02 ej lustig appendices.pdf

THESIS FOR THE AWARD OF

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN ARTS

_________

DEPARTMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY

____________

POWER AND PRAGMATISM IN THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF ANGKOR

Appendices

EILEEN LUSTIG

_________

UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY

2009

1

Appendix 1Appendix 1Appendix 1Appendix 1 Chronology of AngkorChronology of AngkorChronology of AngkorChronology of Angkorian ian ian ian RulersRulersRulersRulers Date CE Ruler Construction Events

c. 802-c.835 Jayavarman II Kulen Rise of power from base at Vyadhapura (Bantay Prei Nokor). Gained control of territory or alliances with Bhavapura (?), Śambhuapura (Sambor), Malyang (SW of Tonle Sap). Ceremony marking his accession on Kulen plateau and said to have established the cult of kamrateṅ jagat ta rāja (Sk devarāja) (780-802). Established capital at Hariharālaya (Roluos).

c.835-c.877 Jayavarman III

c.877-c.889 Indravarman I Preah Koh, Bakong, Baray Indratataka

Temples at Hariharālaya

c.889-c.915 Yaśovarman I Phnom Bakheng, Phnom Bok; Phnom Krom; Phnom Dei; start of East Baray, Prasat Kravan, embankment around capital city, linking causeway to Hariharālaya, diversion of Siem Reap River; 100 wooden ashrams (inc. Ba Phnom, Tbhong Khmum; Wat Phu, Preah Vihear and in Battambang)

Moved capital to Yaśodharapura (Angkor) centred on Phnom Bakheng

c.915-c.923 Harṣavarman I

c.923-c.928 Iṣānavarman II

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Appendix 1Appendix 1Appendix 1Appendix 1 Chronology of Angkorian Rulers (cont.)Chronology of Angkorian Rulers (cont.)Chronology of Angkorian Rulers (cont.)Chronology of Angkorian Rulers (cont.) Date CE Ruler Construction Events

c.928-c.941 Jayavarman IV Prasat Thom, Rahal Baray and minor temples

Established power base at Koh Ker (Chok Gargyar) from 922; claimed overlordship in 928

c.941-944 Harṣavarman II Short reign, followed by return of capital to Angkor

944-968 Rājendravarman II East Mebon, Pre Rup; Bat Chum; Kutisvara temple dedicated Baksei Chamkrong (? begun by previous monarch)

Restored Angkor and increased territories claimed now to extend to Vietnam, Laos, parts of Thailand (e.g. forays towards Lopburi), Burma, China; military expedition to Champa (950)

968-c.1000 Jayavarman V Ta Kev (Takeo) (unfinished); additions to Prasat Neak Buos, Preah Vihear, amongst others

As centre of his capital Jayendranagari (Angkor) began temple-pyramid Ta Kev (Takeo); began Phimeanakas.

c.1002-1002 Udayādityavarman I

1002-c.1010 Jayavīravarman Unable to assert control over whole empire.

1002-1050 Sūryavarman I Shrines to N (Preah Vihear), S (Phnom Chisor), E (? Icanatirtha) & W (Vat Ek) of capital; Takeo, Royal Palace North and South Khleangs and completion of Phimeanakas. Initial work on West Baray, Elephant, Terrace Preah Khan of Kompong Svay.

Acceded after years of conflict with Jayaviravarman. Power consolidated with of allegiance by officials, the taṃrvāc. Extensive building program attested by increase in number of references to ‘cities’ (pura) during his reign. Responsible for increased integration of Khorat Plateau region after construction of Phimai. Opened up connections to west, gained supremacy over Lavo (Lopburi) and into Tambralinga on the Malay Peninsula. (?) Alliances with Champa and China against Annam.

3

Appendix 1Appendix 1Appendix 1Appendix 1 Chronology of Angkorian RulersChronology of Angkorian RulersChronology of Angkorian RulersChronology of Angkorian Rulers (cont.) (cont.) (cont.) (cont.) Date CE Ruler Construction Events

1050-1066 Udayādityavarman II Baphuon; West Mebon. This and succeeding reign were period of internal conflicts and wars against the Champa

1066/7-1080 Harṣavarman III Angkor & Champa required to help China fight Vietnamese; subsequent war with Champa.

1080-c.1107 Jayavarman VI Phimai (?) New dynasty, (the Mahīdharapura) from Khorat area. No construction at Angkor, and his capital may have been in the region of his power base (Briggs: 179)

1107-1112 Dharaṇīndravarman 1

1113-c.1150 Sūryavarman 11 Angkor Wat; Preah Pithu; Chausay Tevoda; Thommanon; Banteay Samre; additions to Vat Phu, Preah Vihear, Preah Khan of Kompong Svay; may have begun Beng Mealea.

Came to power after period of instability and domestic conflict. Gained control of part of Malay peninsula. Campaigns against Đại Việt and Cham. Successful campaigns against the Chams and installation of his nominee on Cham throne. Song dynasty flees south; embassies sent from Angkor to China (1116, 1120).

1150-c.1166 Yaśovarman II Beginning of period of disunity lasting up to Jayavarman VII

c.1165-1177 Tribhuvanāditya-varman

Traditional view is that reign ends with defeat by Cham fleet (arriving at Great Lake via Tonle Sap). Perhaps Cham raids while future Jayavarman VII was in Vijaya.

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Appendix 1Appendix 1Appendix 1Appendix 1 Chronology of Angkorian RulersChronology of Angkorian RulersChronology of Angkorian RulersChronology of Angkorian Rulers (cont.) (cont.) (cont.) (cont.) Date CE Ruler Construction Events

1181-c.1220 Jayavarman VII Ta Prohm; Preah Khan; Bayon; Sra Srang royal bath; Banteay Kdei; North-eastern Baray; Neak Pean; Ta Som; Angkor Thom; Terrace of Leper King; Terrace of Elephants; Krol Ko; Preah Palilay (?); Suor Prat; 102 hospitals (50 identified), 121 rest houses/ ‘fire houses’ on 3 roads; roads linking Angkor with outer parts of kingdom.

Returned to Cambodia with army of Khmer and Cham. Battle images are of these fighting other Khmer and Cham soldiers (i.e. may have gained throne with the help of Champa). Apparently subjugated some of Malay Peninsula and engaged in interaction with Burma and Sri Lanka. Campaigns against the Cham and Đại Việt to the east. His reign represents the greatest extent of Khmer empire, extending into Laos, Vietnam and Thailand. Royal patronage of Buddhism, distributing 23 images of himself as Buddha (Jayabuddhamahānātha) throughout the empire. Engaged in vast building program, some of which may have been completed by his successors.

c.1220-1243 Indravarman II Recent suggestion that he ruled up to 1270 (Jacques 2007: 41)

1243-1295 Jayavarman VIII Commonly held view is that there was Hindu reaction against Buddhism of Jayavarman VII and many Buddhas destroyed.

c.1295-c.1308 Śrīndravarman (Indravarman III)

Visit of Mongolian envoy Zhou Daguan (1296-7), who refers to 90 provinces in Cambodia.

1308-1590 More than 15 rulers Decline and eventual abandonment. 1431 sack of Angkor now in question (See Jacques, 1999:164-6.) State fragments after 15th C: rise of provincial lords.

Principal sources: (Hall 1985; Higham 1989; Mabbett and Chandler 1996; Vickery 1998; Briggs 1999[1951]; Jacques and Dumont [1990]1999)

5

Appendix 2Appendix 2Appendix 2Appendix 2 Joint godsJoint godsJoint godsJoint gods ( ( ( (after Sedov 1967)after Sedov 1967)after Sedov 1967)after Sedov 1967) YearYearYearYear CECECECE Small templeSmall templeSmall templeSmall temple Central templeCentral templeCentral templeCentral temple OfferingOfferingOfferingOffering ReferenceReferenceReferenceReference

681 VKA* Khaṇḍaliṅga Raṇḍāparvateśvara (?) Annually: 20 (measures) rice; 1 servant; 2 garments Tuol An Tnot (K. 561)

877 VKA Śri Vindhyeśvara Ashram of the Vraḥ Kaṃsteṅ Añ

Musée Brest (K. 415)

922 Tribhuvanaikanātha (at Jeṅ Oṅ) VKA. Śri Campeśvara (Kok Po)

Each year: 6 khārikā white rice; 8 āḍhaka melted butter; 8 pairs white garments jala; 100 cows; 1 gold ewer weighing 1 jyaṅ

Con An (K. 99)

948-968 Śivaliṅga (at Rudrapada) VKA Śivapāda (Neak Buos)

5 liḥ dehusked rice form the daily sacrifice, with a cook at the temple

Prasat Kantop (K. 352)

968 VKA Śivaliṅga ? VKA. Jagat Liṅgapūra For festivals:2 liḥ (rice); 1 yau garments/year; 1 vase nu duk; 1 parivāra oil; 1 parivāra oil sesame/day; on the occasion of…etc

Tuol Kul (K. 831)

Xth-XIth century

Vraḥ Kamrateṅ of Vraḥ Thkvāl K.** Jagat Vnaṃ Kantāl (Phnom Bakhen)

New year: 1 je dehusked rice Phnom Bakhen (K. 684)

1009 VKA Samaravīravarmasvāmi; VKA Samaravīravarmeśvara; Kanlon KA. Samaravīrarmajananīśvarī

Kamrateṅ Jagat Kanloṅ Ruṅ (Ph. Sanke Kon ? or Tap Siem ?)

Annually in the month of Māgha: 1 khārikā white rice; 4 prastha oil; 2 je sesame; 2 je beans; 2 banners; 2 yau holy garments

Phnom Sanke Kon (K. 232)

1027 Ta Nen K. Jagat Śri Jayakṣetra (Vat Baset)

K. 212

1028 Linga of Iśa in Vrai Vyak Śri Iśānatīrtheśvara (?) Annual offering Kuk Prin Crum (K. 92)

6

Appendix 2Appendix 2Appendix 2Appendix 2 JoinJoinJoinJoint gods t gods t gods t gods (cont.)(cont.)(cont.)(cont.) YearYearYearYear CECECECE Small templeSmall templeSmall templeSmall temple Central templeCentral templeCentral templeCentral temple OfferingOfferingOfferingOffering ReferenceReferenceReferenceReference

1096-1107

Bhadreśvara/ K Jagat at Liṅgapura (Vat Phu?) [uncertain: EL]

Unclear Samron (K. 258)

1109 Ashram in Kaṃluṅ Sruk Chpār Ransi Two portions of rice field to the east of the ashram supply god

Prasat Trau (K. 249)

Lonvek and Trapan Don On (?) K. Jagat Vnaṃ Ruṅ (Phnom Rung)

Offerings mentioned in both texts K. 254, K. 136

Śikhareśvara? (Prah Vihar)

Phah Vihar (K. 380-383; K. 583)

*VKA: vraḥ kamratāṅ añ **K.: Kamrateṅ

7

Appendix 3Appendix 3Appendix 3Appendix 3 HaHaHaHarvardrvardrvardrvard----Kyoto Convention for transliteration of Kyoto Convention for transliteration of Kyoto Convention for transliteration of Kyoto Convention for transliteration of texttexttexttext

Since ACCESS database does not allow the use of diacritic script, the Harvard-Kyoto Convention, below, has been adopted in the transliteration of text: It uses capital letters for most accented letters, including all the long vowels. Details are outlined on-line (Kapp and Malten 1997). ACCESS query operations are case insensitive, but the answers are not. When text is transferred to WORD or EXCEL documents, the diacritic marks may be added.

a A(ā) i I(ī) u U(ū) R(ṛ) RR(ṝ) lR(ḷ) lRR(ḹ) e ai o au M(ṃ) H(ḥ)

k kh g gh G(ṇ) c ch j jh J(ñ) T(ṭ) Th(ṭh) D(ḍ) Dh(ḍh) N(ṇ) t th d dh n

P ph b bh m y r l v z(ś) S(ṣ) s h

8

Appendix 4Appendix 4Appendix 4Appendix 4 Spelling of Khmer inscription and site namesSpelling of Khmer inscription and site namesSpelling of Khmer inscription and site namesSpelling of Khmer inscription and site names Where the thesis text refers to data found in specific inscriptions, inscription names and provinces have been spelt according to the conventions used in the original transliterated publications, which are listed in the thesis References section. In Cambodia today, there are new conventions, such as are used on maps, for transliteration into Roman characters, and these are adopted for provinces and sites when they are not referring to any inscription. Feature of the current spelling include: the lack of diacritic marks and apostrophes; final n becoming ng; a after a consonant becoming ea. The following table shows the most frequently occurring names where there are differences between the earlier and the modern Cambodian spelling. NOTENOTENOTENOTE Microsoft ACCESS does not have the facility for queries using diacritic marks, so although these were used in the transliterations, they were not used for the names by which the inscriptions are known, usually site names, in the Angkor Inscriptions Database.

French SpellingFrench SpellingFrench SpellingFrench Spelling Modern Modern Modern Modern TransliteratedTransliteratedTransliteratedTransliterated

SpellingSpellingSpellingSpelling

Bantay Chmar Banteay Chhmar

Bantay Srei Banteay Srei

Battamban Battambang

Ben Mala Beng Mealea

Kompon Spu Kompong Speu

L’opburi Lopburi

Nak Buos Neak Buos

Phnom Cisor Phnom Chisor

P’imai Phimai

Prah Khan Preah Khan

Prah Vihar Preah Vihear

Prei Ven Prey Veng

Ta Kev Takeo

Vat Ph’u Vat Phu

9

Appendix 5Appendix 5Appendix 5Appendix 5 Sources of inscription dataSources of inscription dataSources of inscription dataSources of inscription data

AbbreviationsAbbreviationsAbbreviationsAbbreviations used used used used (followi(followi(followi(following Cœdès 1966)ng Cœdès 1966)ng Cœdès 1966)ng Cœdès 1966)

AKCAKCAKCAKC H. Parmentier, L’art khmèr classique, 2 vols., Paris 1939 (Publ. EFEO, XXIX).

