;'.

THE LANGUAGE OF SOLZENICYN's "ODIN DEN' ••• " ** Perelmuter

THE LANGUAGE OF SOLZENICYNla "ODIN DENI IVANA DENISOVICA"

A Thesis Pl'esented to

the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research

McGill University

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts

(in Russian)

by Joanna Perelmuter

August, 1967

@) Joanna Perelmuter 1968

ABSTRACT

Joanna Perelmuter

THE LANGUAGE OF SOLZENICYN 1 s "ODIN DENI IVANA DENISOVICA"

Department of Russian

Master of Arts

Def1nition of Scope -- The purpose of this study is to

catalogue the 1inguistic pecu1iarities of Sol!en1cyn l s tale

and to discuss their structure, semantic and stylistic values.

Methods of'Procedure -- The phonetic, morphological, and

semantic aspects constitute the three main headings under which

words are c1assified. Under the semantic heading words are

subdivided according to their stylistic meaning. Assembled in

such subdivisions are: dia1ect, co1loquia1, vulgar and jargon­

istic words, as we1l as Soviet neo1ogisms. In addition to

lexical ana1ysis of Solrenicynls language one chapter is whol1y

devoted to the syntactic and phraseologica1 peculiarities.

Sources The fo11owing dictionaries were consulted in order

to dete~ine whether the word qualifies for inclusion in the

analysis of Solzenicyn's lexical peculiarities:

V. I. Dal l , To1kovyj slovar' ~ivogo velikorusskogo jazyka; Slovar' sovremennogo russkogo 1iteraturnogo jazyka in 17 vols.; D. N. U§akov, Tolkovyj slovar t russkogo jazyka; s. I. Olegov, Slovar' russkogo jazyka.

Conclusions -- The resu1ts of the investigation show that the

spoken co1loquia1 e1ement is the Most distinctive factor of

Sollenicyn' s language, one which marks "both the lexical and

syntactic aspects of the author's usage.

11

TABLE OF CONTENTS

AC KNOWLEDGEMENT •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• iv

LIST OF ACCEPTED ABBREVIATIONS ••••••••••••••••••••••• v

TABLE OF TRANSLITERATION ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• vi

CHAPTER I: Introduction

1. Purpose o~ the Dissertation •••••••••••••••••••• 1

2. Methodology •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 3

CHAPTER II: !2.B!!, Adjective, Adverb

1. Noun

2. Adjective

3. Adverb

Ca) Phonetic Peculiarities •••• 4t ••••• 7 Cb) Morphological Aspects:

Declension -- Suf~ixation Prefixation-suffixation -­Dea~fixation -- Compounds ••••••• 9

(c) Semantic Features: Dialect -- Colloquialisms Vulgarisms -- Thie~' B Cant and Camp Slang -- Soviet Neolog1sms -- Word and Context ••••••••••••• 25

(a) Phonetic Peculiarities ••••••••••

(b) Semantic Features: Dialect -- Colloquialisms Vulgarisms -- Thief' B Cant and Camp Slang -- Soviet Neologisms ••

(a) Semantic Features •••••••••••••••

76

77

85

CHAPTER III: Verb

1. Verb (a) Phonetic Pecu1iarities ••••••••••

(b) Morpho1ogical Aspects: Conjugation -- Prefixation Suffixation -- Suffixation -prefixation ••••••••••••••••••••

(c) Semantic Features: Dia1ect -- Co11oquialisms Vulgarisms Thief' s Cant and

iii

98

99

Camp Slang -- Word and Context ••• 103

CHAPTER IV: Syntax and Phraseo1ogy

1. Syntactic Pecu1iarities ••••••.••••••••••••••••••• 122

2. Proverbs (a) Pos1ovica

(b) Pogovorka

•••••••••••••••••••••••

•••••••••••••••••••••••

3. Abusive Expressions ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

C HAP TER V: Conclusions •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

INDEX OF RUSSIAN WORDS ............................. ~ ~ .

148

149

150

154

163

BIBLIOGRAPHY ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 168

iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

l am deeply indebted to Professor

John G. Nicholson, the director of this

thesis, for his invaluable assistance,

patience, encouragement and kind advice.

l would also like to expresls m.;-

thanks to Prof'essors Nicolas Per'lTushin,

Rostislav Pletnev and Gleb Zekul:Ln for

providing me with available material

and many help:rul suggestions.

A. N.

ibid.

L.

LIST OF ACCEPTED ABBREVIATIONS

Akademi j a Nauk

ibidem ("in the same place")

id est ("that is")

LeningI'ad

loc. cit. -- loco citato ("in the passage citedn )

M. Moskva

M.-L. Moskva-LeningI'ad

P., Pp. page(s)

s. Pb. st. PeteI'sbUl'g

s.v. sub voce ("undeI' the heading")

vol., vols.-- volume(s)

v

vi

TABLE OF TRANSLITERATION

a a P r

6 b c S

B V ':r t

1" g Y u

II. d tP - f

e e x - x

ë @ u - C

1/'

:IR Z 'q C

3 Z li - S

v'V

H i IU - sc

H j 'D " R k DI - Y

JI 1 b -M m 3 - e

li n ID ju

0 0 fI ja

TI p

".

CHAPTER l

Introduction

1. Purpose of the Dissertation

1 Sol!enicyn's story "Odin den' Ivana Denisovica"

appeared in the November 1962 issue of the major Soviet

literary journal Noyzj~. Its publication marked the

beginning of a series of lengthy and turbulent discussions.

Both in the Soviet Union L~d in the West the tale was

receiveà as a startling novelty, perhaps the beginning

of a new "thaw" in Soviet literature. Such prominent

Russian newspapers as Izvestija and Literaturnaja gazeta

printed reviews of the story just hours after its

publication.2 The two articles did not end the storm

the s'tory had caused. Almost every newspaper and serious

journal commented on the new work. To the Soviet reader

its appearance in print was an unprecedented event.

