y h a v e p e a k e d i n p o p u -

l a r it y , b u t o n ly b e c a u s e i t h a s s t imu la t e d a h o s t o f c o m -

p e t i t o rs . O n e t r e n d a p p a r e n t i n mo r e r e c e n t I - E r e s ea r c h

i s t h e d e v e lo p me n t o f d o ma in - s p e c i f i c l o c u s o f c o n t r o l

m easures ( e .g ., hea l th loc us of cont ro l ) . Re la ted ly , som e

r e s e a rc h e r s h a v e c a l l e d f o r a d i s t i n c t io n b e tw e e n l o c u s o f

c o n t r o l f o r g o o d o u t c o me s v e rs u s lo c u s o f c o n t r o l f o r

b a d o u t c o me s , r e s u l t i n g i n a mo v e me n t t o w a r d g r e a t e r

spec i f ic i ty of the not ion . This spec i f ic i ty a ids pred ic t ion

b u t d e t r a c t s f ro m R o t t e r ' s o r i g in a l c o n c e p t i o n o f l o c u s o f

cont ro l a s a gene ra l ized expec ta t ion .

Self-Eff icacy

Alb e r t Ban dur a ' s (1977, 1978, 1982b, 1986) wide ly

k n o w n n o t i o n o f self efficacy i s a n o u tg r o w th o f h i s v e r -

s ion of soc ia l lea rn ing theo ry , which em phas izes the im-

p o r t a n c e o f v i c ar i o u s p r o c e s s e s i n t h e a c q u i s i t i o n a n d

mo d i f i c a t i o n o f b e h a v io r s. P e o p l e l e a r n t h r o u g h o b s e r v a -

t i o n o f o th e rs . W h o l ly n o v e l r es p o n s e s ma y b e p e r f o r m e d

a f t e r r e le v a n t mo d e l s a r e s e e n p e r f o r min g s imi la r a c t i o n s

w i th d e s i r a b l e c o n s e q u e n c e s ( B a n d u r a & W a i t e rs , 1 9 63 ).

M u c h o f B a n d u r a ' s r e s e a r c h e f fo r t s h a v e b e e n i n t h e

c o n t e x t o f b e h a v i o r m o d i fi c at io n . H o w c a n p h o b i c b e -

hav ior be chang ed? I f changed , w ha t i s the c r i t ica l e le -

me n t r e s p o n s ib l e ? P h o b i a s c a n b e a l l e v i a t e d t h r o u g h

mo d e l in g . A n i n d iv id u a l a fr a id o f s p id er s m a y s t o p

a v o id in g t h e m a n d e v e n b e a b l e t o h a n d l e t h e m w i th o u t

f e a r a f t e r w a t c h in g a n o th e r i n d iv id u a l p e r f o r m s u c h a c -

t io n s a n d m a y a l s o c o m e t o p e r f o r m n o n p h o b i c b e h a v -

ior s v is - f i -v is sp ide r s tha t were not expl ic i t ly mode led .

W h a t i s g o in g o n h e r e ? A c c o r d in g t o B a n d u r a , a t t h e

h e a r t o f a p h o b i a i s t h e b e l i e f t h a t o n e c a n n o t c o p e w i th

th e p h o b i c o b j e c t . P h o b i c i n d iv id u a l s b e l i ev e t h a t t h e y

c a n n o t p e r f o r m th e b e h a v io r s n e e d e d t o ma s t e r t h e s it u a -

t i o n p r e s e n t e d b y t h e s p id e r, t h e w id e - o p e n s p a c e , o r t h e

speech to be g iven . M ode l ing i s e f fec t ive to th e degree

tha t i t s t r engthens the ind iv idua l ' s pe r son a l cont ro l v is -f i-

v i s t h e s i t u a t i o n i n q u e s t i o n . B a n d u r a t e r me d t h i s self

efficacy. A he igh tened sense of se l f - ef f icacy leads to

c h a n g e s i n b e h a v io r n o t s p e ci f ic a ll y mo d e l e d , t o a d e -

c r e a s e i n e mo t io n a l i t y , a n d e v e n t o a n o r ma l i z a t i o n o f

c a t e c h o l a min e me ta b o l i s m.

In th is type o f wo rk , se l f- e f ficacy i s usua l ly m easu red

wi th a s imple r a t ing sca le . Subjec ts a re a sked to ind ica te

h o w c o n f id e n t t h e y a r e , f r o m n o t a t a l l t o c o mp le t e ly ,

t h a t t h e y c a n p e r f o r m a p a r t i c u l a r b e h a v io r i n a g iv e n

s e tt in g . A n im p o r t a n t o u t c o m e o f B a n d u r a ' s r e s e a r c h i s

t h e d e mo n s t r a t i o n t h a t a n i n d iv id u a l ' s s e n s e o f c o n t r o l

o v e r a g iv en r e s p o n s e ( I a m c o n f id e n t t h a t I c a n l e t t h e

s p id e r w a lk u p m y a r m ) i s a b e t t e r p r e d i c to r o f t h i s

r e s p o n s e t h a n t h e i n d iv id u a l ' s p a s t s u c c es s o r f a il u r e i n

p e r f o r min g i t. O n e o f p s y c h o lo g y ' s fe w t r u is ms i s t h a t

p a s t b e h a v io r p r e d i c t s f u tu r e b e h a v io r ; B a n d u r a ' s r e -

sea rch on se l f - e f f icacy improves upon th is idea .