ASASASAS Articles sur le pays khmer. Réimpression des Articles de George Cœdès parus dans le BEFEO

AAAA Aymonier, Le Cambodge, 3 vols., Paris 1900-1903 BCBCBCBC Bulletin de la Commission archéologique de l’Indochine, Paris BEBEBEBE Bulletin de l’École française d'Extrême-Orient (BEFEO) CCCC G. Cœdès, Inscriptions du Cambodge, 8 vols. École française d'Extrême-Orient

(EFEO) FFFF L. Finot, H. Parmentier& V. Goloubew, A Guide to the Temple of Banteay Srei at

Angkor. Bangkok 2000[1926] (Publ. White Lotus). FournereauFournereauFournereauFournereau Annales du Musée Guimet, L Siam Ancien, Première Partie, Paris 1895. IALIALIALIAL Indian Art and Letters, Londres ISISISIS A. Barth et A. Bergaigne, Inscriptions sanscrites de Campā et du Cambodge, Paris,

1885-1893 JAJAJAJA Journal Asiatique, Paris JASBJASBJASBJASB Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta. JGISJGISJGISJGIS Journal of the Greater India Society, Calcutta. JSSJSSJSSJSS Journal of the Siam Society, Bangkok. LLLL L. de LaJonquière, Inventaire descriptif des monuments du Cambodge, 3 vols.,

Paris, 1902-1911 (Publ. EFEO IV, VII, IX). NINININI S. Pou, Nouvelles Inscriptions de Cambodge II & III, Paris, EFEO, 2001 RSRSRSRS Recueil des inscriptions du Siam, 3 vols., Bangkok, 1924-1929-1935.