Solzenicyn's story for the first time gave a faithful

account of life in a forced labour camp. In the beginning,

therefore, the attention of the press and critics wes

centred on the subject-matter of the tale.

When the first storm quieted down the tale began to

draw more attention from literary critics. A new fiery

discussion a~ose; this time the lite~~y me~its of the

tale were questioned. Many called Soltenicyn's story a

liter~y maste~piece written in the best humanist and

realistic t~adition of Russian classical literature.

Both Western and Soviet cri tics compared the story with

Dostoevskij's "Zapiski iz mertvogo doma"3 with Tolstoj

and Cexov, Nekrasov and S!ed~in, Grigo~ovi~ and Turgenev.4 Solzenicyn, indeed, was nominated by Novyi ~ as a

candidate fo~ the much coveted Lenin Awa~d in Literature

for 1963, although he failed to receive it. To others

the story ~~s a bet~ayal of sociclist realism, a calumny

directed against Sov:i.et society.5

Howeve~ one factor was absent in all the articles,

treatises, and reviews of "Odin den' Ivana DenisovilSa."

The critics, no matter whether praising or condemning

the tale, never concerned themselves' with the language

of SOlzenicyn's work. Whether the story was comp~ed to

Dostoevskij and Kly~kov,6 or to Remizov and his schoo17

the language was barely touched upon.

The only exception to this lack of linguistic

interest is a short ~ticle written by Tatjana Vinoku~

in Voprosy kul'tury ~e~i.8 It was directed against the

st~ong objections of the Soviet public to the author's

use of camp slang and COnmlon Russian obscenities.

This lack of interest in the linguistic values of

"Odin den' ••• " evoked a particula~ curiosi ty about the

subject and stimulated the present linguistic study.

2

3

The purpose of this work is therefore to catalogue the

linguistic peculiarities of SOlzenicyn's tale nOdin den'

Ivana Denisovi~an and to discuss their structure, semantic

and stylistic values. The airo of this dissertation is

strictly linguistic. It undertakes an investigation of

Sol~enicyn's language not as a literary-artistic function,

but as facts of Russian speech.

2. Methodology

The Russian language possesses a lexicon of hundreds

of thousands of words and provides the writer with a great

variety of forms to choose from. 9 In selec ting words ,.~

author takes into account not only their Inherent meaning,

but the stylistic emotional overtones of each word.

On the pages that follow, a wide selection of words

will be presented. Each of them has a particular distinct­

ive quality that will justify the treatment it will receive.

The word under discussion must be distinguished in one of

three ways: a) phoneticallYi b) in internaI structure, i.e.

morphology; c) in its semantic role. The phonetic,

morphological and semantic aspects will constitute the three

main headings under which words will be classified. Under

the semantic heading words will be subdivided according

to their stylistic meaning. Assembled in such subdivisions

will be: dialect, colloquial, vulgar and jargonistic words,

as weIl as Soviet neologisms.

" ..

4

In o~de~ to determine whethe~ the wo~d qualifies fo~

inclusion in the analysis of Sol~enicyn's lexical peculi~­

ities the following dictionaries were consulted:

V. I. DaI': To1kovyj slova~' zivogo ve1ikorusskogo jazyka,

3rd ed., S. Pb., 1903-1909; Slova~' sovremennogo russkogo

1ite~at~.go jazyka, Academy of Sciences, 17vols., Moscow,

1950-1965; D. N. U§akov: To1kovyj slovar' ~usskogo jazYka,

4 vols., Moscow, 1935-1940; S. I. O!egov: Slova~' russkogo

jazyka, 4th ed., Moscow, 1960.

In addition, other so~ces were f~equent1y ~eferred to such

as: Orfograficeskij slovar' ~usskogo jazyka, Russisches

Rncklaufiges W6~terbuchJ Slovar' sokrascenij russkogo jazyka,

and Kratkij slovar' sovremennogo russkogo ~a~gona. (See

Bib1iography.)

The majority of words to be discussed in the proposed

study of Sol~enicyn's language are absent from the diction­

aries of standard Russian. A number of words were located

as dialect and substandard in the dictionaries of DaI' and

U§akov. Some were found in the dictionary of Russian slang

compiled by the Krestinskys. However, a good Many remain

unregistered. Here belong on the one hand words coined by

the author himse1f: neuladka, neumelec, etc., which show

that the w~iter forms new words according to the princip1es

of word-formation governing the standard language. On the

othe~ hand, some of the words discussed can be exp1ained

as Most recent lexical innovations and are not catalogued

as yet by the lexicographers.

The proposed study of the language of SOllenicyn's

"Odin den, ••• n will be divided into five chapters. The

first chapter, including this section, states the methods

adopted and the actual purpose of the work. Then follow

two chapters consisting of a thorough discussion of

particular aspects of Sol~enicyn's vocabulary. Chapter II

will deal with nouns, adjectives and adverbs, while the

next chapter will be devoted to verbal peculiarities only.

Syntax and phraseology will constitute the whole of

Chapter IV. The final chapter will state the general con­

clusions, giving at the sarne time a brief summary of the

tendencies that have been mentioned in previous chapters.

Within each chapter special care is taken to arrange

the material in an organized manner. Thus, Chapters II

and III will be subdivided into three sections dealing

with phonetic, morphological, and semantic features

respectively. Two of these three subdivisions will be

further divided. The morphological subdivision will

deal with inflection and word-formation, while the

semantic section will discuss dialect, cOlloquial,

vulgar, jargonistic and Soviet neologistic tendencies.

The fourth chapter (on syntax and phraseology) will

~l'sQ·:,mclude proverbial and abusive expressions.