B a n d u r a h a s u s e d p h o b i a s a s a p a r a d ig m w i th w h ic h

to a ssess the e f fec ts of d iminished and enhanced se l f -

e f f icacy . However , h is theory ex tends f a r beyond th is

dom ain . B and ura (1977) a rgued tha t se l f -e f f icacy und er -

l ie s al l o f beh avio r change , inc luding ac t ions inv olved in

h e a l t h p r o mo t io n ( O ' L e a r y , 1 9 8 5 ) .

S e v e ra l a d d i t i o n a l n o t i o n s o f B a n d u r a w a r r a n t m e n -

t ion . F i r s t , he d is t inguishes be tween an ind iv idua l ' s e f -

f i ca c y e x p e c t a n c y a n d o u t c o me e x p e c t a n c y . O u tc o m e e x -

p e c t a n c y i s a b e l i e f a b o u t t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f a

p a r t i c u l a r b e h a v io r . A b a s k e tb a l l c o a c h mig h t b e l i e v e ,

f o r i n s t a n c e , t h a t t h e C h ic a g o B u l l s c a n b e d e f e a t e d

i f t h e y a r e h e ld t o f e w e r t h a n 9 0 p o in t s . W h e th e r h e b e -

l ie v e s t h a t h i s t e a m c a n h o ld t h e B u l l s t o f e w e r t h a n 9 0

poin ts i s o f cou rse a d i f f e ren t ma t te r . This i s an e f f icacy

expec tancy .

T h i s d i s t i n c t i o n i s imp o r t a n t , e v e n t h o u g h B a n d u r a

h ims e l f c a n b e f a u l t e d f o r o v e r lo o k in g i t a t t ime s . I n

som e of h is wr i t ing , he ap pea r s to a sc r ibe people ' s d i ff i-

cu l t ie s ma in ly to e f f icacy expec ta t ions r a the r than to the

jo in t e f fe c t o f e ff ic a c y a n d o u t c o me e x p e c t a ti o n s .

S e c o n d , B a n d u r a r e s tr i ct s t h e s t u d y o f p e r s o n a l c o n -

t ro l to ve ry spec i fic contex ts , us ing a mic roana ly t ic

s t r a tegy . In keeping wi th h is soc ia l lea rn ing bent , he

d i s t r u s ts t h e p o s s ib i l it y o f b r o a d d i s p o s i t io n s l i ke l o c u s o f

con trol . Inste ad, h e a lway s specifies se lf -efficacy wi th re-

s p e c t t o s o me p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n a n d s o me p a r t i c u l a r

re sponse .

B a n d u r a ' s t h e o r y h a s b e e n c r i t ic i z ed a s c o mm o n - s e n s i -

ca l (Smeds lund , 1978) and as too spec i f ic (Pe te r son &

Stunk ard , 1989) . No ne the less , i t has bec om e a lead ing

p e r s p e c t i v e i n c o n t e mp o r a r y p s y c h o lo g y b e c a u s e o f t h e

range of i ts appl ica t ion s an d i t s ab i l i ty to gene ra te e f fec -

t ive s t r a teg ies of beh avio r change (Pe te r son , 1992) .

E x p l a n a to r y S ty l e

T h e n o t i o n o f

explanatory s tyle

e me r g e d f r o m th e a t t r i -

b u t i o n a l r e f o r mu la t i o n o f t h e l e a r n e d h e lpl e s sn e s s

mo d e l . T h i s m o d e l i s a n a c c o u n t o f w h y p e o p l e a c t i n a n

in a p p r o p r i a t e ly p a s s iv e w a y a n d w h y t h e y f a i l t o c o p e

w i th t h e d e m a n d s o f a s i t u a ti o n t h a t s e e ms f u l ly w i th in

the i r compe tence . Accord ing to Se l igman (1975) , people

m a y a c t h e lp l es s b e c a u s e t h e y h a v e l e a r n e d t o b e h e lp le s s.

The c r i t ica l e lement in th is lea rned he lp le ssness i s a d i -


4/7

114 eterson and Stunkard

min i s h e d s e n s e o f p e r s o n a l c o n t r o l . T h u s , l e a r n e d h e lp -

l e ss n e s s t h e o r y i s mo s t d i r e ct l y a n e x p l a n a t i o n o f w h y

a n d h o w p e r s o n a l c o n t r o l c a n g o a w r y . L e s s d i r e ct l y , i t is

a n a c c o u n t o f h o w p e r s o t ]a l c o n t r o l c a n b e f o s t e r e d .

Accord ing to the lea rned he lp le ssness mode l , he lp le ss -

n e s s r es u l t s f r o m e x p e r ie n c e w i th u n c o n t r o l l a b l e e v e n t s

(M aie r & Se l igman, 1976). Un con t ro l lab i l i ty i s de f ined in

t e r ms o f t h e c o n t i g e n c y b e tw e e n r e s p o n s e s a n d t h e o u t -

c o me s o f c o n c e r n . W h e n e v e n t s o c c u r re g a r d le s s o f w h a t

t h e s u b j e c t d o e s o r d o e s n o t d o , t h e n t h e e v e n t s a r e

u n c o n t r o l l a b l e . W h e n t h e s u b j e c t le a r n s t h i s ( n o n ) c o n ti n -

g e n c y a n d r e p r e s e n t s i t a s a n e x p e c t a t i o n o f f u tu r e u n -

cont ro l lab i l i ty , lea rned he lp le ssness occurs .