10

K. ID Reference_Key K. ID Reference_Key K. ID Reference_Key K. ID Reference_Key

K0001 C-VI-28 K0093 L-I-115 K0184 BE-XXI-13 K0270 C-IV-68

K0002 A-I-146 K0094 C-V-106 K0185 C-I-48 K0271 C-IV-75

K0003 BE-XXXVI-7 K0095 IS-XLIV-355 K0186 C-I-48 K0272 BE-XLIV-103

K0004 A-I-145 K0096 A-I-288 K0187 C-I-49 K0273 AS-II-11

K0005 AS-II-204 K0097 A-I-289 K0188 NI-94 K0274 BE-44-103

K0006 BE-XXXVI-5 K0098 C-VII-32 K0189 C-I-50 K0275 IS-XV-97

K0007 BE-XXXVI-3 K0099 C-VI-107 K0190 C-VI-89 K0276 C-IV-152

K0008 C-II-79 K0100 C-VI-214 K0191 C-VI-300 K0277 C-IV-155

K0009 C-V-35 K0101 IS-XLVIII-382 K0192 C-VI-128 K0278 IS-XV-106

K0011 C-II-7 K0102 C-V-32 K0193 C-VI-130 K0279 IS-LVI-418

K0012 BE-III-460 K0103 C-V-33 K0194 AS-II-245 K0280 IS-LVII-432

K0013 IS-V-31 K0104 C-V-34 K0195 C-VI-247 K0281 IS-LVIII-452

K0014 IS-XXXVIII-312 K0105 C-VI-183 K0196 C-VI-224 K0282 IS-LIX-474

K0015 L-I-8a K0107 C-VI-38 K0197 A-I-229 K0283 IS-LX-504

K0016 L-I-8b K0109 C-V-41 K0198 C-VI-147 K0284 BE-44-105

K0017 L-I-8c K0110 IS-XLIX-384 k0199 A-II-283 K0286 C-IV-88

K0018 C-II-146 K0111 C-VI-195 K0200 C-VI-312 K0287 C-IV-235

K0019 C-VI-143 K0112 A-I-261 K0202 C-VII-40 K0288 C-IV-209

K0020 A-I-169 K0113 C-VI-20 K0203 A-II-290 K0289 IS-XVIII-140

K0021 C-V-5 K0115 C-VI-10 K0204 C-VII-42 K0290 C-III-231; BE-32-85

K0022 C-III-143 K0116 C-II-134 K0205 C-III-3 K0291 C-III-199

K0024 C-II-16 K0117 L-I-181 K0206 C-III-11 K0292 C-III-205 `

K0025 C-II-18 & C-VI-31 K0118 L-I-181 K0207 C-III-16 K0293 C-III-193

K0028 C-II-24 K0119 L-I-181 K0208 C-VI-287 K0294 C-III-197

K0029 C-II-25 K0120 A-I-296 K0209 BE-III-460 K0298 JA-1883(2)-199

K0030 C-II-26 K0121 BE-4-675 K0210 A-II-298 K0299 NI-156

K0031 C-II-29 K0122 BE-III-212 K0211 C-III-26 K0300 C-IV-254

K0032 C-II-137 K0124 C-III-170 K0212 C-III-29 K0304 IS-XXXVII-310

K0033 C-III-148 K0125 BE-XXVIII-140 K0213 IS-III-26 K0305 IS-XXXVII-310

K0034 C-III-152 K0126 C-VII-33 K0214 C-II-202 K0306 IS-XXXVII-310

K0035 C-II-32 K0127 C-II-89 K0215 C-III-34 K0307 IS-XXXVII-310

K0036 C-II-31 K0128 C-II-87 K0216 C-III-40 K0308 IS-XXXVII-310

K0037 C-II-35 K0129 C-II-83 K0217 C-VII-43 K0309 IS-XLVI-377

K0038 C-II-45 K0130 L-I-189e K0218 C-III-45 K0310 IS-XXXVI-297

K0040 AS-210 K0131 A-I-306 K0219 C-VII-45 K0311 A-II-441

K0041 C-VI-32 K0132 C-II-85 K0220 C-VI-225 K0312 NI-30

K0042 IS-LII-387 K0133 C-V-81 K0221 C-III-54 K0313 NI-34

K0043 A-I-158 K0134 C-II-92 K0222 C-III-61 K0314 NI-39

K0044 C-II-10 K0135 C-II-95 K0223 IS-XLV-376 K0315 NI-41

K0045 IS-LIII-388 K0136 C-VI-284;IS-XVII-122 K0224 C-VII-48 K0316 NI-46

K0046 C-VI-34 K0137 C-II-115 K0225 C-III-66 K0317 IS-XXXVI-279

K0047 IS-LI-386 K0138 C-V-18 K0226 BE-XLIV-118 K0318 NI-48

K0048 C-VI-27 K0139 C-III-175 K0227 BE-XXIX-309 K0319 NI-53

K0049 C-VI-6 K0140 C-VI-14 K0228 C-V-238 K0320 NI-55

K0050 IS-XII-73 K0143 C-VI-218 K0229 C-VI-273 K0321 A-II-448

K0051 C-V-14 K0144 C-VII-34 K0230 C-VI-241 K0322 A-II-449

K0052 C-VI-93 K0145 C-VI-72 K0231 C-III-72 K0323 IS-LV-391

K0053 IS-XI-64 K0146 C-VI-80 K0232 C-VI-228 K0324 NI-62

K0054 C-III-157 K0148 C-IV-33 K0233 JA-1954-49 K0325 NI-67

K0055 C-III- 162 K0149 C-IV-28 K0234 C-VI-234 K0326 NI-69

K0056 C-VII-3 K0150 C-V-191 K0235 AS-II-168 K0327 NI-71

K0057 IS-L-385 K0151 BE-XLIII-5 K0236 A-II-357 K0328 NI-75

K0058 A-I-234 K0152 C-V-191 K0237 C-VI-293 K0329 NI-76

K0060 IS-VI-38 K0153 C-V-194 K0238 C-VI-119 K0330 NI-78

K0061 C-VII-20 K0154 C-II-123 K0239 C-III-79 K0331 NI-82

K0062 A-I-272 K0155 C-V-64 K0240 C-III-76 K0332 NI-86

K0063 A-I-273 K0156 C-V-178 K0241 C-III-77 K0333 A-II-457

K0064 A-I-272 K0157 C-VI-123 K0242 C-III-85 K0334 A-II -459

K0066 C-II-51 K0158 C-II-97 K0243 BE-XLIV-117 K0335 A-II-457

K0067 C-VII-23 K0159 C-VI-40 K0244 C-III-89 K0336 A-II-459

K0068 C-VII-26 K0160 A-I-378 K0245 C-III-90 K0337 NI-87

K0069 C-VI-275 K0161 BE-IV-672 K0246 C-III-94 K0338 A-I-459

K0070 C-II-58 K0162 C-VI-101 K0247 C-III-94 K0339 C-V-165

K0071 C-II-54 K0163 C-VI-100 K0248 C-III-94 K0340 C-VI-81

K0072 C-VI-114; VII-135 K0164 C-VI-96 K0249 C-III-97 K0341 C-VI-22

K0073 C-VI-37 K0165 C-VI-132 K0250 C-III-100 K0342 C-VI-236

K0074 C-VI-18 K0167 C-VI-212 K0252 C-III-102 K0343 C-VI-156

K0076 C-V-7 K0168 C-VI-168 K0253 C-III-103 K0344 C-VI-160

K0077 C-V-46 K0170 IS-XVI-117 K0254 C-III-180 K0345 C-VI-156

K0078 C-VI-12 K0171 C-VI-165 K0255 BE-37(2)-383 K0346 IS-XLVII-378

K0079 C-II-69 K0172 BE-XI(3-4)-398 K0256 AS-II-89 K0347 C-VI-181

K0080 C-VI-3 K0173 JA-1914(1)-638 K0257 C-IV-140 K0348 C-V-108

K0081 IS-I-8 K0174 JA-1914(1)-644 K0258 C-IV-175 K0349 C-V-108

K0084 A-I-332 K0175 C-VI-173 K0259 C-VII-50 K0350 C-VI-187

K0085 C-VII-28 K0176 C-V-275 K0260 C-IV-171 K0351 C-VI-191

K0086 C-V-280 K0177 C-VII-37 K0262 C-IV-108 K0352 C-V-125

K0087 C-VII-30 K0178 C-VI-192 K0263 C-IV-118 K0353 C-V-132

K0088 C-VII-30 K0179 C-VI-317 K0265 C-IV-102 K0354 C-V-132

K0089 C-III-164 K0180 BE-XIII (6)-17 K0266 JA-1908(2)-213 K0355 BE-XI-405

K0090 C-V-25 K0181 C-VI-140 K0267 JA-1908(2)-213 K0356 BE-XI-400; XLIII-10

K0091 C-II-126 K0182 C-I-55 K0268 JA-1908(2)-213 K0357 C-VI-41

K0092 C-V-229 K0183 C-I-52 K0269 C-IV-74 K0358 C-V-63

11

K0359 IS-IV-28 K0445 C-III-105 K0536 C-IV-160 K0626 BE-44-112

K0360 C-V-61 K0447 C-II-193 K0537 BE-XL-344 K0627 BE-44-115

K0361 nil K0448 L-III-450 K0538 BE-XXV-369 K0628 BE-44-115

K0362 IS-LIV-389 K0449 BE-XIII(6)-27 K0539 C-III-197 K0629 BE-44-115

K0363 BE-III-442 K0450 C-III-109 K0540 C-III-193 K0630 BE-44-115

K0364 BE-XII (2) K0451 C-V-49 K0541 C-III-221 K0631 BE-44-115

K0365 BE-XLVIII-209 K0452 C-V-156 K0542 C-III-221 K0632 BE-44-114

K0366 C-V-288 K0453 C-III-116 K0543 BE-XXXII-1 K0633 BE-44-114

K0367 BE-II-235 K0454 C-III-121 K0544 BE-XVIII(10)-71 K0634 BE-44-113

K0368 BE-III-I-18 K0455 C-VII-79 K0545 BE-XIX(5)-125 K0635 BE-44-113

K0369 C-VI-281 K0456 L-III-354 K0546 nil K0636 BE-44-114

K0370 C-VII-58 K0457 BE-XVIII (9) 13 K0547 C-IV-250 K0637 BE-44-114

K0371 C-V-175 K0460 BE-44-116 K0548 C-II-154 K0638 BE-44-107

K0372 A-II-105 K0461 BE-XII(9)-186 K0549 C-II-155 K0639 BE-44-109

K0373 C-VI-279 K0462 BE-44-107 K0550 BE-44-117 K0640 BE-44-108

K0374 C-VI-251 K0463 BE-XII-9-186 K0551 BE-44-116 K0641 BE-44-109

K0375 BE-III-460 K0464 BE-XI (3-4)-396 K0552 nil K0642 BE-44-112

K0376 C-VII-60 K0466 C-III-219 K0554 C-II-14 K0643 BE-XXIX-343

K0377 C-V-3 K0467 C-III-217 K0556 C-II-19 K0644 nil

K0378 C-VII-62 K0468 C-III-225 K0558 BE-XXV-363 K0645 nil

K0379 C-VI-213 K0469 BE-XXXII-74 K0559 C-II-36 K0646 nil

K0380 C-VI-257 K0470 C-II-187 K0560 C-II-37 K0648 C-VI-16

K0381 C-VI-255 K0471 C-VII-81 K0561 C-II-39 K0649 C-VI-45

K0382 IS-LXI-525 K0472 BE-XII(9)-186 K0562 C-II-196 K0650 C-V-170

K0383 AS-II-245 K0473 BE-XIII(1)-45 K0563 C-II-198 K0651 C-VI-278

K0384 C-V-297 K0474 C-II-145 K0564 nil K0652 C-V-55

K0385 L-II-223 K0475 BE-XV(2)-107 K0565 nil K0653 C-V-114

K0386 BE-III-460 K0476 C-V-10 K0566 C-V-182 K0654 C-V-274

K0387 BE-III-460 K0479 L-III-456 K0567 F-84 K0655 C-VI-86

K0388 C-VI-73 K0480 C-II-191 K0568 F-78 K0656 BE-XXXIV-767

K0389 C-VI-78 K0482 C-V-28 K0569 NI-166 K0657 C-VI-46

K0390 L-II-258 K0483 C-1-251 K0570 C-I-143 K0658 BE-XXXV-79

K0391 C-VI-296 K0484 BE-XVIII (9)-9 K0571 NI-111 K0659 C-V-143

K0392 A-II-110 K0485 C-II-161 K0572 F-76 K0660 C-I-195

K0393 C-VII-63 K0487 BE-XVII(6)-56 K0573 F-83 K0661 C-I-197

K0394 A-II-110 K0488 BE-XXV-393 K0574 F-82 K0662 BE-XXIX-292

K0395 BE-III-460 K0489 C-III-229 K0575 F-82 K0663 nil

K0396 C-VI-99 K0490 BE-XVIII(8)-31 K0576 BE-XXV-307 K0664 C-V-69

K0397 BE-XXIV-345 K0491 C-II-183 K0577 RS-II-15 K0665 BE-XXX-218

K0398 A-II-122 K0492 C-II-80 K0578 BE-XXV-368 K0666 C-V-45

K0399 A-II-122 K0493 C-II-149 K0579 BE-XXV-365 K0667 BE-XXX-222, 224

K0400 C-VI-83 K0494 BE-XVIII(10)-64 K0580 C-VI-154 K0668 C-I-159

K0401 A-II-116 K0495 BE-22-62 K0581 nil K0669 C-1-159

K0402 JA-CCXLVI-1958-127 K0496 BE-XXII-57 K0582 C-II-200 K0670 C-VII-88

K0403 C-VII-71 K0497 BE-XXII-57 K0583 C-VII-84 K0671 nil

K0404 C-VII-72 K0498 nil K0584 C-III-126 K0672 nil

K0405 C-VI-321 K0499 JASB-1935-54 K0588 C-III-128 K0673 nil

K0406 A-II-77 K0500 nil K0589 C-III-130 K0674 C-VII-89

K0407 RS-II-XXVII-51 K0501 C-III-85 K0590 C-III-129 K0675 C-I-61

K0408 L-II-322a K0502 BE-24-352 K0591 C-III-132 K0676 C-I-52

K0410 RS-II-XIX-21 K0503 BEXXIV-353 K0592 BE-XLIV-117 K0677 NI-98

K0411 A-II-82 K0504 BE-XVIII(6)-33 K0593 C-III-120 K0678 C-I-54

K0412 RS-II-XXI-29 K0505 C-V-23 K0594 C-III-120 K0679 C-I-54

K0413 BE-XVII (2) K0506 NI-180 K0597 C-IV-231 K0680 C-I-54

K0414 Fournereau S A-137 K0507 C-V-23 K0598 NI-230 K0681 C-I-55

K0415 C-V-87 K0508 BE-XXII-385 K0599 BE-XXXVI-60 K0682 C-I-50

K0416 C-II-47 K0509 BE-XXII-59 K0600 C-II-21 K0683 JFCA-VIII-116(?)

K0417 C-II-48 K0510 C-VII-82 K0601 nil K0684 C-IV-106

K0418 BE-4-676 K0511 C-VII-82 K0602 BE-XXVI-512 K0685 C-IV-206

K0419 BE-XIX(5)-107 K0512 C-VII-74 K0603 C-IV-79 K0686 C-IV-83

K0420 C-IV-161 K0513 BE-XXII-92 K0604 BE-XXVIII-44 K0687 C-IV-81

K0421 C-V-272 K0514 BE-XXII-92 K0605 C-IV-77 K0688 C-IV-36

K0422 C-II-9 K0515 BE-XII-92 K0606 C-IV-80 K0689 C-VI-47

K0423 C-II-135 K0516 BE-XX(4)-1 K0607 C-IV-19 K0690 C-VII-91

K0424 C-II-73 K0517 BE-XII(3)-4 K0608 C-IV-19 K0691 C-IV-151

K0425 C-II-142 K0518 C-II-75 K0609 BE-XXVIII-43 K0692 C-I-227

K0426 C-II-121 K0519 nil K0610 BE-XXVIII-43 K0693 C-V-202

K0427 C-VI-43 K0520 BE-XX(4)-6 K0611 BE-XXVIII-43 K0694 BE-XXX-231

K0428 C-VII-76 K0521 C-IV-167 K0612 C-IV-3 K0696 BE-44-117

K0429 BC-1912-183 K0522 C-V-119 K0613 nil K0697 C-VII-94

K0430 C-VI-44 K0523 C-III-134 K0614 BE-XL-314 K0699 nil

K0432 C-II-119 K0524 C-III-134 K0615 nil K0700 nil

K0435 BE-XV-108 K0525 C-II-190 K0616 nil K0701 BE-32(1)-88

K0436 C-IV-20 K0526 BE-44-526 K0617 NI-224 K0702 C-V-222

K0437 C-IV-24 K0527 BE-XLIII-15 K0618 NI-227 K0703 RS-II-25

K0438 C-IV-25 K0528 BE-25-309 K0619 BE-XXVIII-51 K0704 nil

K0439 C-IV-30 K0530 C-II-159 K0620 BE-XXVIII-53 K0705 C-V-198

K0440 C-IV-5 K0531 C-II-160 K0621 BE-44-109 K0706 C-V-216

K0441 C-IV-14 K0532 BE-XXV-354 K0622 BE-44-109 K0707 C-V-216

K0442 C-IV-11 K0533 nil K0623 BE-44-112 K0708 C-V-217

K0443 C-IV-35 K0534 BE-XXV-297 K0624 BE-44-113 K0709 C-V-30

K0444 C-II-62 K0535 C-IV-160 K0625 BE-44-112 K0710 C-VI-49

12

K. ID Reference_Key K. ID Reference_Key K. ID Reference_Key K. ID Reference_Key

K0711 C-VI-50 K0811 C-VI-63 K0898 JA-CCXL-1952-466 K0982 C-VII-160

K0712 C-VI-50 K0812 nil K0899 nil K0983 C-VII-160

K0713 C-I-17 K0813 C-I-37 K0900 BE-XXXVII-676 K0984 C-VII-161

K0714 nil K0814 BE-37(2)-413 K0901 nil K0985 C-VII-161

K0717 C-I-189 K0815 nil K0902 nil K0986 C-VII-161

K0719 C-VI-52 K0816 C-VI-64 K0903 C-VI-70 K0987 C-VII-162

K0720 C-V-212 K0817 C-V-200 K0904 C-IV-54 K0988 C-VII-163

K0721 C-V-295 K0818 C-VI-65 K0905 C-IV-78 K0989 C-VII-163

K0723 C-V-12 K0820 C-VII-108 k0906 BE-44-111 K0990 C-VII-190

K0724 C-V-12 K0821 nil K0907 BE-44-107 K0991 C-VII-191

K0725 C-I-7 K0822 C-VI-113 K0908 AS-II-119 K0992 C-VII-194

K0726 C-V-75 K0823 C-VI-113 K0909 BE-44-103 K0993 nil

K0727 nil K0824 NI-96 K0910 C-V-39 K0994 nil

K0728 C-V-83 K0825 nil K0911 C-V-85 K0995 RS-III-36, 10

K0729 BE-XXXV-64 K0826 C-I-31 K0912 BE-XL-480 K0996 nil

K0730 nil K0827 BE-44-119 K0913 C-V-270 K0997 RS-III-56, 109

K0731 JFC-? IX-271 K0828 nil K0914 BE-44-110 K0998 nil

K0732 BE-VIII-331 K0829 C-IV-43 K0915 CE-XXXV-14; LVI-intr K0999 NI-124

K0733 C-I-3 K0830 C-V-278 K0916 nil K1000 BE-LVI-58

K0734 nil K0831 C-V-147 K0917 nil K1001 BE-56-61

K0735 C-V-96 K0832 C-V-91 K0918 CE-XXXVI-3, 7 K1002 BE-LIV-605

K0736 C-V-306 K0833 C-IV-53 K0919 nil K1003 nil

K0737 BE-XXXV-63, 142 K0834 C-V-244 K0920 BE-44-111 K1004 nil

K0738 BE-XXXV-142 K0835 BE-V(2)-26 K0921 CE-XXXVIII-10 K1005 nil

K0740 nil K0836 nil K0922 C-VI-71 K1007 BE-56-67

K0741 C-V-160 K0837 nil K0923 C-IV-39 K1008 BE-LVI-67

K0742 C-V-162 K0838 nil K0924 CE-XXXIX-2, 6 K1009 BE-LVI-68

K0743 nil K0839 nil K0925 BE-44-108 K1010 BE-LVI-70

K0744 C-VI-216 K0840 BE-XXXVI-60 K0926 C-V-20 K1011 BE-86-357

K0745 C-VII-99 K0841 nil K0927 C-V-22 K1012 BE-86-361

K0748 C-V-17 K0842 C-I-147 K0928 nil K1014 BE-LVI-71

K0749 C-V-57 K0843 C-VII-109 K0929 nil K1015 BE-86-363

K0750 BE-XXXIII-527 K0844 C-V-173 K0930 C-V-315 K1016 BE-86-363

K0751 nil K0845 C-V-186 K0931 BE-44-114 K1019 BE-LVI-72

K0752 C-V-59 K0846 C-V-316 K0932 nil K1020 BE-LVI-73

K0753 C-V-58 K0847 C-VI-167 K0933 C-IV-45 K1028 NI-25

K0754 BE-XXXVI-14 K0848 C-I-187 K0934 C-IV-45 K1030 NI-23

K0755 C-VI-55 K0849 C-I-260 K0935 C-IV45 K1034 BE-LVII-68

K0756 C-VI-319 K0850 C-I-268 K0936 C-IV-45 K1036 NI-149

K0757 C-VII-101 K0851 C-I-255 K0937 C-IV-46 K1050 NI-99

K0758 BE-XXX-577 K0852 C-I-267 K0938 C-VII-121 K1051 NI-91

K0759 C-VI-56 K0853 C-I-256 K0939 C-V-56 K1065 NI-89

K0760 C-V-115 K0854 C-I-260 K0940 C-V-73 K1067 NI-139

K0761 C-VII-102 K0855 C-V-314 K0941 AKC-105-fig 22 A K1068 NI-142

K0762 C-I-12 K0856 C-V-188 K0943 nil K1073 NI-102

K0764 C-VI-57 K0857 C-VII-120 K0944 C-V-210 K1074 NI-141

K0765 C-V-53 K0858 C-I-255 K0945 C-VII-123 K1077 NI-214

K0766 C-VI-58 K0859 C-I-259 K0946 nil K1085 NI-119

K0769 C-VI-318 K0860 C-I-256 K0947 nil K1087 NI-106

K0770 C-I-51 K0861 C-I-260 K0948 JA-CCXL-1952-465 K1094 NI-164

K0772 C-VII-104 K0862 C-I-260 K0949 JSS-XXXV-1944-73 K1098 NI-215

K0773 BE-XXXIII-1135 K0863 C-I-266 K0950 C-VI-115 K1116 NI-145

K0774 C-IV-64 K0864 C-I-270 K0951 nil K1128 NI-262

K0775 nil K0865 C-I-270 K0952 nil K1141 NI-115

K0776 nil K0866 nil K0953 C-VII-124 K1151 NI-109

K0777 nil K0867 C-VI-152 K0954 C-VII-126 K1152 NI-126

K0778 BE-XXXVI-59 K0868 C-VI-170 K0955 nil K1153 NI-261

K0779 C-VII-106 K0869 C-I-156 K0956 C-VII-128 K1154 NI-129

K0780 C-VI-150 K0870 nil K0957 C-VII-137 K1214 JA-293.1: 11

K0781 C-VI-91 K0871 BE-XXXVII-636 K0958 C-VII-141 K1218 Sydney 2006

K0782 C-I-221 K0872 C-V-97 K0959 nil K1219 Sydney 2006

K0783 C-I-143 K0873 C-V-104 K0960 nil Ka03 NI-195

K0784 C-VI-59 K0874 C-V-105 K0961 nil Ka04 NI-188

K0785 C-VI-59 K0875 JGIS-IV-117 K0962 nil Ka07 NI-183

K0786 C-VII-107 K0876 C-V-10 K0963 C-VII-148 Ka10 NI-186

K0787 C-VI-60 K0877 C-VI-66 K0964 JA-CCXLVI-1958-129 Ka11 NI-191

K0788 C-VI-61 K0878 C-V-88 K0965 JA-CCXLVI-1958-131 Ka12 NI-194

K0789 C-V-60 K0879 C-V-235 K0966 JA-CCXLVI-1958-132 Ka13 NI-197

K0790 C-V-71 K0880 C-VI-153 K0967 C-VII-149 Ka18 NI-240

K0791 C-VI-316 K0882 nil K0968 C-VII-150 Ka24 NI-184

K0794 nil K0883 nil K0969 C-VII-152 Ka28 NI-185

K0795 C-VI-240 K0884 C-VI-69 K0970 C-VII-153 Ka30 NI-190

K0796 BE-XXXV-143 K0885 C-V-150 K0971 nil Ka39 NI-211

K0797 nil K0886 C-V-151 K0973 C-VII-154 Ka50 NI-216

K0798 ADM-IV-47, 77 K0887 C-V-153 K0974 C-VII-155 Ka64 NI-200

K0799 nil K0889 nil K0975 IAL-X-1936-85 Ka79 NI-198

K0800 nil K0890 nil K0976 JSS-XLVIII-1960-74 n Ka87 NI-219

K0806 C-I-73 K0893 BE-XXXVIII-440 K0977 C-VII-74

K0807 C-VI-87 K0894 nil K0978 C-VII-156

K0808 C-VI-87 K0895 nil K0979 C-VII-158

K0809 C-I- 37 K0896 nil K0980 nil

K0810 C-VI-62 K0897 C-VI-320 K0981 C-VII-159

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Appendix 6Appendix 6Appendix 6Appendix 6 Database fields Database fields Database fields Database fields Note: The Angkor Inscriptions Database uses the Havard-Kyoto Convention for transliteration of text (Appendix 3).