5

1

NOTES TO CHAPTER l

This Russian name, thus trans1iterated in scho1ar1y publications directed to 1inguists and 1iterary sCho1ars, is norma11y printed as Solzhenitsyn in Eng1ish publications aimed at an audience broader than one of specia1ists.

2 K. Simonov, "0 pros1om vo imja budus~ego," Izvestija, Nov. 18, 1962. G. Baklanov, ItCtob eto nikogda ne povtori1os',n Literaturnaja gazeta, Nov. 22, 1962.

3

4

V. Zava1i~in, "Povest' 0 mertvyx domax i sovetskom krest'janstve,1t Grani, No. 5ft (1963), pp. 133-150. N. Gubko, "ae1ovek pObe!daet,' Zvezda, No. 3 (1963), pp. 214-215.

v. Lak~in, "Ivan Denisovic, ego druz'ja i nedrugi," Novyj ~, No. 1 (1964), pp. G1eb Zeku1in, "So1zhenitsyn's Four Stories," Soviet Studies, .XVI (July 1964), 45-62.

5 N. Sergovancev, "Tragedija odinocestva i 'sp1o§noj byt'," Oktjabr', No. 4 (1963), pp. 199-200.

6

7

8

V. Zava1i~in, npovest' ••• ,n p. 136.

Roman GuI', liA. Sol~euicyn -- socrealism i sko1a Remizova," Novyj ~urna1, No. 71 (1963), p. 65.

Tatjana Vinokur, "0 jazyke i sti1e povesti Solzenicyna 'Odin den' Ivana Denisovi~a'," Voprosy kul'tury ~, No. 6 (1965), pp. 16-32.

9 Da1's dictionary a10ne contains more than 200,000 words.

6

CHAPTER II

Noun, Adjective, Adverb

Part 1: Noun (a) Phonetic Peculiarities

Solzenicyn' s tale "Odin den' Ivana Denisovièa1t does

not comprise very many phonetic peculiarities. However,

the following are interesting enough to be discussed

separately.

i) The interchange of consonants:

" s - s

s - s

The form ~alag~, which is listeà in Dalls dictionary, is modified to salaga by Sol!enicyn.

Standard Russian skvalyga is changed to skvalyga in Solzenicynls usage.

ii) The change from velar x to velar ~:

Dalls bedolaxa bedolaga in Solzenicyn's usage.

iii) The change from ~ to ~:

7

The neologistic word staxanovec, which is derived from

the Russian surname Staxanov, is given the form ~

stakanovec. (Presumably under the influence of

Latvian in the speaker.)

iv) Vowel substitution:

o - a ~ The form ballon, which is given in

Jakovlev's glossary of camp terms, is changed to balane

Diale~tal Russian mtga has been changed to magara.

o u

i e

Dialectal xolobGda is changed by Solzenicyn to the form xalabûda.

Dialectal zavaroxa and Solzenicyn's form zavaruxa.

Dal'a bicevka against Sol!enicy.n's form be~evo~ka.

v) Palatalization:

The vulgar noun dermo wi th a hard .!: is changed to

der'mo by Solzenicyn.

vi) Substitution of the regular phoneme by fuj- which

bears a resemblance to the original word, but the

vulgar meaning is thus hinted at in a covert way.

pod' '~mnik fuSmnik

maslice fujaslice

The influence of the emo~ional interjection fuj is

clearly visible.

vii) Abbreviations:

la. consisting of initiaIs pronounced as separate

letters " KVC (ka-ve-<!e) ppe (pe-pe-ce) CTZ (ce-te-ze) z/k (ze-ka)

lb. consisting of initiaIs pronounced as spelt

BUR (bur) GpLAG (gulag ) TEC (tèc)

These initial abbreviations form new nouns which are

often homonymous with the previously existing

non-abbreviations.

8

~, 2. consisting of part of a word (or words)

A!!, oper, kavtoran~, kondej, komvzvod, medsanbat, na8kar, soblag, pombrig, pomna8kar, prorab.

3. consisting of part of a word and a complete

word zavstolovoj zarplata kompolka mexzavod

polpajka polkarcer pombrigadir prodsklad

prodstol saninstruktor sangast' Socgorodok

(mexzavodec is a derivative of mexzavod.)

AlI these words are Soviet neologisms, although

there were some abbreviations before 1917 such as the

names of firms or products, the names of political 2 parties and their members, and military terms.

(b) Morphological Aspects

Declensional anomalies are not very abundant, for

although they are present in the speech of the common v

men, especially the protagonist Ivan Denisovic Suxov,

they are absent from the author's narrative.

The irregularities in the declension of substantives

are especially evident in Sol~enicyn's use of the

masculine genitive singular. The ending -u/-~ is often

preferred by Sol~enicyn to the more corumon masculine

genitive singular ending -.!/-j!. The genitive singular .~.

ending -u/-~ is an alternative en ding for this case and

has been formed through the influence of the Old Russian

u-stem masculine nouns: ~, ~, ~, etc.

A1though the forms in -Bl-~ were much more common in

the past, they are present1y emp10yed exc1usive1y in the

fo110wing circ~tances:

1) to express a:!)partitive idea, when a modifier is

not present;

stakan ~aj~

10

(but stakan xoro~ego caj~ -- a modifying adjective)

2) as a sty1istic alternative, with a co110quia1

nuance, to the normal genitive from abstract nouns;

sumu

xo10du

vetru

(sum~)

(xo10da)

(vetra)

3) after the prepositions bez, iz, s, ot; - - --bez otdyx~

iz 1esu

so straxu

ot vetru

(bez otdyx~)

(iz 1esa)

(so straxa)

(ot vetra)

In aIl three cases the genitive in -]f-~ is not ob1igatory,

but a possible alternative fürm.