A f u ll e x p l a n a t io n o f w h e n h e lp l e s sn e s s d o e s o r d o e s

n o t f o l l o w u n c o n t r o l l a b l e e v e n t s s h o u ld c o n s id e r t h e p e r -

s o n ' s c a u s a l i n t e rp r e t a t i o n o f th e e v e n t s ( A b r a ms o n ,

Se l igman, & Teasda le , 1978) . Accord ing to a r e formula -

t ion o f he lp le ssness theo ry tha t cons ide r s these in te rpre -

t a t i o n s , w h e n p e o p l e e n c o u n t e r a n u n c o n t r o l l a b l e e v e n t ,

t h e y a s k w h y ? T h e i r a n s w e r d i c t a te s t h e ir r e s p o n s e t o

uncont ro l lab i l i ty (Pe te r son & Se l igman, 1984) .

T h r e e d ime n s io n s o f c a u s a l e x p l a n a t i o n a r e imp o r t a n t .

A n i n t e r n a l e x p l a n a t i o n ( i t ' s me ) ma k e s s e l f - e s t e e m

lo s s mo r e l i k e ly t h a n a n e x t e r n a l e x p l a n a t i o n ( i t ' s t h e

e c o n o my ) . A s t a b le e x p l a n a t io n ( i t ' s g o in g to l a s t f o r -

e v e r ) l ea d s t o mo r e p r o lo n g e d h e lp l e s sn e s s t h a n a n u n -

s t a b l e e x p l a n a t i o n ( i t ' s o n e o f t h o s e d a y s ) . A g lo b a l

e x p l a n a t i o n ( i t ' s g o in g t o u n d e r min e e v e r y th in g t h a t I

do ) p rod uces m ore pe rvas ive de f ic i ts than a spec if ic ex-

p l a n a t i o n ( i t ' s t h e h e a t i n t h a t p l a c e ) .

A n i n d iv id u a l 's c a u s a l e x p l a n a t i o n f o r u n c o n t r o l l a b l e

e v e n t s d e t e r min e s t h e e x t e n t o f h e lp l e s s n e s s f o l l o w in g

these events . Because ind iv idua ls show a cha rac te r i s t ic

s ty le of of fe r ing causa l a t t r ibu t ions , wha t i s ca l led the i r

e x p l a n a to r y s t y l e , h a b i t u a l l y f a v o r in g c e r t a in t y p e s o f

e x p l a n a t i o n s o v e r o th e r s , s o me p e o p l e a r e mo r e a t r i s k

f o r h e lp le s s n es s t h a n o th e r s. O n e ' s e x p l a n a to r y s t y le c a n

b e me a s u r e d w i th a q u e s t i o n n a i r e d e v e lo p e d f o r t h is p u r -

pose (Pe te r son e t a l . , 1982) . An explana tory s ty le in

w h ic h u n c o n t r o l l a b l e e v e n t s a r e a t t r i b u t e d t o i n t e r n a l ,

s tab le , and g loba l explana t ions i s a r i sk f ac tor for he lp-

le ssness and pass iv i ty in the f ace of uncont ro l lab i l i ty ,

w h e r e a s t h e c o n v e r s e s t y le ma k e s a n i n d iv id u a l r o b u s t

a n d imp e r v io u s t o d i s r u p t i o n b y f a i l u r e ( P e t e r s o n &

Se l igman, 1984) . Recent ev idence sugges ts tha t s tab le

a n d g lo b a l e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r b a d e v e n t s c a n b e r i s k fa c to r s

for phy s ica l i llness (Pe te r s on & Boss io , 1991) .

H e lp l e s sn e s s t h e o r y e m p h a s i z e s h o w p e r s o n a l c o n t r o l

c a n b e t h w a r t e d i n o n e s i t u a t i o n a n d h a v e u n d e s i r a b l e

c o n s e q u e n c e s in a n o th e r . O th e r t h e o r i e s h a v e a t t e mp te d

to d e p i c t t h e o th e r s i d e o n t h e c o in , t h e e n c o u r a g e me n t

o f p e r s o n a l c o n t r o l t h r o u g h ma s t e r y e x p e ri e n c es . T h e

c o n s t r u c t s o f t h e s e t h e o r ie s h a v e d i f f e re n t n a me s : l e a r n e d

indus t r iousness , lea rned re source fu lness , se l f - cont ro l ,

t r ansfe r o f pe r s i s tence , and so on . At the present t ime , the

mo s t t h o r o u g h s u c h a c c o u n t i s th a t o f D w e c k (1 9 75 ;

Dweck & Licht , 1980) , who cont ra s ts he lp le ssness-or i -

en ted ch i ldren wi th those she ca l l s mas te ry or ien ted .

T h e s e tw o g r o u p s o f c h i l d re n d i f fe r in t h e p e r s i st e n c e t h e y

s h o w in t h e f a c e o f fa i lu r e . Ma s t e r y - o r i e n t e d c h i l d r e n a r e

le ss l ike ly to acknowledge fa i lu re . Wha t appea r a s se t -

b a c k s t o t h e o b s e r v e r s a r e r e g a r d e d b y t h e s e c h il d r e n a s

s teps toward the f ina l goa l .

E x p l a n a to r y s t y le h a s b e e n f r e q u e n t l y i n v e s ti g a te d , y e t

imp o r t a n t q u e s t i o n s r e ma in u n e x p lo r e d ( P e t e r s o n , 1 9 91 ).

