© T. M. Whitmore

TODAY•Agricultural and Rural

Development IssuesInternal colonization

Amazonia continued

•Amazonian & tropical deforestation

•Contemporary agriculture in LA

•Population Geography of LA

© T. M. Whitmore

LAST TIME•Agricultural & Rural Development

III: Modernization of agriculture: The “Green Revolution”

IV: Dual agricultural systems or “The Productivity Paradox”

V: Internal Colonization of Tropical Lowlands

© T. M. Whitmore

Tropical Deforestation•Deforestation rates•Causes

Agricultural clearingPasture clearingTimber harvestingOil exploration/extractionPopulation growth?Degradation of lands in source

areas of migrantsPoor land tenure equity in source

areas of migrantsUrban poverty

© T. M. Whitmore

Amazonian deforestation•Wider consequences

In Brazilspeculation and abandoned lands

Loss of rare tropical rain forestDestruction of speciesDestruction of Indigenous people’s

traditional livelihoodConsequences for global warmingFails to solve land tenure problemLocal weather impacts

•Solutions?

© T. M. Whitmore

Mexican Agriculture-examples

•Dual system spatially and functionally

•Regions in Mexican agricultureNorthern irrigated oasesMesa Central and Bajío

Commercial, specialty, & small holder

Southern highland Mexico, lowlands near Gulf of Mexico, and Yucatan

Commercial & small holder

Bajío

Irrigated maize in Bajío

Tequila

Pulque

(like tequila & mezcal, pulque is from maguey, a species of agave – not a cactus

Magueys in fallow field C. Mexico

© T. M. WhitmoreTraditional maize cob storage

Milpa (i.e., field – usually corn) in Chiapas

© T. M. Whitmore

Commercial Agriculture in LA

•Argentina

•Chilean central valley

•Brazil

•Peru’s coastal oases

•Columbia’s coffee

•Specialty crops: coca, flowers, ferns

•Central America’s 3 Cs

Pam

pasW

ines

Argentine Soy(98% GMO)

© T. M. Whitmore

Soy Citrus

Frui

t

© T. M. Whitmore

© T. M. Whitmore

© T. M. Whitmore

© T. M. WhitmoreCut flower cultivation on ancient terraces; near Tarma, Peru

© T. M. WhitmoreCut flower cultivation on ancient terraces; near Tarma, Peru

© T. M. Whitmore

Fern growth under meshIn cloud forest in theSierra de las Minas, Guatemala

© T. M. Whitmore

© T. M. Whitmore

coffee

coffee

coffee

Tropical plantation crops

Cotton, sugar

© T. M. Whitmore

© T. M. Whitmore

© T. M. Whitmore

© T. M. Whitmore

© T. M. Whitmore

© T. M. Whitmore

© T. M. Whitmore

© T. M. Whitmore

Population (2006 estimates)

•Latin America & Caribbean ~ 566 m

•USA ~ 300 m

•World ~ 6,555 m

•Caribbean ~ 39 m

•Central America (with Mexico) ~ 149 m

•Mexico ~ 108 m

•South America (with Brazil ~ 378 m)

•Brazil ~ 187 m

•Mexico + Brazil ~ 295 m (> ½ of LA; ~ USA)

© T. M. Whitmore

Demography: Growth related

•Rate of Natural Increase (RNI)Meaning of “crude” in demographyCrude Birth Rate (CBR): live

births/1000 pop in a given yearCrude Death Rate (CDR):

deaths/1000 pop in a given yearCBR - CDR = RNI (assumes no

migration) in a given year

© T. M. Whitmore

Rate of Natural Increase (RNI)/yr

•Latin America ~ 1.5%/yr•USA ~ 0.6%/yr•World ~ 1.2%/yr•More Developed World ~ 0.1%/yr•Lesser developed world ~ 1.5% - 1.8%/yr•Caribbean ~ 1.2%/yr•Central America (including Mexico) ~ 1.9%•Mexico ~ 1.7 %/yr•South America (including Brazil) ~ 1.4%/yr

Brazil ~ 1.4%/yr•Notable extremes•Historical trends: 1950s - 1980s

Declining but less rapidly now

© T. M. Whitmore

Total Fertility Rate (TFR)•= average total number of births to a

woman in her lifetime (superior to CBR)

•~ 2.1 => parents only replacing themselves (called replacement level fertility)need the extra 0.1 due to childhood

deaths

© T. M. Whitmore

Fertility (TFR)• Latin America ~ 2.5

• USA ~ 2.0

• World ~ 2.7

• More Developed World ~ 1.6

• Lesser developed world ~ 2.9 - 3.4

• Caribbean ~ 2.6

• Central America (including Mexico) ~ 2.7

• Mexico ~ 2.4

• South America (including Brazil) ~ 2.4

• Brazil ~ 2.3

• Notable extremes

© T. M. Whitmore

Death related (mortality)• Mortality

measured by “life expectancy at birth” (Eo)= AVERAGE projected span of life at the date for a pop

• Infant Mortality Rate (IMR)# deaths of infants (< 1yr)/1000 live

births in a given yr

© T. M. Whitmore

Life expectancy at birth (Eo) • Latin America ~ 72 yrs• USA ~ 78• World ~ 67• More Developed World ~ 77• Lesser developed world ~ 63 – 65• Caribbean ~ 69• Central America (including Mexico) ~ 74• Mexico ~ 75• South America (including Brazil) ~ 72• Brazil ~ 72• Individual extremes

© T. M. Whitmore

Infant Mortality Rate (IMR)• Closely correlated with Eo & very diagnostic of

social underdevelopment and poverty• Latin America ~ 29 (per 1000 live births -or

2.9%)• USA ~ 6.9• World ~ 55• More Developed World ~ 7• Lesser developed world ~ 61 – 64• Caribbean ~ 38• Central America (including Mexico) ~ 27• Mexico ~ 25• South America (including Brazil) ~ 30• Brazil ~ 33• Individual extremes

© T. M. Whitmore

Population age structure - youth

•Youthful pops: % of pop < 15 years old•USA 20%•World 29%

Lesser developed World 32% - 35%More Developed World ~ 17%

•Latin America 30%Central America with Mexico 34%Caribbean 34%South America 29%

•Latin American extremes & consequences

© T. M. Whitmore

Population age structure - aged

•Aged pops: (> 65)

•USA 12%

•World 7%Lesser developed World 5%

•Latin America 6%Central America with Mexico 5%Caribbean 8%South America 6%

•Latin American extremes & consequences

© T. M. Whitmore

Population age structures•Population pyramid

•Concept of dependency ratio(pop aged 0-15 + pop aged 65+) *100/ Pop age 15-65

•USA dependency ratio100*(20% +12%)/68% = 47

•Developing world dependency ratio100*(32% + 5%)/63% = 59

•Latin America dependency ratio100*(30% + 6%)/64% = 56

© T. M. Whitmore