The genitive in -]j-ju is often used exc1usive1y in

fixed expressions; .it is often preferredwith the negative

partic1e ~ or negative predicators ~t or ~.3 Solzenicyn emp10ys such alternative forms: nastojas~ego

ca.i;a, tabak,B, rastvor,B, samosadB' vetr~, dymu, 1ed~,

snegu, svetu, xo10du, xOdu, proxodu, nosu, ~asu, narodu, = _ = --== -0: ---= _ net pokoj~, ot1ezE net, net upor~, iz do~, bez otr~,

bez obogrevu, bez to1ku, bez pereryvu, ot kraju, ni razu, = = - -razgovoru.

Il

However in two cases, when the genitive forro in -~ might

-a: -be expected, he gives the forro in

1) after the particle ni ni ukryva, ni greva (p.12)

2) with the negative predicator ~

~ (p.17).

tomu otzyva

The influence of the genitive forro in -~/-~ goes

as far in Solzenicyn's usage that a genitive forro rangu

is employed. However, the word rang ("ramk") is neither

an abstract noun nor is a partitive idea expressed.

Solzenicyn uses the correct forro ranga in his own narrative

(kapitan vtorogo ranga -- p. 4) but, when describing the

thoughts of the protagonist Suxov, the author gives the

forro in -~ (kapitan vtorogo rangu -- p.20).

An irregularity in the forro of the genitive plural

for masculine nouns is also present in Solzenicyn's

usage. Nouns designating pairs should have irregular

zero-endings (nulevoe okoncanie) for the genitive plural

instead of the normal ending -ov.4 The forro botinkov,

pI'esent in Suxov's 'narrative, is, therefore, incorrect.

The correct form for the genitive plural is botinok.

The zero-ending formrepresents the persistance of the

Old-Russian genitive plural peculiar to the Q-stem

masculine nouns.

Another morphological anomaly found in SOllenicyn's 1 tale "Odin den' ••• " is the accusative plural forro sroka

The noun ~ is used exclusively in the singular. It

belongs to the category of abstract nouns with the

alternative genitive singular -]/-~. These abstract

nouns, together with collective nouna and those denoting

a material, do not have a plural form. 5 The form srok~ is not in the author's narrative, but in the dialogue.

It is the uneducated brigade leader who makes up this

non-standard plural forme

Still another oddity is the use of the noun put'.

This noun is the last remnant of the i-stem masculine

declension. Since it is of masculine gender it is

often mistaken in the colloquial language for a regular

soft masculine. It is employed as such in the narrative

of the brigade leader Andrej Prokof'ic Tjurin. Instead /

of the correct form na puti, the form na pute ia used.

The declension of Christian name and patronymic as

one word is characteristic of colloquial speech. 6

Solzenicyn employs this device for stylistic effects.

Instead of the standard dative Ivanu Denisy~u, the

author uses the colloquial form Ivan Denisy~u (pp.24 and

33). The colloquial genitive form Andrej Prokof'evica

(p.IB), and the instrumental case Andrej Prokof'evi~em

(p.42) are also employed. The Christian name is not de-

clined, for it is considered to be a part of the whole

name. This morphological alternative: serves as another

example of the colloquial aspects of Solzenicyn's ~.

12

In addition to declension, morphology is also

concerned with word-formation. Words selected from

Sol~enicyn' s tale "Odin den' ••• " seldom appear in

standard Russian dictionaries. They are chiefly

colloquial, dialectal, vulgar or neologistic in

character. Their structure is determined by affixation

or deaffixation; words are seldom created from roots

non-existent in the language. Thus it is necessary to

examine the structure of nouns chosen from the tale in

order to see the peculiarities of Solzenicyn's lexicon.

There are three varieties of affixation:

1) prefixation,

2) suffixation,

3) prefixation-suffixation.

Since prefixation is scantily represented in the list of

selected nouns, it will not be dealt with separately.7

Prefixes will be discussed when the combination of pre-

fixes and suffixes is illustrated.

Suffixation

The suffix -ka is best represented. This is a very

productive suffix in the creation of diminutives of

masculine and feminine gender. The colloquial language

takes advantage of this highly productive process: a

large number of colloquial words has been formed in such 8

a manner.

13

Here belong nouns denoting:

place

objects

pers ons

linejka, dezurka, kapt~rka, posudomojka,

xleborezka;

pajka, polpajka, becevoéka, vagonka;

popka, snaroska, ~, sesterka, cu~ka.

Emotionally coloured deverbal nouns also belong to this

category: dumka, sidka, smefuecka, spajka.

A large variety of diminutives with colloquial nuance

belong here as weIl: garantijka, (dvuxsot-) (trexsot-)

grammovka, katuska, procentovka, povremenka.

The suffix -!E!! added to nouns of both masculine

14

and feminine gender gives rise to feminine nouns des~gnat­

ing single objects. These nouns have a diminutive meaning.

According to the Academy Grammar this is a productive type q

of word-formation. Here belong the following nouns of

Solzenicyn's "Odin den' ••• ~: kartosinka, mjasinka, and

tabacinka.

The suffix -~ can also be added to adjectival roots.

The nouns produced in such a way are also feminine

diminutives. However, this type is weatly productive

in present-day Russian. lO Two nounsbelong to this

group: krasninka, sedinka.

The suffix -lka is the colloquial equivalent of the

mildly productive suffix -l'nja: razdevalka (razdeval'nja.

15

It indicates implement: su~ilka,(rastvoro)me~alka, nosilki;

or location: instrumentalka, susilka.

The suffix -~ is colloquial and dialect in origin. ll

Although this is an unproductive suffix in standard

Russian, it is often used for various stylistic purposes,

especially to add a tinge of familiarity or irony. The

nouns zavaruxa, zituxa and pokazuxa belong in this

category.