T h e h y p o th e s i z e d r o l es o f t h e in d iv id u a l d ime n s io n s o f

e x p l a n a to r y s t y l e h a v e n o t b e e n s y s t e ma t i c a l l y i n v e s t i -

g a t e d . A l s o , t h e a t t r i b u t i o n a l r e f o r mu la t i o n o f h e lpl e ss -

n e s s th e o r y p r o p o s e s t h a t e x p l a n a to r y s t y le in t e r a c ts w i th

ba d events to pro duc e d if ficu l ties , ye t the vas t ma jor i t y of

s t u d ie s h a v e n o t a s c e r t ain e d t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f b a d

events . F ina l ly , the he lp le ssness mode l i s a process ac -

cou nt o f ho w di ff icu lt ie s deve lop . Be cause m ost s tud ies

u s e a c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l d e s ig n , t h e p r e s u me d s e q u e n c e o f

e v e n t s l in k in g e x p l a n a to r y s t y le a n d f a il u r es o f a d a p t a -

t i o n h a s n o t b e e n m a p p e d o u t .

T a k i n g S t o c k

Lo cus o f cont ro l , se lf -e ff icacy , an d e xplan a tory s ty le

sha re a f ami ly r e semblanc e (Pe te r son & S tunk ard , 1989) .

Each cons t ruc t i s expl ic i t ly cogni t ive . Each i s r e la ted to

g o o d v e r s u s b a d f u n c t i o n in g a n d i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e v ig o r

o r p a s s iv i t y w i th w h ic h s o me o n e me e t s t h e d e ma n d s o f

t h e w o r ld . I n d e e d , t h e f o l lo w in g s u m ma r y o f r e s e a rc h

f indings ( Jan is , 1983) appl ie s equa l ly we l l to a l l th ree

cons t ruc ts :

P e r c e iv e d c o n t r o l i s o n e o f t h e c o r e c o n c e p t s t h a t

h a s e v o lv e d f r o m r e s e a r c h b e a r in g o n t h e s e n s e o f

ma s t e r y . L o s s o f p e r ce iv e d a b i l it y t o c o n t r o l a v e r s iv e

e v e n t s , w h ic h i s s t r o n g ly i n f lu e n c e d b y e n v i r o n me n ta l

c i r c u ms ta n ce s , i s n o w g e n e r a ll y r e c o g n i z ed a s a m a jo r

p s y c h o lo g i c a l d e t e r min a n t o f r e a c t i o n s t o s t r es s f u l li fe

e v e n ts . W h e n a p e r s o n n o t i c e s t h a t p r o t e c t i v e a c t i o n s

a re having l i t t le obs e rvab le e ffec t in br ing ing an end to

an ex t remely d isagreeab le exper ience , h is or he r in i t ia l

r e a c t i o n i s u s u a l l y a n u p s u r g e o f a n g e r o r p r o t e s t . I f

t h e p e r s o n ' s e f f o r ts t o r e g a in a s e n s e o f c o n t r o l c o n -

t i n u e t o b e t h w a r t e d , h e o r s h e i s l i k e ly t o b e c o me

d e mo r a l i z e d . A f t e r t h a t h a p p e n s , t h e p e r s o n c o p e s le s s

e f fe c t iv e ly a n d u l t ima t e ly d e v e lo p s p r o f o u n d f e el in g s

o f h e lp l e s s n e s s a n d d e p r e s s io n . T h e s e e x t r e me r e a c -

t i o n s , w h ic h a r e u s u a l l y a c c o mp a n ie d b y a p a th y a n d

s o c i a l w i th d r a w a l , a r e p e r t i n e n t t o b o th m e n ta l h e a l t h

a n d p h y s i c a l h ea l th . T h e r e i s a g r o w in g b o d y o f e v i-

d e n c e t h a t t h e ma l ig n a n t e mo t io n a l s e q u e n c e a s -

s o c i a t e d w i th l o s s o f p e r c e iv e d c o n t r o l , w h ic h o f t e n

o c c u r s a mo n g p e o p l e w h o a r e i ll o r i n c a p a c i t a t e d , n o t

o n ly i n c r e a s e s s u b j e c t i v e s u f f e r i n g b u t a l s o imp e d e s


5/7

Cognates of Personal Control 5

p h y s i c a l r e c o v e r y a n d s o me t ime s l e a d s t o u n t ime ly

d e a th . F o r tu n a t e ly , h o w e v e r , t h e r e i s a l s o e v id e n c e

th a t t h e m a l ig n a n t s e q u e n c e c a n b e p r e v e n t e d o r i n t e r -

r u p t e d b y p s y c h o lo g i c a l i n te r v e n t i o n s t h a t e n a b l e d i s -

t r e ssed people to see themse lves a s having suf f ic ien t

c o n t r o l o v e r w h a t h a p p e n s t o t h e m to c o p e s u c c e s s -

fully. (p. 10)

I n v i e w o f t h e c o n c e p tu a l a n d e m p i r ic a l o v e r l a p , s h o u ld

w e r e g a r d t h e s e d i ff e r en t c o g n a t e s o f p e r s o n a l c o n t r o l a s

i n t e r ch a n g e a b l e ? A r e t h e y s imp ly d i f fe r e n t w a y s o f t a l k -

i n g a b o u t t h e s a m e p s y c h o l o g ic a l p h e n o m e n a ?