A6.1A6.1A6.1A6.1 SiteSiteSiteSite

Site is either the location of the temple or other structure where one or more inscriptions were found, or, where there is no monumental structure, a nearby identifying landmark. The attributes of a site are recorded in the following fields:-

Site name The site name is that registered in Volume VIII of Coedès (1966) or

inscription site names which were registered at a later date. If the site name has been revised, the original name still appears in brackets. The French spelling of site names has been adopted and is according to BEFEO (1901- ) and the researchers Cœdès (1937-66), Aymonier (1900-1904), Finot et al (2000), Barth and Bergaine (1885-93). Thus Battamban, rather than the Khmer Battambang. Pou (2001).sometimes adopts the modern Cambodian spelling for a site and where the site is not known from earlier publications, this has been used in the database. Since ACCESS Database cannot run queries with, diacritics, these were omitted for site names. Inscription forms are accessed via the site name.

Site ID Each site has a unique site number which appears on the inscription form.

Province Province name is in accordance with the original published transliterations and translations as above. The provinces have varied considerably over the last century or so – boundaries have changed and recently some new provinces have been created. The names may be related to ancient area names. The provincial boundaries were altered during the Khmer Rouge period, and are different again now from what they were during the French protectorate: e.g. the province that used to be 'Battambang' is now Battambang, Banteay Meanchey (and Odddar Meanchey). Where there are two or more sites in different provinces having the same name, the province name is bracketed after the site name.

Geographic Coordinates

The locations of sites were derived from GPS readings, map geo-referencing or websites for modern population centres*. Where the provenance of an inscription is unknown, no coordinates are recorded; where only a district or province is known, the location of the principle

14

population centre of that region is recorded. Longitude and Latitude are recorded in decimal degrees. For conversion from UTM to degrees, the Khmer sites are within UTM Zone 48 (Cambodia, eastern Thailand, Laos and southern Vietnam) and Zone 47 (western Thailand), Zone 49 (Central Vietnam). GPS readings provide a number of decimal places which do not point to high accuracy.

http://www.earthsearch.net/intSearch.php

* http://www.fallingrain.com/world/CB/

Degree of accuracy of coordinates

The degree of accuracy is taken as being accurate to within: 0.01-0.05km; 0.05-0.1km (GPS readings); 0.1-0.5km (unverified GPS reading); 0.5-1.0km; 1-5km (last two estimate from recorded information); 5km-10 km; 10 km-50 km (determined by geo-referencing from printed map) or 50-100km (uncertain provenance; centre of district)

Site comment Records how the coordinates were determined and comments by researchers about the location of the site relative to other locations; local district names; alternative names; or other recorded details.

A6.2A6.2A6.2A6.2 InscriptionInscriptionInscriptionInscription

Each site contains one of more inscriptions. An inscription may range from a single word to hundreds of lines of text on a wall, stele, boundary marker, statue or metal object. The text is either in Sanskrit (or rarely Pali in the later inscriptions) or Khmer or often both languages. The state of preservation and thus the legibility of the script will be variable and is crucial to interpretation of the inscription. The attributes of the inscriptions are recorded in the following fields:- Inscription ID Each inscription has a unique K or Ka number. The K classification,

devised by EFEO, is currently being revised to accommodate more recently discovered inscriptions and errors, such as duplications in registration. The Ka classification was adopted by the National Museum of Phnom Penh for its collection. Where both K and Ka numbers have been assigned to an inscription, the K number has been adopted.

Inscription reference

This field records the publication in which the version of the transliterated and translated inscription was found. The abbreviations used are according

15

to Cœdès (VIII, 1966: 74-75).

Dates Dates used in the database are derived from the śaka dates. These have been converted to CE dates. Inscriptions are deemed to belong to the Pre-Angkorian period if their last date is less than AD 803 and Angkorian if it is later than this (Vickery, 1998: 84). There is a field for Start Date and one for End Date. The End Date is the most recent date recorded in the text. If the inscription has only one date, the Start Date and the End Date are the same. If there is more than one date, the earliest and the latest of these dates are recorded. If the inscription is undated, but the text, according to translators, pertains to a century or centuries, those dates are recorded (e.g. 500-599). In many instances of undated inscriptions, there is reference to a ruler, perhaps using his posthumous name, which again suggests the earliest date that the inscription could have been written. If an inscription relates to the reign of a named ruler, the dates of his reign are recorded. The rationale for recording a particular date range for an undated inscription is noted in the Inscription Comment field. The date range of a group of inscriptions is taken as from the minimum end date to the maximum end date in the group

Date certainty This field is ticked if the translated version of the inscription contains at least one complete śaka date.

Dating system CE is ticked, but there is also an option for śaka.

Inscription comment

This field summarises the information accompanying the published transliterations and translations of the texts, including if possible, the purpose of the inscription. It records the number of lines, the languages used and, where relevant, the condition of the text; principal deities; the players and their inter-relationships; the political context; and discussion about interpretation of the text.

Founder/ donor role

The role or position held by the founder or ‘principal donor’ is recorded in this field. The role is chosen from a drop-down list.

Founder/ donor title

If the founder or principal donor is referred to in both the Sanskrit and the Khmer parts of the inscription, the Khmer title is recorded. The title is chosen from a drop-down list.

16

Founder/ donor comment

If known, the name of the founder or principal donor with additional information about this person is entered in the Founder/donor Comment field. Other donors mentioned are also named.

Role of ruler All references to ruler actions are recorded. The ruler may simply be named or referred to. Other references are usually concerned with issues of governance, such as royal ordinances or requests to the king and mostly relate to allocation of lands, the establishment or management of religious foundations, settlement of disputes, taxation or allocation of merit.

Authority over foundation

Inscriptions of foundations often authorise family members or clergy to manage the establishment and or its resources, at times making provision for the future. Sometimes it is stated that these people do not hold this authority. The expression ‘exclusive right’ is frequently used to describe the rights of these people, but the wording and the people mentioned are specific to the inscription.

Exemptions/ impositions

There are frequent royal edicts and declarations by the authors of inscriptions that religious foundations and their staff, lands and other property and, in some cases, private holdings, are to be exempt from interference by specific authorities or officials. These are often difficult to interpret, though many seem to refer to tax immunities and others to management of the establishment or its resources. Some of the immunities are common to a number of the inscriptions, others are unique to particular inscriptions.

A6.3A6.3A6.3A6.3 ObjectObjectObjectObject

Objects are the most basic units to be collated in the database, and are the most numerous.

Inscription face An inscription, registered under a single K or Ka number, may cover more

than one face of a stele or edifice (e.g. the door jamb on both sides of a door). The inscription face on which the relevant text and its data is written, has been recorded with the transliteration. An entry in this field, obtained from a drop-down list, may be a number, a Roman numeral or compass point (N,S, E, or W)

17

Language This records the language of the text containing the relevant object and is most frequently Old Khmer, followed by Sanskrit. Other options for the field are ‘Both Sanskrit and Khmer’, ‘Pali’ and ‘Unclear’. The entry is obtained from a drop-down list.

Object Each inscription contains one or more lexical items (or objects). These are obtained from the drop-down list. Where there is no object recorded for the inscription ID, ‘no object’ with an explanation is entered (e.g. no object/illegible; no object/not published; no object/no relevant object). The objects entered are mainly associated with the establishment or maintenance of religious foundations. They do not include items mentioned in panegyrics or eulogies to rulers or founders. Proper nouns, such as names of people or places were not included in this study, although location descriptors, such as trees and roads, are included for their relevance to the economy. The majority of lexical terms were drawn from the Khmer language inscriptions, but some Sanskrit texts (e.g. some of Jayavarman VII) contain valuable economic data and lexical items from these are included. The term and common alternative spellings are given, followed by the meaning(s) of the word in brackets. A question mark indicates that the meaning is disputed. If there is a symbol Sk at the end, this indicates that the word is thought to be of Sanskrit derivation. Certain terms are of arguable etymology; (e.g. of uncertain Indo-Aryan or Mon-Khmer derivation or a Khmer form of a Sanskrit word (Battacharya, 1991; Pou, 2003) and for this reason and because some word groups use both Sanskrit and Khmer words, non-Sanskrit terms are not assigned a language. At the time of writing, the Objects Table contained 1600 lexical items. All objects are categorised as belonging to one of 21 categories (Object Categories), which is assigned when the object is first recorded. The Categories field does not appear on the form.

Material Where the material of an object is mentioned, it is recorded by selection from a drop-down list. This field may be left blank.

Number Countable objects may be qualified by a number. Although it is sometimes unclear whether singular or plural items are intended, if an object appears without a qualifying number, the Number field is left blank. If there is a number which is illegible, this is recorded as 0.

18

Measurement This field records both the numerical quantity and units of measurement of uncountable objects. It allows for several different scaled units. Different versions of the spelling of units may be entered. Where the quantity was recorded in the text, but is illegible, a 0 is entered; where the unit of measurement is illegible, the symbol ? is recorded.

Frequency The particular holy days or months specified for temple offerings and allocations to temple and other personnel are recorded in the frequency field.

Context Each object is assigned a Context, even though this may not be specified in the inscription. The majority of objects in inscriptions are referred to as gifts or offerings to deities or appear in temple inventories. Objects are also mentioned in other contexts, such as commercial exchanges, official duties, personal gifts, taxation, building construction, legal disputes, or as hospital provisions. Where only a fragment of an inscription is legible, or the meaning is ambiguous, the most logical context is adopted. Thus, an unqualified list of objects or personnel is considered to be an inventory. Context is recorded from a drop-down list.

Recipient An object may or may not have a Recipient. If an object is a gift to a religious establishment or to a deity or is part of a temple inventory, its Recipient is taken as a god/s. For objects used in exchanges, the recipient is the vendor. However, where it is not clear whether quantities of food, clothing or workers are intended for gods or for temple personnel; the field is not filled. The Recipient is recorded from a drop-down list.

Comment The Comment field has additional information. This data may be a comment by the translator, a breakdown of classes of personnel, objects offered in exchange for the item in the Objects field if it was purchased, names of individual land vendors or rice fields, or dimensions of lands, such as their perimeters, which could not be included in the Measurement field.

19

Appendix 7Appendix 7Appendix 7Appendix 7 AngkorianAngkorianAngkorianAngkorian period officials period officials period officials period officials associatedassociatedassociatedassociated with taxation and other with taxation and other with taxation and other with taxation and other levieslevieslevieslevies The kinds of tax and the collecting authorities are not fully understood. The table below incorporates database material relating to taxes and immunities and data collated by Sahai (1970: 126-131). The Officials column illustrates the multiple titles and functions that existed. The uncertainty of the meaning of some of the titles may be noted.

Tax or imposition Officials Evidence

bhūmyakara (land)

Lands were assessed according to area. In K. 957/941 local officials were not allowed to tax the land of a temple (vamm āc ti dār bhūmyākara) outside their jurisdiction.

sru and vrīha/ vrīhi (rice)

khloñ sru (chief of paddy) khloñ vala khloñ sru (k. v, chief of paddy) khloñ vrīha, vrīhi (chief of paddy) vrīha, vrīhi (paddy, unhusked rice) Sk

The khloñ sru collected tax on paddy. In K. 1087/937 a royal edict states that the khloñ vrīhi may not claim sru, supporting the idea that vrīha may relate to food grains in general (Cœdès 1942: 113 Note 2). From K. 158/1003 it appears that the vrīha chiefs (khloñ) and inspectors (tamvrāc) were responsible for its collection for the rājakāryya. Foundations were often exempt from the sru and vrīha authorities.

Bhūtāśa bhūtāśa (officials; see also khloñ bhūtāśa) khloñ bhūtāśa (officials, for taxation ?) khloñ bhūtāśa viṣaya (official of bhūtāśa) khloñ vala khloñ bhūtāśa (KV who is khloñ bhūtāśa) bhūtāśa ta cañcūli (tax authority for cañcūla?)