The suffix -~, which according to Efimov was

strictly colloquial and dialectal in the 19th century,

occurs in literary usage at present. 12 It is a product­

ive augmentativâ suffix according to Dennis Ward. l )

The Academy Grammar considers this suffix to be only

mildly productive. 14 However, Ward's view is more

accurate. The suffix -~ ia very often employed in

present-day Russian for satirical purposes, as weIl as

to express derision. For instance, in Majakovskij's

poetry neologisms with the suffix -in a can be found:

pasportina. Solzenicyn's usage comprises the following

augmentatives of this kind: blevotina, bokovina, merzotina,

otkosina, provalina, and xrenovina.

The suffix -ica, when qdded to feminine nominal roots,

forms diminutive feminine nouns. This type of word-

formation is unproductive in present-day Russian. However,

popular speech includes numerous diminutives of this kind,

16

~or, being fond o~ endearing expressions, it always

seeks affectionate innovations. Bere belong SOlzenicyn's

famil'ica and trjapica.

Masculine su~fixes represented in the list of

Solzenicyn's peculiaritiè8 are:

1) -~ and i ts extension -~.

2)

They denote persons -- krasnoflotec, mexzavodec,

zagrebanec, staxanovec. The noun neumelec with

the prefix ~- is introduced by Sollenicyn from

dialecte However, the noun umelec is now a standard

Russian word. The word minonosec denotes both an

object and a person. In Solzenicyn's usage it

designates an objecte

-ik which is extended into -nik. - -brigadnik, (odno)brigadnik, desjatnik, otli~nik,

terpel'nik, ~kodnik. AlI these nouns refer to

men: their occupations, actions, etc.

Such words as predzonnik, fu8mnik, napuznik,

narnordnik designate objects. (See s.v. Pre~ixation­

suffixa tion. )

Another extension of -~ is the suffix -§~ik, which

can be subdivided into two categories -l'~ëik and

-ovs~ik, both referring to occupations: instrumental'­

scik, normirovscik. Colloquial in origin suffix -s~ik

tends to limit the productivity of the suffix -E!! in

the designations of persons.15

To the sarne group of -1! suffixes belongs the su~fix

-~ik: avtomat~ik, narjadcik, otkazëik, (strelok-)

pulemetcik. AIl these nouns designate trade,

particular skill or a psychological trait of the

person. Besides forming professional designations,

the suffix -cik is a productive element in the

formation of diminutives. This is especially true

when the nominal root ends with -n, -~, -1, -~.

Here belongs Solzenicyn's materjal'cik

3) -a~

This suffix is traditionally attached to names of

tradesmen and craftsmen: trubaè, tolmac, tkac, vrac,

etc. Majakovskij introduced the linguistic innovat­

ion stixac ("poet"). Xlebnikov coined the neologism

smexa~.16 The two nouns of this kind registered in

SOl!enicyn's usage are the Soviet neologisms: tolkac

and stukac. The suffix -!i, which can be very

productive in Bulgarian and POlish, is waakly

productive in Russian. 17 Nevertheless, words with

this suffix are coined at the present time.

4) -ak/-jak

Nouns with the suffix -ak/-jak, when formed from

j t o h Il . ° 1 lOt 18 ad ec 1ves ave a co oqu1a qua 1 y. Here

belong dezurnjak, osobnjak.

5) -un/-jun

The suffix -~ has a very low degree of productivity,

if anY at aIl, according to Ward. However, according

17

to Efimov it ia presently employed in scientific and

technical vocabulary: ~atun, pOlzun. 19 Sol~enicyn's

gorjun represents this suffixe

The epicene suffix -aga/-1!s! has a very low degree

of productivity, though it has recently been used to

18

form stiljaga.20 It ia characteristic of colloquial speech

and serves to form worda expressive of pit Y and contempt:

bedolaga, doxodjaga, rabotjaga, salaga. AIl words with

this suffix except brodjaga and bednjaga are colloquial. 2l

The previously dialectal suffix -lE! has become

widespread in colloquial speech. It serves stylistic

purposes similar to those of the suffix -aga/-jaga, which

expresses derisi.on mainly. Solzenicyn' s skvalyga is a

dialectal variation of the colloquial skvalyga.

Two diminutive suffixes remain to be discussed.

One is illustrated in the noun donce, a diminutive of

dno (neuter). The suffix -ce/-~ like -ice/-~ is

d t · 22 pro uc ~ve.

rarely used. 23

However, the particular noun donce is

Other diminutives of this kind: rybce,

baraxol'ce, derevce, korytce, maslice-fujaslice,

odejal'ce, voskresen'ice.

The final diminutive suffix to be considered -- -1!/-~nys

-- has very little productivity, according to the Academy

Grammar. 24 This is confirmed by Dennis Ward in his book

The Russian Language TOday.25 ~le noun cert@ny§ is a

f i9

diminutive of ~~rt. The normal dimin~tive form is

~ert~nok or ~ertik. In Russian dialects 6ertenj'

and ~ertovik are also present. Sol~enicyn's form

~ert~nys must have been influenced by det~nys, a

common designation for aIl young.

Suffixation-prefixation

Suffixation-prefixation is not necessarily a

simultaeously occurring process. Prefixation can

take place in previously suffixed words and vice

versa (suffixation of already prefixed stem~.

Simultaneous suffixation-prefixation is not a productive

process. However, "coalescence" (è.::.-term used by D. Ward)

is often regarded as a special type of suffixation­

prefixation, and it makes suffi~ation-prefixation more

productive.

The nouns selected from Sol~enicyn's tale "Odin

den' ••• " are, for the most part, examples of non-

simultaneous prefixation-suffixation, quite a normal

fact when the weak productivity of the process is

taken into consideration. These nouns exist in the

Russian language without one of the affixes. Usually

the prefix is the superfluous element.

bezopaska obogrevalka peresidka nedQbI~nik neume ec neuladka

opaska grevalka sidka doby&nik umelec uladka

(coll.) (dial.) (coll.) (dial. ) (now standard literary) (dial. )

The addition of the prefix makes the word more slangy.