W e th ink not . Lo cus o f cont ro l , se lf -e ff icacy , an d ex-

p l a n a to r y s t y le d o h a v e s imi l a r c o r re l a te s , b u t i f w e a r e

c o n t e n t w i th t h i s s u mma r y s t a t e me n t , w e g iv e u p a n y

a t t e m p t t o e x p l a in j u s t w h y t h e s e b e l ie f s t r a n s la t e t h e m-

se lves in to e f fec t ive copin g on the o ne ha nd ve r sus ine f -

f e c ti v e c o p in g o n t h e o th e r . E a c h c o n s t r u c t i s d e f i n e d

wi th in an expl ic i t theory , and the theor ie s themse lves

d i f fe r c o n c e r n in g t h e d e t e r min a n t s o f a c t io n a n d e m o -

t i o n . C o l l a p s in g t h e s e c o n s t r u c t s r e d u c e s t h e b e n e f i ts o f

having a theory in the f i r s t p lace .

T h e m e a n in g s o f th e s e t h r e e c o g n a t e s o f p e r so n a l c o n -

t r o l a r e f a r f r o m id e n ti c a l. L o c u s o f c o n t r o l r e fe r s t o

one ' s gene ra l ized expec tanc ies ab ou t the or ig in of r e -

wa rds an d pu nishm ents in the wor ld , se l f - e ff icacy re fe r s

t o o n e ' s b e l i e f a b o u t w h e th e r a g iv e n b e h a v io r c a n b e

e n a c t e d , a n d e x p l a n a to r y s t y l e r e f e r s t o o n e ' s h a b i t u a l

w a y o f e x p l a in in g t h e c a u s e s o f e v e n t s . T h e s e t h r e e c o n -

cepts a re c lea r ly d is t inc t . An ind iv idua l wi th an in te rna l

l o c u s o f c o n t r o l m a y o f f e r e x t e r n al c a u s a l e x p l a n a t io n s :

I f I a m c h a r min g , I w i ll b e o f fe r e d t h e j o b , b u t w h e th e r

o r n o t I a m c h a r m i n g d e p e n d s o n t h e m o o d o f th e i n te r-

v iew er . Ind iv idua ls m ay en te r ta in e f f icac ious be l ie f s

a b o u t t h e i r a b i l i ty t o p e r f o r m a g iv en b e h a v io r i n d e p e n -

d e n t l y o f th e i r l o c u s o f c o n t r o l o r e x p l a n a to r y s t yl e .

Eac h cog na te ex is t s a t a d i f f e ren t leve l o f abs t r ac t ion

a n d g e n e r al i ty . L o c u s o f c o n t r o l a n d e x p l a n a to r y s t y l e

a re , by de f in i t ion , p red ispos i t ions to more spec i f ic

t h o u g h t s a n d b e l i e f s t h a t i n t u r n a r e t h e p r o x ima l d e t e r-

min ants of ac t ion and em ot ion . Se lf -e ff icacy , in cont ra s t ,

i s d e f i n ed a s o n e o f th e s e p r o x ima l d e t e r min a n t s . A l -

t h o u g h w h e th e r p e o p l e c a n b e c h a r a c t e r iz e d a s g e n e r a l ly

e f f icac ious or no t i s an empir ica l ques t ion , ce r ta in ly no

r e s e a rc h e r s h o u ld s t a r t w i th t hi s a s s u mp t io n . S o m e q u e s -

t ionna i re s pu rpo r t to me asure gen e ra l se lf -e ff icacy ,

q u i t e a p a r t f r o m s p e c i f i c b e h a v io r s , b u t t h e y a r e n o t

d o in g t h e c o n c e p t ju s t i c e .

E a c h c o g n a t e h a s i t s r i c h e s t - - p e r h a p s i t s o n l y - - m e a n -

in g w i th in i ts p a r t i c u l a r t h e o r y . T h e w id e s p r e a d t e n d e n c y

to p u l l a p e r s o n a l c o n t r o l c o g n a t e o u t o f it s t h e o r et i c a l

c o n t e x t a n d i n c lu d e i t s me a s u r e i n a q u e s t i o n n a i r e b a t -

t e r y i s a p t t o y i e ld e x a c t l y w h a t w e f i n d : a n a r r a y o f

mo d e s t c o r r e l a t e s y e t n o c r i s p c o n c lu s io n s a b o u t w h y

v a r i a b l e s c o h e r e a s t h e y d o .

E a c h c o g n a t e - - b y d e f i n i t i o n - - i s e x p e c t e d t o p r e d i c t

s o me a s p e c t o f b e h a v io r . P r e d i c t i o n w o u ld b e b o l s t e r e d

a n d e x p l a n a t i o n a id e d , h o w e v e r , i f r e s e a rc h e r s a l s o t o o k

in to a c c o u n t t h e o th e r d e t e r min a n t s o f b e h a v io r e x p li c -

i t l y r e c o g n i z e d b y R o t t e r , B a n d u r a , a n d e x p l a n a to r y

s ty le t h eo r i s ts . L o c u s o f c o n t r o l s h o u ld b e me a s u r e d

in c o n ju n c t i o n w i th a p e r s o n ' s s e n s e o f t h e r e in fo r c e -

m ent va lue o f pa r t icu la r ac t iv i t ies ; se l f -e f f icacy shou ld

b e l o o k e d a t a l o n g w i th o u t c o m e e x p e c ta n c i es ; e x p l a n a-

to r y s t y le s h o u ld b e s t u d i e d a lo n g w i th t h e a c tu a l c a u s a l

t e x tu r e o f s e t ti n g s. C o m m o n to a l l t h e s e th e o r i e s is t h e

n e e d t o l o c a t e p e o p l e i n t h e e n v i r o n me n t s i n w h ic h t h e y

b e h a v e .