The meaning of bhūtāśa is not known The khloñ bhūtāśa had some function at the placement of boundary markers and at time in the establishment of new villages. He is one of the authorities from which foundations were often exempt and may have had fiscal or legal responsibilities.

Sahai (127) observes that bhūtāśa had ‘fiscal connotations’ and that the khloñ bhūtāśa was responsible for the collection of cañcūla. The khloñ bhūtāśa viṣaya in K. 207/1042 would have been employed in district administration, though is seen here as are most of the khloñ bhūtāśa dealing with land matters, not tax.

20

Appendix 7Appendix 7Appendix 7Appendix 7 Angkorian period officials associated with taxation and other leviesAngkorian period officials associated with taxation and other leviesAngkorian period officials associated with taxation and other leviesAngkorian period officials associated with taxation and other levies


paryyaṅ (oli)

paryyaṅ viṣaya) (clarified butter)

khloñ paryyaṅ (chief of oil) paryyaṅ thmur (butter, cow oil) paryyaṅ viṣaya (local oil, melted butter ?)

These were important in temple rituals. Temple foundations were often exempt from the authority of the khloñ paryyaṅ. In K. 831/968 the khloñ paryyaṅ was prohibited from asking for royal service (rājakāryya ).

ampyal (salt) trvāc ampyal (salt inspector) An inspector of salt (kamsteṅ trvāc ampyal) is mentioned in K. 206/1042 implying that salt could be taxed, or that its production was in some way controlled. It is not mentioned in temple inscriptions as receiving taxation immunity.

21

AAAAppendix 7ppendix 7ppendix 7ppendix 7 Angkorian period officials associated with taxation and other leviesAngkorian period officials associated with taxation and other leviesAngkorian period officials associated with taxation and other leviesAngkorian period officials associated with taxation and other levies


rājakāryya (royal service, corvée)

rājakāryya (royal service, corvée) Sk trvac/taṃmrvac vraḥ rājakāryya (royal service inspector)

The state imposition, rājakāryya meant corvée or tax on produce, the expression thve vraḥ rājakāryya (to accomplish royal service) often signifying tax (Sahai, 1977b: 125). The rājakāryya is the institution most often mentioned and has the greatest number of references to tax and exemptions. In K. 831/968 the khloñ paryyaṅ was prohibited from asking for royal service (rājakāryya ) and in K. 1087/937 The khloñ viṣaya was not permitted to call on khñum for rājakāryya (corvée). From K. 158/1003 it appears that the vrīha chiefs (khloñ) and inspectors (tamvrāc) were responsible for its collection for the rājakāryya. However its officials also transmitted royal edicts acted as witnesses and played a role in the establishment and maintenance of foundations. There are also 14 inscriptions with inspector of the royal service (trvac/taṃmrvac vraḥ rājakāryya). In K. 684/10th–11th c. the remains of the sacrifice are apportioned between temple personnel and the Inspector of the royal service (rājakāryya), i.e. in this case he was closely associated with the foundation. Officials of the rājakāryya also transmitted royal edicts, acted as witnesses and played a role in the establishment and maintenance of foundations.

22

Appendix 7Appendix 7Appendix 7Appendix 7 Angkorian period officials associated with taxation and other leviesAngkorian period officials associated with taxation and other leviesAngkorian period officials associated with taxation and other leviesAngkorian period officials associated with taxation and other levies


kāryya (service or corvée)

kāryya (service, corvée, duty, affairs) Sk khloñ kāryya (chief of works, chief of corvée)

The khloñ kārya, khloñ mukha and khloñ vala were officials responsible for corvée (e.g. K. 682/1001). The term sometimes has a more general connotation than rājakāryya, where the personnel of foundations were sometimes declared exempt from kārya (e.g., K. 343/974) but there are also fiscal connotations (K. 265’959 where there are mentions of exemption from the cañcūla imposition). In K. 989/1008)

daily food is allocated to the khloñ karyya, listed amongst the temple residents such as the religious inspectors.

cañcūla cañcūla (tax on agricultural products ?) Sk bhūtāśa ta cañcūli (tax authority for cañcūla?)

Temple foundations are frequently declared exempt from this imposition. This commodity has been taken to be castor oil (e.g. Cœdès*, Sahai), sesame (Pou) and taxes paid in kind (Sedov). It may perhaps, be some specific agricultural products (?).

*According to Coedès (II-66 Note 3) cañcūli must be the equivalent of the Sanskrit cañcutaila (castor-oil) The word has been found in fourteen Khmer language inscriptions of the 10th–11th centuries, each time in the context of an exemption from an imposition, and not as a commodity for temple ritual or for healing. In K. 265/959 the khloñ vnam, khloñ kāryya, devaparicāra (servants of god) were not to ask for cañcūla.

23



jnvāl khloñ gāp jnvāl (? official authority) khloñ jnvāl (official of the jnvāl [?]) khloñ jnvāl chatradhāra (KJ of parasol carriers) khloñ jnvāl vanik (chief of traders ??) khloñ vala khloñ jnvāl (KV who is khloñ jnvāl ) mukha gāp jnvāl (? official authority)

The function of this authority is not known. Temple foundations were sometimes immune from its jurisdiction. It is mentioned in connection with immunities in K. 957/941 and K. 232/1009 .In K. 913/1066 the khloñ jnvāl is authorised to collect honey and wax. The officials also acted in land matters.

cralo/ craṃlo kandvār cralo (a tax ?) kandvār craṃlo (a tax ?) khloñ cralo (? official, role unknown) khloñ kandvār cralo (unknown authority:tax? chief)

According to Sedov, kandvar cralo , cralo or kandvar craṃlo was guard duty (Sedov: 1978: 123). In the few inscriptions with this /these officials, the context seems to be one of taxation.

viṣaya (district) khloñ vala khloñ viṣaya (KV, district chief) khloñ viṣaya (district chief) viṣaya (? unknown authority re taxation) Sk

The khloñ viṣaya had responsibility at district level. In K. 208/1066 there is reference to’ the people of the khloñ viṣaya who inspect the rājakāryya , and in K. 1087/937 The khloñ viṣaya was not permitted to call on khñuṃ for rājakāryya (corvée).The viṣaya could have been a fiscal unit (as suggested by expressions such as vrīha viṣaya (K. 232/1009), viṣaya pi dār ākara pi pre ta cañcūla (K. 1141/972), khloñ bhūtāśa viṣaya (K. 207/1042) and paryyaṅ viṣaya (K. 444/974, K. 1152/977). The khloñ viṣaya is also named in the inscriptions as being witness to land transactions (K. 206/1042), compiling lists of property (K. 249/1109) and attending the fixing of property boundary markers (K. 205/1080, K. 258/1113, K. 366/893)

24

AAAAppendix 7ppendix 7ppendix 7ppendix 7 Angkorian period officials associated with taxation and other leviesAngkorian period officials associated with taxation and other leviesAngkorian period officials associated with taxation and other leviesAngkorian period officials associated with taxation and other levies Tax or imposition Officials Evidence

vala (corvée men, forces, army)

khloñ mukha tamrvac vala (chief population. inspector) khloñ vala (population, corvée chief ?) khloñ vala khloñ bhojana (KV, chief of stores ?) khloñ vala khloñ bhūtāśa (KV who is khloñ bhūtāśa) khloñ vala khloñ gāp (official of khloñ gāp ) khloñ vala khloñ glaṅ (official , chief of stores) khloñ vala khloñ jnvāl (KV who is khloñ jnvāl ) khloñ vala khloñ raṅvāṅ (KV, chief of raṅvāṅ ?) khloñ vala khloñ saṃtāp (KV, khloñ saṃtāp) khloñ vala khloñ sru (KV, chief of paddy) khloñ vala khloñ viṣaya (KV, district chief)

khloñ vala purāñ (official, unknown function) khloñ vala senāpati (KV, army chief ?) khloñ vala tamrvac vyavahāri (merchant inspector) khloñ vala trvac paṃcāṃ (KV inspector of guards ?) taṃmrvac glāṅ kandāl vala (inspector stores, army) taṃmrvac vala (population, corvée inspectors) taṃmrvac/tamrvac vala (population, corvée inspectors) tamrvac vala khloñ gāp (inspector of population ?) trvac vala (inspector of population)

Both Coedès and Pou gloss khloñ vala as ‘population chief’ or ‘chief of corvée’. Khloñ vala are mentioned in a variety of roles, the greatest number being non-official and relatively few being tax-related. In three inscriptions (K. 19/964, K. 343/974, K. 1152/977) there is some implication that these officials would normally have some authority over the temple servants, presumably for corvée or other service, but here may not do so. Other khloñ vala are involved in official duties such as transmitting royal ordinances and witnessing land transactions or placing boundary markers. The title is sometimes in combination with another title, implying either that the person held two positions or that the khloñ vala had been devalued and become little more than a title while the other was a position (Cœdès 1951: 55 Note 3).

25



rājadravya (royal treasury, property, domain)

K. 521/11th c. and K. 71/968 are royal edicts with references to paryyañ which is to be collected for this authority. Other mentions are about gifts of royal land.

ªnak (people) khloñ ªnak (chief of personnel) tamrvac khloñ ªnak (inspector of people)

The khloñ ªnak are mostly these temple personnel at the head of servant lists. However in two inscriptions it is stated that these people do not have exclusive right (K. 343/974) or authority (K. 351/992), suggesting this was an option in

other situations. Whether or not these people were free, their status seems to have been well above that of other temple servants.

vnaṃ (temple, mountain)

khloñ vnaṃ (chief of temple) ªnak paṃre khloñ vnaṃ (servant of temple officials)

khloñ vnaṃ puran (chief sanctuary official ?)

The khloñ vnaṃ in the 9th century are listed with the temple servants, but later they are seen in official roles and, in two cases (K. 256/1004, K. 232/1009)

having authority which warranted exemptions. Clearly their status had changed.

āpaṇa (market, shop, commerce, trade)

It is not known how the tax was levied. However, at the end of the 12th century the central temples of Jayavarman VII, Ta Prohm and Prah Khan, received market commodities such as foodstuffs, garments, metal, personnel and elephants.

26

Appendix 8Appendix 8Appendix 8Appendix 8 Relationships in databaseRelationships in databaseRelationships in databaseRelationships in database (M(M(M(Microsoft Access 2003)icrosoft Access 2003)icrosoft Access 2003)icrosoft Access 2003)

27

Appendix 9Appendix 9Appendix 9Appendix 9 Assessment of Cluster DurationsAssessment of Cluster DurationsAssessment of Cluster DurationsAssessment of Cluster Durations

500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500

Date CE

Angk or Thom

Angk or Thom (Prasa t W o f W ga te;Angk or Vat

Athv a

Bak on

Bak se i Camk ronBantay Kdei

Ban tay Prei

Ban tay Thom

Banteay Srei

BaphuonBaray Oc c iden tal

Ba t Cum

Bayon

Hosp ita l c hape l (W o f Pr. Ta Kev)Kap ilapura (NE moat o f Angk or

Kba l Spean

Kok Cak

Kok CanKok Don

Kok O Crun

Kok Sv ay Cek

Kok Svay PrahmLo lei

Mebon Oc c iden tal

Mebon Orien tal

Nak PanPhimanak as

Phnom Bak hen

Phnom Dei

Phum Ta Tru

Prah Khan (Angk or)Prah Ko

Prah Nok

Prah Pithu

Prasa t Ak YomPrasa t Ben Vien

Prasa t Cak

Prasa t Car

Prasa t Cha ChukPrasa t Don So

Prasa t He Phk a

Prasa t Kaek

Prasa t Kando l DomPrasa t Kas Ho

Prasa t Kh lan

Prasa t Kok

Prasa t Kok PoPrasat Komnap

Prasa t Krav an

Prasa t Kuk Ponro

Prasa t Lak Nan

Prasa t OlokPrasat Phum Pu

Prasat Pre i Kmen

Prasa t Pre i Prasat

Prasa t Sra lau (Siem Reap)Prasa t Srane

Prasa t Ton le Snuot

Prasa t Tor

Prasa t Trapan KhyanPrasat Trapan Ropou

Prasa t Trapan Run (Siem Reap)

Pre Rup

Pre i MontiPre i Prasat

Samron

Sasar Sdam

Sla Ket

Ta Kev (Siem Reap)Ta Nei

Ta Prohm

Ta Prohm Kel

Ta SomTep Pranam

Thna l Baray

Trapan Don On

Vat DamnakVat Khnat

Va t Prah Eink osei

Angkor

500 600 700 800 900 1000

Date CE

Andon Svay (Vihar Thom)

Baphnom

Kran Svay

Prah Vihar Cam

Prah Vihar Kuk

Prasat Ballang (Prei Ven)

Vat Ha

Vat Kdei Skie

Vat Kdei Trap

Ballang

600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200

Date CE

Phnom Bantay Nan

Phnom Sankaban

Prasat Kuk Pradak

Bantay Nan

500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400

Date CE

Boeng Srang (Sran)

Kong PiseiPhnom Cisor

Phnom Ho PhnouPhum Crei

Prasat Nan KhmauTrau Tasar

Tuol Tramun

Vat An KhvavVat An Pisei

Vat BatiVat Phek (Sran)

Vat SamronVat Tnot (Tuol An

Bati

600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200

Date CE

Can Cum

Phnom Bayan

Ta Lo

Trapan Sambot

Vat Kirivon

Vat Po Ron

Bayan

900 1000 1100 1200

Date CE

Ak Puok

Phnom Sruoc

Pon Ken Kan

Pon Prah Put Lo

Pon Prah Thvar

Prasat Trapan Sno

Sek Ta Tuy

Ben Mala

900 925 950 975 1000 1025

Date CE

Phnom Mrec

Prasat Andon (Koh Ker)

Prasat Andon Kuk (Koh Ker)

Prasat Bantay Pir Can (Koh

Prasat Ben Ven

Prasat Cen (Koh Ker)

Prasat Damrei (Koh Ker)

Prasat Dan

Prasat Komphus

Prasat Kracap (Koh Ker)

Prasat Thom (Koh Ker)

Koh Ker

600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200

Date CE

Kok Roka

Kompon Thom (depot)

Vat Kompon Thom

Kok Roka

28

Appendix 9Appendix 9Appendix 9Appendix 9 Assessment of Cluster DurationsAssessment of Cluster DurationsAssessment of Cluster DurationsAssessment of Cluster Durations (cont.) (cont.) (cont.) (cont.)