Many of these suffixation-prefixation forms have probably

been coined by Solzenicyn himself.

Such nouns as: doboltka, namordnik, napuznik,

nedokurok, predzonnik, pridurok are examples of

simultaneous prefixation-suffixation. Such forma

as: boltka, mordnik, puznik, dokurok, zonnik, durok

do not exist in the language.

Deaffixation

Deaffixation is present in nouns only. Actually the

process should be called desuffixation, since the nouns

are formed: 1) from prefixed verbs by removing the in­

finitive suffix or 2) from adjectives by removing the

adjective ending (suffix) and softening the final con­

sonant.

The first procesa of de suffixation remains

potentially productive, although it has been exploited

for centuries to such an extent that new words are

seldom "new." They have been in the language before

and have only acquired a new semantic meaning.

From the list of suffixIess nouns under the first

category fall: grev, obogrev, ugrev, poval and the

compound lesopoval, otlez, ukryv, xleborez.

With the exception of grev and rez aIl of these nouna

have been formed from prefixed verbs. (xIeborez, being

a compound noun has a substantive and a connecting vowel

20

-o·- inste:ad of the prefix.)

obogrev

ugrev

poval

otlez

. ukryv

gbogrevat'

ugrevat'

povalit l

otle~atl

ukryvat 1

grev was formed on'-;:analogy to ugrev in various

dialects of Rus sian.'

To the second 'category belong such nouns as:

glu~', Ijut', slast'. They were ultimately derived

from adjectives: gluxoj, Ijutyj, sladkij. These

suffixless soft-stem feminine nouns have been

unproductive for generations. They are mainly

cultivated in "poetic" and "folksy" language.

Neologisms of this type were very popular with the

Symbolists and Futurists (Severjanin, Majakovskij),

d h t t Esenin. 26 an suc peasan poe as

Compounds

Numerous nouns selected from SOlzenicyn's tale

"Odin den' ••• " have a composite structure. They are

mainly recent formations: either so called Soviet

neologisms, or colloquiallisms of the Soviet periode

An examination of their structure is necessary to

21

establish their characteristics.

The derivation of nouns by compounding has always

been highly productive in Russian, but since the

Revolution it has become the most important means of

word-coinage.

Compound nouns may be classified into several

categories according to their structure. Whole­

compounds and stump-compounds constitute the two

main types of compound nouns. Whole-compounds can be

formed with a connecting vowel ole or may be linked

directly.

Whole-compounds formed without the connecting vowel ole

can be:

1) in imitation of the folk style hyphenated, i.e.

linked, orthographically, by a hyphen. Both elements

of such a compound retain their grammatical identity

and decline. Almost always the appositional element

follows the basic element.

In Sol~enicyn's tale the following compounds of this

kind were registered: strelok-pulemet~ik, fitil'­

invalid, maslice-fujaslice, verevo~ka-opojaska,

Gopcik-xloPcik, Fetjukov-sakal, Aleska-baptist,

brat-~stonec.

2) abutted. This is a very productive type of word­

formation. The first element delimits the second.

Here belong such neologisms as: brevnotaska and

22

strojmaterial.

3) formed with a numeral element. By linking a numeral

to a substantive a compound noun can be formed. Any

numeral other than odin, tysjaca, million, and billion

can enter into the formation. Except for !!2 and

devjanosto the numerals are in the genitive case.

The numeral element dvux- and ~- is tending to

oust dvu- and tre-, and is far more productive.

The forms dvuxsotgrammovka, trexsotgrammovka occur

in SOlzenicyn's usage.

Compounds with first element E2!- are very common

in colloquial language. The modern Russian polovina

has been shortened to pol on analogy with the Old

Russian pol' , ("half"). Compounds wi th pol- are

formed either with the numeral element in the

nominative case and the substantivaI element in the

genitive case or else with the numeral in the

genitive and the substantive in the nominative.

However, it is interesting to note the following

compound formations in Solzenicyn's usage: polpajka,

polporcija, polkarcer. The three examples are formed

of two elements in the nominative case. The form

polpajka is not an example of the fi~st type, since

the substantivaI element does not stem from the

standard pa~k, but from a term used by the forced

labour camp inmates -- pa.jka ("bread-ration").

23

Whole-compounds for.med with a connecting vowel ole as one

element May be grouped according to the nature of the

final part.

1) If the last element out of three is a substantive the

first element can be a substantive, an adjective, a

pronoun or one of the numerals ~, tysjaëa, million

or billion. Here belong the following compounds in

Solzenicyn's usage: odnobrigadnik, posudomojka,

rastvoromesalka, torforazrabotki, trudoden',

celovekovyxod, ~lakoblok, èlektrorabota, ~nergopoezd.

2) If the third and final element is deverbal the first

element is a noun, which delimits the deverbal element.

Sol~enicyn's krovosos, lesopoval, posudomoj, silod~r

and xleborez belong herein. Such compounds are usually

occupational designations. Sometimes they designate

actions.

3) If the compounds consist of four elements, the

connecting vowel constitutes the second and a suffix

the four th 'element. If the third element of such a

four-element compound is derived from a substantive,

then the first is adjectival: krasnoflotec (krasn-o­

flot-ec). If the third element stems from a verb,

then the first is substantivaI: minonosec (min-o­

nos-ec), xleborezka (xleb-o-rez-ka).

Stump-compounds can be divided into four categories:

1) consisting of parts of words. In Solzenicyn's usage

the following can be found: kondej, medsanbat, na~kar,

Osoblag, pombrig, pomna~kar, prorab.

2) consisting of a part of a word linked to a complete noun.