T h e s e r e s e a r c h t r a d i t io n s c a n b e s e n s ib ly b r i d g e d o n ly

b y b r in g in g c o n s t r u c t s t o g e th e r w i th t h e i r f u ll t h e o r et i c a l

me a n in g s . S imp ly i n c lu d in g m e a s u r e s o f a l l th r e e c o n -

s t r u c t s i n a b a t t e r y ma y n o t b e i n f o r ma t iv e . N o d o u b t

c o r r e l a ti o n s i n t h e . 3 0 ra n g e w o u ld b e o b t a in e d ( Mis c h el ,

1968) , bu t so wha t?

L o n g i tu d in a l s t u d i e s w o u ld b e mo r e i n f o r ma t iv e . I f

these not ions do in te rac t , i t i s ove r t ime . As gene ra l ized

p r e d i s p o s i ti o n s , l o c u s o f c o n t r o l a n d e x p l a n a to r y s t y l e

mig ht in f luence one ' s e f f icacy in pa r t icu la r se t t ings . Ye t

o n e c o u ld a r g u e a s w e l l t h a t t h e y s h o u ld i n f lu e n c e o n e ' s

o u t c o me e x p e c t a n c ie s m o r e t h a n e f fi c ac y e x p e c ta n c i e s

b e c a u s e t h e y a r e b e l i e f s a b o u t t h e w o r ld , n o t s imp ly

a b o u t o n e ' s o w n a b i li ti e s.

In te res t ing ly , the more exac t pa ra l le l s among these

th e o r ie s a r e i n B a n d u r a ' s o u t c o m e e x p e c t an c y . E a c h t h e -

o r y a s s ig n s a n imp o r t a n t r o l e t o o n e ' s e x p e c t a t i o n a b o u t

t h e r e l a t i o n s h ip b e tw e e n b e h a v io r s a n d o u t c o me s ; i n -

d e e d , e x p e c t a t io n a r g u a b ly i s th e c r u c i al d e t e r min a n t o f

b e h a v io r i n e a c h t h e o r y . Y e t w h a t h a s i n t e r e s t e d r e -

s e a rc h e r s, i n c lu d in g t h o s e w h o p r o p o s e d e a c h t h e o r y , i s

n o t t h e p a r t o f t h e t h e o r y s t r es s ing e x p e c t a t i o n b u t r a t h e r

the pa r t s t r e ss ing pe r sona l cont ro l .

T h e s e d i f f er e n t n o t i o n s ma y e a c h d o t h e i r b e s t j o b

w i th in s o m e g iv e n d o ma in o f b e h a v io r . T o ju d g e s imp ly

f r o m t h e m o s t p o p u l a r a r ea s o f w o r k , l o c u s o f c o n t ro l

acco unts for pe r seve rance , se l f - e ff icacy for beh avio r

c h a n g e , a n d e x p l a n a to r y s t y le fo r d e m o r a l i za t i o n . I f re -

s e a r ch e r s p l a y e d t h e s e d o m a in s o f f a g a in s t o n e a n o th e r ,

e v id e n c e fo r t h e d i s c r imin a n t v a l i d i ty o f t h e se c o g n a t e s

might r e su l t .

The cor re la te s of locus o f cont ro l , se lf -e ff icacy , a nd

e x p l a n a to r y s t y l e mig h t l o o k mo r e d i s t in c t t h a n t h e y

c u r r e n t l y d o i f cr i t er i o n m e a s u r e s w e r e s e l e c t e d fo r e x -

p l ic i t ly theore t ica l r easons . Explana tory s ty le , for exam-

p l e , h a s b e e n f r e q u e n t l y l o o k e d a t i n r e la t i o n t o d e p r e s -

s ion . Theore t ica l ly , ho wev er , the seve r i ty of depress ive

s y m p to m s n e e d b e a r n o p a rt i c u l a r re l a t io n s h ip t o a d e -

p r e s s iv e e x p l a n a to r y s t y le . R a th e r , t h e d u r a t i o n a n d

g e n e r a l i ty o f d e p r e ss iv e s y mp to m s s h o u ld b e u n d e r t h e

s w a y o f e x p l a n a to r y s t yl e . In v e s t i g a t i o n s o f t h i s t h e o r e ti -

c a l l y c ri s p h y p o th e s i s a r e v i r t u a l l y n o n e x i s t e n t .


6/7

116 P e t e r s o n a n d S t u n k a r d

Lo c u s o f c o n t ro l , s e l f -e f f ic a c y , a n d e x p l a n a t o r y s t y l e

h a v e b e c o m e p o p u l a r m o s t l y b e c a u s e o f t h e a v a i l a b i li t y

o f s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d q u e s t i o n n a i r e m e a s u re s . I n e a c h c a s e,

h o w e v e r , m e a s u r e m e n t i s f a r f r o m f i n is h e d bu s in e s s. T h e

q u e s t i o n n a ir e s u s e d t o a s c e r t a in l o c u s o f c o n t r o l a n d

e x p l a n a t o ry s t y l e h a v e b e e n c r i t i c i z e d , a n d a t t e m p t s t o

b o l s t e r t h e i r r e l i a b i l i t y a n d v a l i d i t y a r e o n g o i n g ( e . g . ,

Pe te rson & Vi l l anova , 1988) .