900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400

Date CE

Kok Samron

Kuk Prasat

Prasat Kralan

Prasat Sankhah

Prasat Ta An

Tu'k Co

Tuk Cum

Kralan

600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200

Date CE

Lonvek

Vat Sla Ku

Vat Tralen Ke

Lon Vek

700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500

Date CE

Lop'buri

Lop'buri

700 800 900 1000 1100

Date CE

Prasat Kantop

Prasat Nak Buos

Prasat Thnal Chuk

Prasat Trapan Run

(Kompon Thom)

Nak Buos

600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400

Date CE

Angkor Borei (Vat Chroy

Angkor Borei (Vat Komno

Bak Dai

Camnom

Phkam

Phnom Da

Pona Hor

Samron (Ta Kev)

Tuol Cam (Angkor Borei)

Tuol Kuha

Vat Po

Phnom Da

700 800 900 1000 1100 1200

Date CE

Ban P'utsa

Bo Ika

Nom Van

P'imai

Sema (Korat)

P'imai

600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400

Date CE

Kralon

Kuk Prah Kot

Kuk Prin Crum

Kuk Trapan Srok

Kuk Yay Hom

Prah Nan (Vat Prah That de Tu'k Cha)

Vat Saan

Prah Nan

600 700 800 900 1000 1100

Date CE

Phnom Pan Can

Phum Kor

Phum Mien

Prah That Khnai Van

Prah That Khtom

Prah That Prah Srei

Prahar Antim

Prasat Prah That

Prasat Preah Theat

Prei Cum

Tuol Prah That (Prei V

Prah That

29

Appendix 9Appendix 9Appendix 9Appendix 9 Assessment of Cluster DurationsAssessment of Cluster DurationsAssessment of Cluster DurationsAssessment of Cluster Durations (cont.) (cont.) (cont.) (cont.)

900 1000 1100 1200 1300

Date CE

Prasat Ben (N) (Siem

Reap)

Prasat Ben (S) (Siem

Reap)

Prasat Cikren (Est)

Prasat Praptus

Praptus

600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300

Date CE

Luang Prang (Sambor)

Sambor (old depot)

Trapan Thma

Tuol Kamnap (Sambor)

Tuol Kamnap Trapeang Prei (Sambo

Tuol Kok Prasat

Vat Tasar Moroy

Sambor

500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100

Date CE

Prasat Chrei (Sambor Prei Kuk)

Prasat Daeum Chan (Sambor Prei Kuk)

Prasat Kbal Chrouk (Sambor Prei Kuk)

Prasat Roban Romas

Prasat Roluh

Prasat Sambor (Sambor Prei Kuk)

Prasat Yeay Poan (Sambor Prei Kuk)

Vat Kdei Car

Vat Moha

Sambor Prei Kuk

600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300

Date CE

Damnak Sdac

Kuk Ankan

Phnom Aksar

Prah Phnom

Prasat Lic

Prasat Prei Thnal (S

Prasat Sman Yun

Prasat Ta Kam

Prasat Ta Kam Thom

Prasat Trau

Prei Yan

Trapan Don Mas

Vat Kdei Run

Vat Thipdei

Ta Kam

500 600 700 800 900 1000

Date CE

BelDuol Trabamn Samron

Kompon SpuNak Ta Svay Damba

Nak Ta TrasPhnom Mrah Prou

Phum KomrienPhum Pok

Prasat An Prah ThatSambuor

Samrong TongTa Kev (Ta Kev)

Tuol AnTuol An Rolan KenTuol An Srah That

Tuol MunTuol Nak Ta (Phum Kantok)

Tuol Nak Ta Bak KaTuol Prah That (Kompon Spu: Roluos)

Tuol Prah That (Kompon Spu: SnuolVat An Ben Cak

Vat An Prah PayVat An SreiVat Con Ek

Vat Prah NirpanVat Prah That

Vat Prei SvaVat Prei Ven

Vat Vihar Tran

Tuol Prah That

600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300

Date CE

Banan

O Damban

Prasat Snen

Prasat Stun

Prasat Ta Ke Pon

Ta Nen

Tuol Komnap

Tuol Sre Phum

unknown K945 (Battamban)

Vat Baset (Battamban)

Vat Ek

Vat Kandal

Vat Sla Ket

Vat Baset

30

Appendix 10Appendix 10Appendix 10Appendix 10 HHHHigh density, long durationigh density, long durationigh density, long durationigh density, long duration and prominent and prominent and prominent and prominent inscription groups and sites inscription groups and sites inscription groups and sites inscription groups and sites

Database high

density group

Database

low density

but long

duration

Low density

but visible

Duration of

groupComments

Identified by

Hendrickson;

Sedov; or Lustig

Within high

density: longest

duration site

Duration of

site

Angkor 725 Angkorian capital; hill site; includes Roluos

group and Prasat Kok Po.

n/a Prasat Ak Yom 327

Ballang 340 EL Prasat Ballang (Prei

Ven)

340

Ben Mala 284 (Beng Mealea) On crossing of E and NE roads;

Fe source.

MH; EL Sek Ta Tuy 40

Koh Ker 82 10th c. capital MH; EL Prasat Thom (Koh

Ker)

82

Nak Buos 346 On NE road; access to Dangrek pass; begun in

8th c; Sūryavarman I additions.

LS; MH; EL Prasat Nak Buos 315

Phnom Da 788 Hill site 20 km from Angkor Borei; 11th c. prasat

over Pre-Angkorian structure

EL Phnom Da 700

Prasat Kralan 433 On Kulen Plateau EL Prasat Kralan 400

Phnom Bayan 575 Hill site in Mekong delta EL Phnom Bayan 575

Prah Nan 700 EL Prah Nan (Vat Prah

That de Tu'k Cha)

404

Prah That Prah

Stei

444 EL Prah That Prah Srei 302

Prasat Praptus 330 EL Prasat Praptus 330

Sambor 521 Mekong River sites EL Tuol Kamnap

Trapeang Prei

521

Sambor Prei Kuk 501 Pre-Angkorian capital; terminus of SE road MH; EL Prasat Roban Romas 501

Ta Kam 619 EL Prasat Ta Kam 234

Tuol Prah That 335 EL Tuol Prah That

(Kompong Speu:

Roluos)

100

31

Appendix 10 (cont.) Appendix 10 (cont.) Appendix 10 (cont.) Appendix 10 (cont.) High density, long durHigh density, long durHigh density, long durHigh density, long duration inscription groups and sitesation inscription groups and sitesation inscription groups and sitesation inscription groups and sites

Database high

density group

Database

low density

but long

duration

Low density

but visible

Duration of

groupComments

Identified by

Hendrickson;

Sedov; or Lustig

Within high

density: longest

duration site

Duration of

site

Vat Baset 642 In rice-growing Battambang area; includes

Banon (hill site) and Vat Ek (MH; source of Fe

in area.

LS; MH; EL Vat Baset

(Battamban)

423

Vat Bati 800 Sn; one of earliest inscriptions found here;

Jayavarman VII temple; group includes the hill

site Phnom Chisor (MH) of Funan origin with

temple constructed by Sūryavarman I.

MH; EL Prasat Nan Khmau 262

Vat Ph'u 700 Terminus of NE road; on Mekong; hill site;

access to Dangrek pass; close to ancient capital

Sreshthapura; Sūryavarman I additions; Cu, Pb,

Zn, Sn, Au and gems

LS; MH; EL Vat Ph'u 700

Lop'buri 630 (Luovo). Strategic importance for trade; taken

by Sūryavarman I in expansion towards Malay

Peninsula.

EL Lop'buri 630

Lonvek 451 Jayavarman I inscription; near Tonle Sap River. Lonvek 451

P'imai 387 Terminus of Angkor road. Proximity of Khorat

salt domes.

MH; EL P'imai 387

Phnom

Bantay Nan

451 Phnom Bantay Nan 451

Kok Roka 500 Kok Roka 500

32

Appendix 10 (cont.) Appendix 10 (cont.) Appendix 10 (cont.) Appendix 10 (cont.) High density, long duration inscription groups and sitesHigh density, long duration inscription groups and sitesHigh density, long duration inscription groups and sitesHigh density, long duration inscription groups and sites

Database high

density group

Database

low density

but long

duration

Low density

but visible

Duration of

groupComments

Identified by

Hendrickson;

Sedov; or Lustig

Within high

density: longest

duration site

Duration of

site

Sdok Kak

Thom

162 Terminus of W road; possible stopping point en

route to central Thailand; 11th c. construction

MH

Prah Khan KS 100 Established by Sūryavarman I (?); Abundant Fe

(Phnom Dek), Cu, Pb, Zn, Au

MH

Prah Vihar 72 Hill site; Access to Dangrek pass; original

construction Yaśovarman I; Sūryavarman I

additions; gems

LS; MH

Phnom Rung 161 On NW road; hill site; Sūryavarman I

construction (?); group includes Muang Tam

LS; MH

Prasat Andaet On SE road on artificial hill; 8th c construction;

no inscription

MH

Prasat Don An Mid way between Tonle Sap and Cardamom MH

Phnom Srok On W road; no inscription MH

Bantay Chmar 0 Access to Dangrek pass; Jayavarman VII

construction; Au

MH

Vat Nokor On Mekong; hill site; 3 modern inscriptions MH

33

Appendix 11Appendix 11Appendix 11Appendix 11 Inscriptions pertaining to individual reignsInscriptions pertaining to individual reignsInscriptions pertaining to individual reignsInscriptions pertaining to individual reigns

34

Appendix 11Appendix 11Appendix 11Appendix 11 Inscriptions pertaining to individual reignsInscriptions pertaining to individual reignsInscriptions pertaining to individual reignsInscriptions pertaining to individual reigns (cont.) (cont.) (cont.) (cont.)

35


36

AppendAppendAppendAppendix 11ix 11ix 11ix 11 Inscriptions pertaining to individual reignsInscriptions pertaining to individual reignsInscriptions pertaining to individual reignsInscriptions pertaining to individual reigns (cont.) (cont.) (cont.) (cont.)

37


38


39

Appendix 11Appendix 11Appendix 11Appendix 11 Inscriptions pertaining to individual reInscriptions pertaining to individual reInscriptions pertaining to individual reInscriptions pertaining to individual reignsignsignsigns (cont.) (cont.) (cont.) (cont.)

40


41


42


43

Appendix 11Appendix 11Appendix 11Appendix 11 Inscriptions perInscriptions perInscriptions perInscriptions pertaining to individual reignstaining to individual reignstaining to individual reignstaining to individual reigns (cont.) (cont.) (cont.) (cont.)

44

Appendix 12Appendix 12Appendix 12Appendix 12 CISARK Khmer archaeologyCISARK Khmer archaeologyCISARK Khmer archaeologyCISARK Khmer archaeology The locations of many sites in the CISARK (2007) database (Carte Interactive des sites archéologiques Khmers) are indicated and these sites have been digitised.

45

Appendix 13Appendix 13Appendix 13Appendix 13 Population densities Cambodia and Population densities Cambodia and Population densities Cambodia and Population densities Cambodia and Mekong delta 2005Mekong delta 2005Mekong delta 2005Mekong delta 2005

(Source of data CIESIN 2005)

46

Appendix 14Appendix 14Appendix 14Appendix 14 Distributions of indicators of decentralised administrationDistributions of indicators of decentralised administrationDistributions of indicators of decentralised administrationDistributions of indicators of decentralised administration

Figure A 14.1 Sites with royal inscriptions

Figure A 14.2 Sites with mentions of royal service (rājakāryya)

47

Appendix 14Appendix 14Appendix 14Appendix 14 Distributions of indicators of decentralised administration (cont.)Distributions of indicators of decentralised administration (cont.)Distributions of indicators of decentralised administration (cont.)Distributions of indicators of decentralised administration (cont.)

Figure A 14.3 Sites with mentions of courts and court officials

Figure A 14.4 Sites with mentions of exchange

48

Appendix 14Appendix 14Appendix 14Appendix 14 DistribuDistribuDistribuDistributions of indicators of decentralised administrationtions of indicators of decentralised administrationtions of indicators of decentralised administrationtions of indicators of decentralised administration (cont.) (cont.) (cont.) (cont.)