The following Soviet neologisms of this kind are used by

Solzenicyn: zavstolovoj, zarplata, kavtorang, komvzvod,27

kompolka, mexzavod, mexzavodec, pombrigadir, prodsklad,

prodstol, saninstruktor, sancast l , Socbytgorodok,

Socgorodok.

25

3) consisting of initiaIs. Solzenicyn utilizes the following:

z/k, BUR, Kvë, ppë, T~C, CTZ. ------4) consisting of initiaIs linked to part of a word. To this

mixed type belongs the compound GULAG.

(c) Semantic Features

Outside the borders of what is called the standard

language, spoken and written by the educated classes,

there are various other styles of speech in existence.

These include the special jargons of various trades and

occupations, the rich vocabularies of slang and

Imprecation, the numerous colloquialisms, and the local

dialects which still persist in almost aIl parts of

Russia. Exact definitions and classifications of aIl

these forms of popular speech are hardly possible, so

mixed are they, and so imperceptibly do they shade one

into another. They may, however, aIl be grouped

together, in contrast to the standard language, under

the name of popular speech.

Solfenicyn's language in his tale "Odin den' ••• "

is very rich in various forms of popular speech.

Although, frequently, a word cannot be classified with

certainty in a particular branch of popular speech, an

attempt will be made to group words in separate sub­

divisions according to their characteristics.

26

This part of the the sis is essentially a lexico­

graphical study and as such is best treated alphabetically,

much in the sarne mrunler as a lexicon. Approximately four

hundred words are treated in this study, so that clearly

the notes on each word must be brief. In the interest

of brevity the major conclusions will be reserved for

the last chapter (V).

Dialect

Dialect is a language peculiar to a locality. For

purposes of humour, irony, emphasis, etc., a writer may

find dialect valuable as a supplement to standard diction.

He may employ dialect words and expressions which May

later become a part of the standard literary language.

In the course of literary development numerous dialect

words were adopted by standard Russian. However, the

"road through literature rt is not the only factor to

introduce locally-coloured rustic dialects to the standard

language. Dialect forma find their way intoj;he standard

literary language in communication between ~al and

urban dwellers. Cer'tain dialect oddities of speech may,

therefore, be adopted by the vernacular before ~hey

enter the Russian literary language. Certainly, some

dialect words and phrases become a part of colloquial

speech without ever e~ring the l!terary language.

Exploitation of dialect speech in literature can

be twofold: either in the language of dramatispersonae

to colour and differentiate speech, or in the

language of the author -- for stylistic effects.

Aleksander Solzenicyn employs both methods. Dialect

forms can be found in the speech of the peasant

protagonist as well as in the author's narrative.

Rere is a crosssection of the most interesting and

representative dialectal nouns found in Sollenicyn's

tale "Odin dent Ivana Deniaovica. 1I

glus 1 -- This noun ia known in literary Ruasian as

"desolate place,lI"desert," "solitude." In Sol!enicynls

tale glu~1 is employed in the sense of deafness which

in Russian takes the form gluxota. (cf. ljut ' )

gorjun --gorjunja -- These are dlalect words which have found

their way into literabure and which are presently

listed in the Academy Dictionary. Olegov, however,

27

28

does not register the word, while Usakov considers it

strictly dialectal, suitable for folY~ore and poetic

exploitation. The colloquial Russian has an equivalent

goremyka. In certain localities gorjuxa is also heard.

grev ugrev Both grev and ugrev stem from the verb gret'.

Forms grevo and ugrevo are also found in certain

locelities. Dalts dictionary is the only source

where the words can be found. Meaning: flwarmth, fi

fl oven heat."

zavaruxa -- The suffix -~ is characteristic of dialect

speech and unproductive in literary Russian.28

However, a certain number of words with this suffix

entered the literary language (zolotuxa, vesnuxa, etc.)

and our word zavaruxa can also be found in literaturej

as weIl as in colloquial speech. zavaruxa means turmoil.

In dialect speech zavaruxa can be found in the Tver'

region -- it stands for "brawl,1I "quarrel. 1I In the

Eastern parts of Russia zavaroxa is pronounced instead

of zavaruxa. It has a similar meaning -- "fear,tI

tfconfusion,u "wrangle," Itspat." (See DaI'.)

zavtrevo -- The adverb zavtra ("tomorrow") served to form

in certain Russian dialects a noun of neuter gender

zavtrevo. The noun zavtrevo is registered by DaI'.

zagrebanec -- The verb zagrebit'sja (~grebittsja),

conveying in various Eastern Iocalities the meaning

"to become anxious, apprehensive, uneasy," etc.,

produced the noun zagrebanec. Zagrebanec, Iike the

word mentioned by DaI' zagrebala, means therefore

29

a greedy, grasping person. U~akov cites the colloquial

form zagrebistyj -- "greedy," aager for gain."

zakra~k -- "edge." Besides the noun zakra8k, forms

zakraj and zakraina are also present in dialect

speech. They are Iisted in U~akov's dictionary as

dialecte The noun zakra8k is mentioned by DaI'.

zaplot -- According to DaI' this word is used in Siberia

instead of standard Russian zabor ("fence," lia barrier

of wooden posts"). It is interesting to note the

similarity of zaplot to standard Polish plot ("fence").

zatgmok -- "dark corner," "nook." Except for Dal's

dictionary the word is nowhere to be found. It is

a cognate of Standard Russian ~ and temnota

("darkness") •

zatirka -- Forms .zatirka and zatiruxa can be met aIl

over RUBsia. They imply a particular kind of food:

either a broth made of coarsely cracked wheat or

oats, dough (in the Kursk region), or boiled wheat

paste (around Rjazan'). A dish called zacierka

sort of macaroni served with miIk, is known to

Polish peasants.

zaxrjastok -- This is a derivative of the verb

zaxrjastnut ' , which is listed in Usakov's dictionary

with the annotation "dialect." Ozegov lists a

similar momentary verb -- x.rjastnut ' ("to hit hard").