B a n d u ra ' s p ro c e d u re o f a s s e s s i n g s e l f- e f fi c a c y b y a s k -

i n g s u b j e c t s t o m a k e s i m p l e c o n f i d e n c e r a t i n g s h a s n o t

o f t e n b e e n c r i t i c i z e d , p e rh a p s b e c a u s e i t s e e m s s o f a c e

v a l i d . N o n e t h e l e s s , i n v i e w o f t h e m i c ro a n a l y t i c s t r a t e g y

f a v o r e d b y B a n d u r a , r e a c t iv i t y o n t h e p a r t o f s u b je c ts

m a y t h r e a t e n s o m e o f th e o b t a i n e d r e s u l ts . R a t i n g o n e ' s

s e lf - e ff i c ac y i m m e d i a t e l y b e fo re e n g a g i n g (o r n o t ) i n

t h e b e h a v i o r i n q u e s t i o n m i g h t c r e a t e s t r o n g e r l i n k s b e -

t w e e n s e l f- e f fi c a c y a n d b e h a v i o r t h a n a c t u a l l y e x i s t.

B a n d u ra (1 9 8 2 a ) h a s a rg u e d a g a i n s t t h i s p o s s i b i l i t y ,

b u t w e s ti ll s u sp e c t t h a t i t m a y o c c a s i o n a ll y c o n f o u n d

research .

A n o t h e r m e a s u r e m e n t i s s u e p e r t a i n s t o t h e p o s s i b l e

s e m a n t i c o v e r l a p b e t w e e n q u e s t i o n n a i r e i t e m s u s e d t o

o p e ra t i o n a l i z e t h e s e d i f f e r e n t c o g n a t e s o f p e r s o n a l c o n -

t ro l . Th e t h e o re t i c a l d i s t i n c t i v e n e s s o f t h e s e c o n s t ru c t s

m a y b e b l u r r e d b y t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h s p e c i fi c q u e s t i o n -

n a i r e i t e m s r e fl e c t m o r e t h a n o n e c o n s t r u c t. T o a n s w e r a n

e x p l a n a t o ry s t y l e q u e s t i o n n a i r e i t e m b y o f f e r i n g t h e a t t r i -

b u t i o n t h a t a b a d e v e n t h a p p e n e d b e c a u se I c o u l d n ' t h e l p

m y s e l f i s t o o f f e r a s e lf - ef f ic a c y a p p ra i s a l . R e s e a rc h e r s

i n v e s t i g a t i n g t w o o r m o re o f t he s e p e r s o n a l c o n t ro l c o g -

n a t e s a r e a d v i s e d t o s c ru t i n i z e c lo s e l y t h e p a r t i c u l a r o p e ra -

t i o n a l i z a t i o n s t h e y e m p l o y t o e l i m i n a t e o r c o n t r o l f o r

i t em s t h a t t a p m o r e t h a n o n e c o n s t r u c t ( N i c h o l ls , L i c h t , &

Pearl , 1982).

I t is p r e m a t u r e t o r e g a r d p e r s o n a l c o n t r o l a s a m o n o -

l i t h i c n o t i o n . O v e r l a p e x i s t s a m o n g s u c h w e l l -k n o w n

c o n s t ru c t s a s l o c u s o f c o n t ro l , s e lf - e ff i ca c y , a n d e x p l a n a -

t o ry s t y l e , b u t t h e d i f f e re n c e s a r e j u s t a s i m p o r t a n t a s t h e

s i m i la r i ti e s . Th e d i f f e re n c e s m a y b e t h e m o s t i n t e r e s t i n g

a s p e c ts o f t h e s e c o n s tr u c t s , w h i c h m e a n s t h a t w e s h o u l d

b r i d g e t h e s e r e s e a r c h t r a d i t i o n s w i t h c a r e s o a s n o t t o

s t r i p a w a y t h e o re t i c a l s u b t l e t y . P s y c h o l o g y h a s l o n g s u f -

f e r e d f r o m a l a c k o f c o n s e n s us a b o u t i t s a p p r o p r i a t e

u n i t s (A l l p o r t , 1 9 37 ). A l t h o u g h t h e r e i s a g re e m e n t a b o u t

t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f p e r s o n a l c o n tr o l , t h is d o e s n o t m e a n

t h a t w e y e t k n o w h o w b e s t t o c o n c e p t u a l iz e i t.

REFERENCES

Ab ram son, L. Y., Seligman, M. E . P., & Teasdale, J. D. (1978).

Learned helplessness in humans: Critique and reformula-

tion. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 87, 49-74.

AUport, G. W. (1937). Personality: A psychological interpreta-

tion.

New Y ork : Ho l t .

Averill, J. R. (1973). Personal contro l over aversive stimuli and

its relationship to stress. Psychological Bulletin, 80, 286-303.

Ban dura, A . (1977). Self-efficacy theory: To wa rd a u nifying

theory of be havioral change. Psychological Review , 84, 191-

215.

Ban dura, A. (1978). The self system in reciprocal determinism.

American Psychologist, 33, 344-358.

Ban dura, A . (1982a). The assessment and predictive generality

of self-precepts of efficacy. Journal of Behavior Therapy and

Experimental Psychiatry, 13, 195-199.

Bandura, A. (1982b). Self-efficacy mechanisms in hum an

agency. American Psychologist, 37, 122-147.

Bandura, A. (1986). Social ou ndations o f thought and action: A

social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Bandura, A., & Waiters, R. H. (1963). Social learning and

personality development. New York: Holt , Rinehart , &

Winston.