Figure A 14.5 Sites with hospital stelæ

Figure A 14.6 Sites with digraphic stelæ

49

Appendix 15Appendix 15Appendix 15Appendix 15 Central pCentral pCentral pCentral place models (Carol Smith 1976)lace models (Carol Smith 1976)lace models (Carol Smith 1976)lace models (Carol Smith 1976)

50

Appendix 16Appendix 16Appendix 16Appendix 16 Statistical analysesStatistical analysesStatistical analysesStatistical analyses Inscription numbers for immunities and joins

800-1450 CE No. Insc. with immunities 47 No. Insc. with joins 25

Angkorian No. insc. without immunities 365

No. insc. without joins 387

TOTALS 412 412

900-1050 No. Insc. with immunities 43.5 No. Insc. with joins 23 Period with Exemptions & Joins

No. insc. without immunities 217.5

No. insc. without joins 238

TOTALS 261.0 261

1051-1200 No. Insc. with immunities 3.0 No. Insc. with joins 2.0 Period lacking Exemptions & Joins

No. insc. without immunities 55.1

No. insc. without joins 56.1

TOTALS 58.1 58.1

A16.1A16.1A16.1A16.1 Immunities Immunities Immunities Immunities decreasdecreasdecreasdecreasinginginging after 1050 after 1050 after 1050 after 1050 CECECECE

This chi-squared test examines whether the proportion of immunities in the inscriptions in the period 900-1050 is much the same as in 1051-1180. The result shows that the proportions are significantly different. This means that there was probably a decrease in the number of immunities independently of the decreasing number of non-royal inscriptions.

Null hypothesis: that the distribution of immunities in 900-1050 is the same as in 1051-1200 Observed immunitiesObserved immunitiesObserved immunitiesObserved immunities

900-1050 1051-1200 Total

Immunities 43.5 3.0 46.5

No immunities 217.5 55.1 272.6

Total 261.0 58.1 319.1

Expected immunitiesExpected immunitiesExpected immunitiesExpected immunities

900-1050 1051-1200 Total

Immunities 38 8.5 47 No immunities 223 49.7 273

Total 261 58 319

τobs = 5.1

P(χ21≥5.1)= 2.5%

So Null hypothesis is not supported at the 5% level StatementStatementStatementStatement

There is a better than 95% chance that the proportion of immunities in the period 1051-1200 is significantly less than in the period 900-1050.

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A16.2A16.2A16.2A16.2 Royal involvement decreasing after 1050Royal involvement decreasing after 1050Royal involvement decreasing after 1050Royal involvement decreasing after 1050 CECECECE

The chi-squared test below examines whether the royal involvement in non-royal foundations after 1050 CE is significantly different from the royal involvement before 1050 CE.

800-1450 AD royal involvement 102

Angkorian no royal involvement 523

TOTALS 625

900-1050 royal involvement 72.1

no royal involvement 251.2

TOTALS 323.2

1051-1200 royal involvement 23.1

no royal involvement 128.7

TOTALS 151.8

Null hypothesis: the royal involvement in land for non-royal foundations in

900-1050 is the same as in 1051-1180

Observed royal involvement with land mattersObserved royal involvement with land mattersObserved royal involvement with land mattersObserved royal involvement with land matters

900-1050 1051-1200 Total

royal involvement 72.1 23.1 95.2

no royal involvement 251.2 128.7 379.9

Total 323.2 151.8 475.1

Expected royal involvement with land mattersExpected royal involvement with land mattersExpected royal involvement with land mattersExpected royal involvement with land matters

900-1050 1051-1200 Total

royal involvement 65 30.4 95

no royal involvement 258 121.4 380

Total 323 152 475

τobs = 3.2

P(χ21≥3.2)= 7.2%

So Null hypothesis is not supported at the 10% level StatementStatementStatementStatement

There is an appreciable likelihood that the reduction in royal involvement in land matters in the period 1051-1180, when compared with the period 900-1050, is independent of the reduction in the number of inscriptions.

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A16.3A16.3A16.3A16.3 Test forTest forTest forTest for joins decreas joins decreas joins decreas joins decreasinginginging after 1050 after 1050 after 1050 after 1050 CECECECE

This chi-squared test examines whether the proportion of immunities in the inscriptions in the period 900-1050 is much the same as in 1051-1200. The result shows that the proportions are not significantly different. This means that it is quite possible that the decrease in the observed number of immunities is largely because the number of non-royal inscriptions was also decreasing.

Null hypothesis: the distribution of joins in 900-1050 is the same as in 1051-1200 Observed joinsObserved joinsObserved joinsObserved joins

900-1050 1051-1200 Total

Joins 22.5 2.0 24.5 No joins 238.5 56.1 294.6

Total 261.0 58.1 319.1

Expected joinsExpected joinsExpected joinsExpected joins

900-1050 1051-1200 Total

Joins 20 4.5 25 No joins 241 53.7 295

Total 261 58 319

τobs = 1.8

P(χ21≥1.8)= 18%

So Null hypothesis is supported StatementStatementStatementStatement

The difference between the proportion of joins in the period 1051-1180 may not be significantly different from the proportion in the period 900-1050.

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A16.4A16.4A16.4A16.4 If immunities are independent of joinsIf immunities are independent of joinsIf immunities are independent of joinsIf immunities are independent of joins

This Fisher Exact test checks whether immunities are independent of joins. The result shows that it is highly likely that the two events are strongly related. The Fisher Exact test (Langsrud n.d.) has been used rather than the chi-squared test since the expected number of events with both immunities and joins is very small, and the chi-squared test may not be valid for such a small number.

Null hypothesis: immunities are independent of joins Observed joins & immunitiesObserved joins & immunitiesObserved joins & immunitiesObserved joins & immunities

No Immunities Immunities Total

Joins 14.0 11.0 25.0 No joins 350.5 36.0 386.5

Total 364.5 47.0 411.5

Expected joins & immunitiesExpected joins & immunitiesExpected joins & immunitiesExpected joins & immunities

No Immunities Immunities Total

Joins 22 2.9 25 No joins 342 44.1 387

Total 365 47 412

Using Fisher Exact Test

P= 0.0025%

So Null hypothesis is not supported StatementStatementStatementStatement

It is highly likely (greater than 99.9%) that a foundation being granted immunities relates to it being permitted to join to another foundation.

54

A16.5A16.5A16.5A16.5 If offering merit related to permissions for immuIf offering merit related to permissions for immuIf offering merit related to permissions for immuIf offering merit related to permissions for immunities or joinsnities or joinsnities or joinsnities or joins

This chi-squared test examines whether offering merit to the king in the Angkorian period was related to gaining approval from the king for immunities or joins. The result shows that there was a very close connection between offering merit and gaining approval.

Null hypothesis: that merit is independent of immunities & joins ObservedObservedObservedObserved

No immunities and no joins

Immunities and/or

joins Total

Merit 19 12 31 No merit 332 49 381

Total 351 61 412

ExpectedExpectedExpectedExpected

No immunities and no joins

Immunities and/or

joins Total

Merit 26 4.6 31 No merit 324 56.4 381

Total 351 61 412

τobs = 15.1

P(χ21≥15.1)= 0.010%

So Null hypothesis is not supported. StatementStatementStatementStatement

There is a highly significant (99.9%) chance that offering merit to the king was related to the foundations being granted immunities and/or joins

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A16.6A16.6A16.6A16.6 Comparing locations of Comparing locations of Comparing locations of Comparing locations of all royal and nonall royal and nonall royal and nonall royal and non----royal inscriptionsroyal inscriptionsroyal inscriptionsroyal inscriptions

The following chi-squared test examines whether the royal inscriptions that are not Jayavarman VII hospitals are distributed throughout the Empire in much the same way as the non-royal inscriptions. The test shows that the royal inscriptions are distributed quite differently to the non-royal inscriptions.

Null hypothesis: that the royal inscriptions are distributed in the same proportions as the non-royal inscriptions in the Angkor cluster, the non-Angkor clusters and outside the clusters.

Actual Actual Actual Actual Angkor cluster

Non-Angkor

cluster

Not

cluster Total

Non-royal inscriptions 50 95 108 253

Royal founders or donors, not hospital 36 18 7 61

Total 86 113 115 314

ExpectedExpectedExpectedExpected Angkor cluster Non-Angkor cluster

Not cluster Total

Non-royal inscriptions 69.29299363 91.0477707 92.6592 253

Royal founders or donors, not hospital 16.70700637 21.9522293 22.3408 61

Total 86 113 115 314

τobs = 41.6

P(χ22≥41.6)= 0.0000001%

So Null hypothesis is not supported

There is a highly significant (>99%) chance that the occurrences of non-hospital royal inscriptions are different from those of the non-royal inscriptions at Angkor, in non-Angkor clusters and outside clusters.

56

A16.7A16.7A16.7A16.7 Comparing locations of royal and nonComparing locations of royal and nonComparing locations of royal and nonComparing locations of royal and non----royal inscriptions outside royal inscriptions outside royal inscriptions outside royal inscriptions outside AngkorAngkorAngkorAngkor

The following chi-squared test examines whether the royal inscriptions that are not Jayavarman VII hospitals and which are outside the Angkor area are distributed in much the same way as the non-royal inscriptions. The test shows that the royal inscriptions are more likely to be in the clusters than the non-royal inscriptions.

Null hypothesis: that the royal inscriptions are distributed in the same proportions as the non-royal inscriptions in the non-Angkor clusters and outside the clusters.

ActualActualActualActual Non-Angkor

cluster Not cluster Total

Non-royal inscriptions 95 108 203

Royal founders or donors, not hospital 18 7 25

Total 113 115 228

ExpectedExpectedExpectedExpected Non-Angkor


Non-royal inscriptions 100.6096491 102.3903509 203

Royal founders or donors, not hospital 12.39035088 12.60964912 25

Total 113 115 228

τobs = 5.7

P(χ21≥5.7)= 1.74%


There is a significant (>95%) chance that the occurrences of royal inscriptions are different from those of the non-royal inscriptions in non-Angkor clusters and outside clusters.

57

A16.8A16.8A16.8A16.8 Comparing locations of hospital and royal inscriptionsComparing locations of hospital and royal inscriptionsComparing locations of hospital and royal inscriptionsComparing locations of hospital and royal inscriptions

The next two chi-squared tests examine whether the hospital inscriptions are distributed in much the same way as the royal inscriptions. The tests show that there is a significant difference in the two distributions.

Null hypothesis: the hospitals are distributed in the same proportions as the non-royal inscriptions in the Angkor cluster, the non-Angkor clusters and outside the clusters.

Actual Actual Actual Actual Angkor cluster

Non-Angkor

cluster

Not

cluster Total

Royal inscriptions, not hospitals 36 18 7 61

Jayavarman VII hospitals 5 5 9 19

Total 41 23 16 80

ExpectedExpectedExpectedExpected Angkor cluster Non-Angkor

cluster Not

cluster Total

Royal inscriptions, not hospitals 31.2625 17.5375 12.2 61

Jayavarman VII hospitals 9.7375 5.4625 3.8 19

Total 41 23 16 80

τobs = 12.4

P(χ22≥1.1)= 0.2%


Null hypothesis: the hospitals are distributed in the same proportions as the non-royal inscriptions in the non-Angkor clusters and outside the clusters.

Actual Actual Actual Actual Non-Angkor


Royal inscriptions, not hospitals 18 7 25

Jayavarman VII hospitals 5 9 14

Total 23 16 39

ExpectedExpectedExpectedExpected Non-Angkor cluster Not cluster Total

Royal inscriptions, not hospitals 14.74358974 10.25641026 25

Jayavarman VII hospitals 8.256410256 5.743589744 14

Total 23 16 39

τobs = 4.9

P(χ21≥0.6)= 2.71%


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A16.9A16.9A16.9A16.9 Comparing locations of land exchanges with nonComparing locations of land exchanges with nonComparing locations of land exchanges with nonComparing locations of land exchanges with non----royal inscriptionsroyal inscriptionsroyal inscriptionsroyal inscriptions

The following chi-squared tests examine whether the non-royal inscriptions that mention exchanges are distributed in much the same way as the non-royal inscriptions in general. The tests show that there is an appreciable difference.

Null hypothesis: the inscriptions with land exchanges are distributed in the same proportions as the other non-royal inscriptions in the Angkor cluster, the non-Angkor clusters and outside the

clusters.

ActualActualActualActual Angkor cluster Non-Angkor

cluster Not

cluster Total

Non-royal inscriptions, no exchanges 37 72 93 202

Inscription sites with land exchanges 13 23 15 51

ExpectedExpectedExpectedExpected Angkor cluster Non-Angkor

cluster Not

cluster Total

Non-royal inscriptions, no exchanges 39.92094862 75.84980237 86.2292 202

Inscription sites with land exchanges 10.07905138 19.15019763 21.7708 51

Total 50 95 108 253

τobs = 4.7

P(χ21≥4.7)= 9.7%

So Null hypothesis is not supported at a 10% significance level

There is an appreciable (>90%) chance that the occurrences of royal inscriptions are different from those of the non-royal inscriptions at Angkor, in non-Angkor clusters and outside clusters.

59

Null hypothesis: the inscriptions with land exchanges are distributed in the same proportions as the other non-royal inscriptions in the non-Angkor clusters and outside the clusters.

Actual Actual Actual Actual Non-Angkor cluster Not cluster Total

Non-royal inscriptions, no exchanges 72 93 165

Inscription sites with land exchanges 23 15 38

Total 95 108 203

ExpectedExpectedExpectedExpected Non-Angkor cluster Not cluster Total

Non-royal inscriptions, no exchanges 77.21674877 87.78325123 165

Inscription sites with land exchanges 17.78325123 20.21674877 38

Total 95 108 203

τobs = 3.5

P(χ21≥3.5)= 5.99%

So Null hypothesis is not supported at a 10% significance level

There is an appreciable (>90%) chance that the occurrences of royal inscriptions are different

from those of the non-royal inscriptions in non-Angkor clusters and outside clusters.