Bowers, K . S. (1973). Situationism in psychology: A n analysis

and critique. Psychological Review, 80, 307-336.

Dw eck, C. S. (1975). The role o f expectations a nd a ttribution s

in the alleviation o f learned helplessness. Journal of Person-

ality and Social Psychology, 31, 674--685.

Dweck, C . S., & Licht, B. G. (1980). Lea rned helplessness an d

intellectual achievement. In J. Ga rber & M . E. P. Seligman

(Eds.), Human helplessness: Theory and applications (pp.

197-221). New York: Academic Press.

Endler, N. S., & Magnusson, D. (1976). Toward an interac-

tiona l theo ry of personality. Psychological Bulletin, 83, 956-

974.

Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1974). Attitudes toward objects as

predictors of single an d multiple behavioral c riteria. Psycho-

logical Review, 81, 59-74.

Gardner, H. (1985). The mind s new science: A history o f the

cognitive revolution. New York: Basic Books.

Glass, D. C., & Singer, J. E. (1972). Urban stress: Experim ents

on no ise and social stressors. New Y ork: Academic Press .

Janis, I. L. (1983). Foreword. In E. J. Langer (Ed.), The

psycho logy o f con tro l (pp . 9 -11) . Bever ly Hi l ls , CA:

Sage.

Maier, S. F., & Seligman, M. E. P. (1976). Learned helpless-

ness: Th eory a nd evidence.

Journal of Experimental Psychol-

ogy, 105, 3--46.

Mil ler , S. M . (1979). Control labi l i ty and hum an s tress:

Method, evidence, and theory. Behaviour Research and

Therapy, 17, 287-304.

Mischel, W. (1968). Personality and assessment. New York :

Wiley.

Mischel, W . (1979). On the interface o f cognition and personal-

i ty : B eyond the person-si tuat ion debate. American Psychol-

ogist, 34, 740--754.

Nicholls, J. G., Licht, B. G., & Pearl, R. A. (1982). Some

dange rs of using personality questionnaires to stu dy person-

ality. Psychological Bulletin, 92, 572-580.

O'L eary , A. (1985). Self-efficacy and health. Behaviour Re-

search and Therapy, 23, 437-451.

Peterson, C . (1991). The m eaning and m easurement of explana-

tory style. Psychological Inquiry, 2, 1-10.


7/7

Cogna tes o f Persona l Con tro l 117

Peterson, C. (1992).

Personality

(2nd e d. ). Sa n D ie go : H a rc ou r t

B ra c e J ova nov ic h .

Peterso n, C., Bossio, L. M . (1991). Health and optimism. N e w

York: Free Press .

Pe te rson, C . , Se l igman, M. E. P. (1984) . Cau sa l explana t ions

as a r isk fac tor fo r depress ion: Th eor y and evidence .

Psycho-

logical Review, 91, 347-374.

Pe te r s on , C . , Se mme l , A . , yon B a e ye r , C . , A bra ms on , L . Y . ,

M eta lsky, G. I ., Se l igman, M . E. P. (1982) . Th e Att r ib u-

t iona l Sty le Ques t ionnaire . Cognitive Therapy and Research,

6, 287-299.

Pe te r s on , C . , S tunka rd , A . J . (1989 ). Pe r s ona l c on t ro l a nd

he a l th p romot ion . Social Science and M edicine, 28, 819-828.

Pe terson, C . , Vi l lanova , P. (1988) . An expan ded Att r ib u-

t iona l Sty le Ques t ionnaire .

Journal of Abnormal Psychology,

97, 87-89.

Phares , E. J . (1978) . Locu s of contro l . In H. Lon do n J . E.

Exn er (Eds .) , Dimensions of personality (pp. 263-304) . N ew

York: Wiley .

Rotter, J . B. (1954).

Social learning theory and clinicalpsychol-

ogy. Englewood Cl i ffs , NJ : Prent ice-Hal l .

Ro t te r , J . B . (1966). Gen era l ized expec tanc ies for in te rna l ver-

s us e x te rna l c on t ro l o f r e in fo rc e me n t .

Psychological Mono-

graphs, 80 1, W hole N o . 609 ) .

R o t t e r , J . B . (1975 ). S ome p rob le ms a nd mis c onc e p t ions re l a t -

ed to the cons truc t of in te rna l versus exte rna l re inforce-

me n t .

Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 43,

5 6 ~ 7 .

Seligman, M . E. P. (1975). Helplessness: O n depression, develop-

ment, and death.

Sa n Fra nc i s c o : F re e ma n .

Smed s lund, J . (1978) . Band ura 's theor y o f se l f-e ff icacy: A se t of

c om mo n s ens e the o re ms . Scandanavian Journal o f Psychol-

ogy, 19,

1-14.

Th om pson , S. (1981) . Wil l i t hurt less i f I can co ntro l i t? A

com plex answer to a s imple ques t ion .

Psychological Bulletin,

90, 89-101.

Weiner , B . (1990) . Searching for the roots of appl ied a t t r ibut io n

theory . In S. G ra ha m V. S. Folke s (Eds .) ,

Attribution

theory: Applications to achievem ent, mental health, and inter-

personal conflict

(pp. 1-13). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

W hi te , R . W . (1959) . Mot iva t ion re c onside re d : The c on c e p t o f

c ompe te nc e .

Psychological Review, 66,

297-333.

04 peterson 1992 cognates of personal control

Documents