A16.10A16.10A16.10A16.10 Correlation of titles with nonCorrelation of titles with nonCorrelation of titles with nonCorrelation of titles with non----royal inscriptionsroyal inscriptionsroyal inscriptionsroyal inscriptions

The table below shows the correlation coefficients (r) for the distributions in each period of existing titles, newly mentioned titles, rājakāryya, khloñ vala and khloñ viṣaya. All except the khloñ viṣaya correlate highly against the frequency of non-royal inscriptions. The correlation of the khloñ viṣaya is lower.

Date rangeDate rangeDate rangeDate rangetime weighted time weighted time weighted time weighted

non-royalnon-royalnon-royalnon-royal

titles date titles date titles date titles date range range range range

existingexistingexistingexisting

titles date titles date titles date titles date range range range range

commencingcommencingcommencingcommencing rājakāryyarājakāryyarājakāryyarājakāryyakhloñ khloñ khloñ khloñ valavalavalavala

khloñ khloñ khloñ khloñ viviviviṣṣṣṣayaayaayaaya

800-849 0.4% 0.4% 0.0% 0.6% 0.0% 0.0%850-899 6.2% 2.6% 3.8% 0.6% 0.8% 3.6%900-949 16.8% 10.9% 15.9% 7.1% 6.8% 26.8%950-999 26.8% 25.9% 31.2% 32.9% 28.5% 12.5%1000-1049 25.9% 32.5% 36.3% 40.6% 37.5% 23.3%1050-1099 10.6% 12.0% 7.0% 13.1% 11.6% 16.1%1100-1149 8.1% 8.0% 3.8% 5.0% 11.1% 17.8%1150-1199 2.2% 2.9% 0.6% 0.0% 0.9% 0.1%1200-1249 1.2% 1.8% 0.0% 0.0% 1.0% 0.0%1250-1299 0.7% 1.1% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0%1300-1349 1.2% 1.8% 1.3% 0.0% 1.9% 0.0%

r = 0.96 0.97 0.93 0.92 0.78r2 = 0.92 0.95 0.86 0.85 0.61

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Appendix 17Appendix 17Appendix 17Appendix 17 Glossary of termsGlossary of termsGlossary of termsGlossary of terms Administered tradeAdministered tradeAdministered tradeAdministered trade: : : : trade whose terms are determined by relatively permanent bodies such as governments or companies chartered by them. The whole trade, including proportions of units exchanged, port facilities for weighing, checking quality, etc is by administrative methods. Exchange equivalences are set out in simple unit relations (Polanyi, 1957b: 262). Base metal: Base metal: Base metal: Base metal: relatively inexpensive and common metal such as copper, iron, or tin that (unlike noble metals such as gold, silver, or platinum) corrodes and/or tarnishes when exposed to air or moisture (http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/base-metal.html). CapitalCapitalCapitalCapital: the existing stock of goods which are to be used in the production of other goods or services and which have themselves been produced by previous human activities (Johnson 1994-2005). Capital accumulationCapital accumulationCapital accumulationCapital accumulation: the gathering or amassment of objects of value; the increase in wealth; or the creation of wealth (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki). Central controlCentral controlCentral controlCentral control:::: implies that rulers, through a single administration, have the power to direct a state’s political and economic activities. This may be compared with central central central central iiiinfluencenfluencenfluencenfluence, where the activities of the state exert an effect on independent or incorporated regions. Cognatic Cognatic Cognatic Cognatic descentdescentdescentdescent: tracing kinship through the ancestors of both mother and father (O'Neil 2008) Coin: Coin: Coin: Coin: a usually round piece of metal with a distinctive stamp, and of a fixed value and weight, issued by a government as money (http://www.yourdictionary.com/coin). Cf money. Command economyCommand economyCommand economyCommand economy: : : : one in which the coordination of economic activity….is undertaken through administrative means – commands, directives, targets and regulations – rather than by a market mechanism (Ericson, 2008). CommercialisationCommercialisationCommercialisationCommercialisation: the extent to which a price-making market allocates commodities and the factors of production; allows entrepreneurial activities; and uses institutions such as money, marketplaces, credit and banking (Smith 2004: 78-79). Complex Complex Complex Complex societysocietysocietysociety:::: a society which is large, has many distinct parts, a variety of specialized social roles and distinct social personalities, and a variety of mechanisms for organizing these into a coherent functioning whole (Tainter: 1988: 23). ConsolidationConsolidationConsolidationConsolidation: the establishment of an imperial system of ‘structural connections and dependencies’, including administrative and ideological systems to ensure the movement of resources to the imperial rulers (Sinopoli 1994: 163-164). Core Area: Core Area: Core Area: Core Area: the portion of a country that contains its economic, political, intellectual, and cultural focus. It is often the center of creativity and change (www.geographic.org/glossary.html.). In this context, it is taken as that part of the capital city Angkor where the population density was highest.

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DharmDharmDharmDharmaaaa: (in Hinduism and Buddhism) the underlying order in nature and human life, and behaviour considered to be in accord with that order; the right way of living or proper conduct (after Macquarie Dictionary 1996). Economic powerEconomic powerEconomic powerEconomic power:::: the control over access to natural resources, labour, goods and services. Economic outcomes depend on the distribution of human and natural resources, the structure of labour and exchange systems, transportation and other technologies, within both the core state and regions under imperial control. Analysis of economic power will entail analysis of all these aspects (D’Altroy, 1992: 11-12). Embedded economyEmbedded economyEmbedded economyEmbedded economy: a non-capitalist economy where economic behaviour is influenced by (embedded in) the dominant norms, institutions and social structures. This contrasts with the DiDiDiDisembedded economysembedded economysembedded economysembedded economy, seen in capitalist economies in which economic relations are deemed to be distinct from social relations (Polanyi 1944: Ch 4). ExchangeExchangeExchangeExchange: : : : the process of trading one item for another (Amos 2006). ExchangeExchangeExchangeExchange: ‘vice-versa’ movements taking place as between ‘hands’ under a market system (Polanyi 1957b: 250). Formal Formal Formal Formal economic economic economic economic meaningmeaningmeaningmeaning: the particular function of an economic term in modern capitalism, where integration is through markets (Dalton, 1975: 83). Foundation: Foundation: Foundation: Foundation: an endowed institution (Macquarie Dictionary 1996); in the context of the Khmer inscriptions, a religious foundation refers to a deity, its housing and the support required for its maintenance, which may include land and its produce, servants, food, clothing and rituals. HegemonyHegemonyHegemonyHegemony: hierarchical structure for the accumulation of surplus among political entities and their constituent classes, mediated by force (Gills and Frank, 1993: 146). Hinterland: Hinterland: Hinterland: Hinterland: the area serving and being served by a settlement. The term was originally applied to ports, and one port may share part of its hinterland with another, but has now been extended to refer to the sphere of influence of a settlement (Mayhew 2004[1997]). IdeologyIdeologyIdeologyIdeology: a set of doctrines or beliefs that form the basis of a political, economic, or other system. Ideology may be used to legitimise inequality on the basis of other criteria. State ideology provided rationales for expansion, and a means of reducing the cost of maintaining jurisdiction and of assimilating subject groups (D’Altroy, 1992: 13). Indianisation: Indianisation: Indianisation: Indianisation: the result of the influence of Indian culture on another culture. MarketMarketMarketMarket: a site where buyers and sellers meet to buy and sell at prices formed in various ways, the movement of commodities being controlled by prices (Polanyi, 1957b: 258); the organized exchange of commodities (goods, services, or resources) between buyers and sellers within a specific geographic area and during a given period of time (Amos 2006). Market tradeMarket tradeMarket tradeMarket trade/ Market exchange/ Market exchange/ Market exchange/ Market exchange: trade in which the markets are price-making or self-regulating markets (cf gift or administered trade). It was held to be relatively modern by Polanyi. In market trade, money and market become linked, exchange being the form of integration which relates the partners to each other (Polanyi, 1957b: 263).

62

Medium of exchangeMedium of exchangeMedium of exchangeMedium of exchange: the money function in which money is widely accepted in exchange for goods and services. For an asset to function as a medium of exchange it need not have value in itself, only value in exchange (Amos 2006). Military powerMilitary powerMilitary powerMilitary power:::: the capacity to elicit a desired response through a combination of force and persuasion (D’Altroy, 1992: 12). MobilisationMobilisationMobilisationMobilisation: economic systems where collection is for the purpose of mobilising, rather than redistributing, resources, for the enterprise of the ruling group (Smelser, 1959: 179). MonetisedMonetisedMonetisedMonetised: having money prices. Degree of monetisationDegree of monetisationDegree of monetisationDegree of monetisation: the extent to which an economy’s goods and services are provided with prices. A society having money, but allowing taxes to be paid in kind is partially monetised (after Wicks: 11). MoneyMoneyMoneyMoney:::: ‘all goods that are held in significant measure in order to economise on transaction costs in the activity of trading a variety of other types of goods’ (Melitz, 1974: 77).. The uses of money are as a medium of exchange, a standard of value and as a means of payment. They may arise independently, and different currencies may be used for the different purposes (Polanyi, 1966: 174). Cf coin. Non market economiesNon market economiesNon market economiesNon market economies:::: economies which depend on administered trade, gift trade or reciprocity, and not price making markets (Dalton:, 1975: 90). OrienOrienOrienOrientalismtalismtalismtalism: ‘a way of coming to terms with the Orient that is based on the Orient’s special place in European Western experience…. Orientalism expresses and represents that part culturally and even ideologically as a mode of discourse with supporting institutions, vocabulary, scholarship, imagery, doctrines, even colonial bureaucracies and colonial styles……Orientalism is a style of thought based upon an ontological and epistemological distinction made between ‘the Orient’ and (most of the time) ‘the Occident’ (Saïd, 1978: 1-2). Political economyPolitical economyPolitical economyPolitical economy: ‘the relationship between political organization and the social organization of production, exchange and consumption’ (Stein 2001: 356). Political powerPolitical powerPolitical powerPolitical power:::: the ability to dominate the processes of managing consent, judging and decision-making (Service 1975: 12 cited D'Altroy 1992: 11). Methods of exercising political power may vary from consensual and generalised to codified and specialised as society becomes increasingly complex (D’Altroy, 1992: 11). Polity: Polity: Polity: Polity: a state or other organised community or body (Macquarie Dictionary 1996). Port of tradePort of tradePort of tradePort of trade:::: ‘the site of all administered foreign trade. It offers military security to the inland power; civil protection to the foreign trader; facilities of storage; the benefit of judicial authorities…’ (Polanyi, 1957b: 263). Trade is controlled because the foreigners may belong to different economic systems and special agreements must be reached on what goods are to be traded and under what terms of trade. This is also necessary when there is no international currency in use (Dalton, 1975: 104). PowerPowerPowerPower: ‘the capacity of one party to pursue and achieve goals by eliciting a desired response, whether through coercion, persuasion, reward, or some combination thereof’. This

63

definition eliminates the need for a distinction between power and authority, i.e between the use of force and the use of office or status (D’Altroy, 1992: 10) Process: Process: Process: Process: a series of actions, changes or functions bringing about a result (cf. strategy) (http://www.thefreedictionary.com) PricePricePricePrice----fixing market: fixing market: fixing market: fixing market: See Market trade. PraśastiPraśastiPraśastiPraśasti: a stylised panegyric. Prestige goodsPrestige goodsPrestige goodsPrestige goods: goods, whose possession or giving increases the status of an individual. Their value in this context may be unrelated to market value. ReciprocityReciprocityReciprocityReciprocity:::: ‘movements between correlative points of symmetrical groupings’ Polanyi (1957b: 250). In terms of substantive economics (below), this implies an obligatory relationship of exchange defined by social or political relationships (D’Altroy, 1992: 149) and is concerned with pattern maintenance and tension management (Wheatley, 1975: 227). Where reciprocity is asymmetrical, it tends to merge with redistribution (Sahlins, 1972: 188; D’Altroy, 1992: 149). RedistributionRedistributionRedistributionRedistribution:::: the movement of goods (and money) towards a centre and out of it again (Polanyi, 1957b: 250; 1966: 34). It ‘involves the allocation of rewards and facilities in conformity with the integrative requirements of society’ (Wheatley, 1975: 227). In practice, this is the obligatory provision of cash, goods and labour to a central political authority for administration, maintenance of the centre, public works, community services, or rations for the contributing population (Dalton, 1975: 93; Polanyi, 1957: 250-54). State: State: State: State: is a political association with effective sovereignty over a geographic area and representing a population (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki). Strategy: Strategy: Strategy: Strategy: a plan of action intended to accomplish a specific goal (cf. process) (http://www.thefreedictionary.com) Substantive Substantive Substantive Substantive meaning of economicmeaning of economicmeaning of economicmeaning of economic: refers to human reliance on the natural and social environment for supplying the material goods that satisfy biological and human wants (Simkins 1999; Humphreys 2003). Polanyi's view is that the substantive meaning of economics is the only relevant one in understanding the empirical economies past and present. Trade:Trade:Trade:Trade: The movement of goods through the market. All trade is market trade (Polanyi, 1957b: 258; 263). Unit of accountUnit of accountUnit of accountUnit of account: ‘A unit in terms of which prices are quoted, calculations of value are made, and records of value are kept’ (Melitz, 1974: 10).

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