He annotates it as substandard. The noun zaxrjastka

(lia bow on the head") is recorded by DaI' and Usakov.

Sollenicyn's zaxrjastok is a synonym of dialectal

zaxrjastka.

z,iablyj -- Although the verb zjabnut' ("to feel chilly,"

"be cold") is used by standard speakers of Russian,

the noun zjablyj (-( adj.) Can only be found in certain

30

areas. In literary Russian zjabkij is used instead.

DaI' interprets z,iablyj as "a chilly, shiveriilg, frost­

bi t ten man or animal."

ljut' -- This word is not entered in any of the diction­

aries. Even Dal's dictionary does not classify it.

Sol~enicyn's usage, however, indicates a meaning

similar to the words ljutost' and ljutyj moroz.

However, the word ljut' is present in Ukrainian.

It meanS "bitter cold." Therefore, the standard

Ukrainian ljut' must have crossed into Russian

territory •

./ magara .-- The word magara is explained in the tale as

a kind of grass which, when boiled, makes a dish

similar to gruel. The preparation of this dish was

learnt from the C~inese.

Were it not for Russisches Rnckl!ufiges W~rterbuch

{which lists magara'} we would not have any confirm­

ation for the existence of this form of the word.

According to DaI', in Siberia moga is the name for

dried mushrooms exported to China. Clearly, the

word moga came to Siberia from Kalmuk mSg, mBgB

("mushroom") • The Kalmuk wO:i"d is of Chinese origine

(See Vasmer's Russisches Etymologisches WBrterbuch.)

Kratkij ènciklopediéeskij slovar' mentions a word

"'" mogar. It is defined in the following words: "grass-

like vegetable belonging to the corn family." It is ./

clear mogar and magara is the same vegetable. Both

a phonetic and a morphological change are responsible

for the two variant forma.

nedobycnik -- The word is not registered by any of the

dictionaries consulted. However, Dal's dictionary

lists the word doby~nik. In the Tver' region

doby~nik means a stingy, greedy person. The adjective

doby~noj in the Orel district stands for sensible,

clever, ev en shrewd. Therefore, when the prefix ~-

is added to doby~nik the word attains the meaning

ill-fated, ill-omened person, a hoodoo.

neuladka -- This noun is absent from aIl dictionaries.

It is employed in the tale in the sense of adversity.

31

Dal' mentions a dialect word uladka. Quite cleartr

the verb uladit' (Ilto arrange,"order") gave rise to

the formation of uladka. The suffix -!! is charaeter­

istie of colloquial language. By adding the prefix

~- Sol~enieyn created an antonym to uladka (II good

fortune"). (cf. nepoladki)

neumelee -- This is another example of the author's

addition of a prefix ~- to the already existing

forme Some time dialectal and obsolete umelee29

is at present standard literary Russian. (See O~egov.)

However, to this very day, the adjective neumelyj

and nouns neumelka (Dal') and neumexa30 exist in the

dialects only.

otkosina -- This is a derivative from the noun otkos

("prop , Il "support") which was i tself a dialec t word

at one time. In the twentieth century otkos has

beeome a specifie terme It is annotated as such by

Ozegov. In Usakov's dictionary, however, both the

dialectal and specifie meanings are stressed. Dal'

gives the form otkos beside otkoska and notes that

the origin of both words is the verb otkosit'. We ,

noted earlier that the augmentative suffix -in a was

dialectal and informal in the nineteenth century.3l

Now it is often found in standard literary words.

But the noun otkosina has not become an accepted

standard forme It has not been classified by the

32

•

lexicographers.

ot1ei -- nre1ief,n"rest.n , The word stems from thè verb

otle!at'. Except for Dal's dictionary it is not

'r'egistered. The formation of the noun ot1e! has'·

already been explained in the section dea1ing 'iii·th

deaffixation. (See above, p. 20.)

pova1 -- Simi1ar1y; the origin of pova1 is exp1ained in

the discussion on deaffixation. In addition, to,peval

Dal' recorded such nouns as povalka and pova1.'nja'in

the Pskov and Tver 1 regions •

.;

stupnja -- Althoughinstandard Russian the word is a

synonym for the lower part of the sole -- stopa, in

certain dialects stupnja designates the who1e part

of the 1eg, from the ankle to the sole. (See Da1 1 .)

Solzenicyn employs the word with the dialectal

connotation.

terpellnik -- CEeated from the verb terpet' ("suffer")

by adding a suffix, this dialect word is registered

in Dalls dictionary only and defined as follows: a

martyr, who suffers great pain, misery and persecutions,

especially because of his faith.

ukryv -- It is another example of deaffixation. In

standard Russian the noun ukrytie is used instead.

Ukryv conve,.s the meaning "refuge," tt shelter," ttcovert."

'" . . . .

xalabuda -- Like ljut' the noun xalabuda is a Ukrainian

adaptation. Although, most probably, it waa not pre·sent

in the Russian dialecta in the last century, for it was

not recorded by DaI', it presently lives in the speech

ofpeasants from the Kursk and Voronez regions. 32 It

ia often pronounced xolobuda (in the dialectsof the

north) •

~kvalI8a -- The cOlloquiaJ. skvalysa ("miser," "acrew")

has a dialectal for.m skavalyga. Such form is heard

around Novgorod, Tambov, and Olonec. 33 The form

rkvalyga, although not registered by the dictionaries,

is clearly another dialectal differentiation of the

word.

skodn!! -- A loan-word !rom the Polish szkodnik "

azkoda, it was taken in turn from the Old High

German scado. (cf. German: Schaden) The noun

akodnik (" evildoern ) conveys in some localities

the meaning "epender," "squanderer."

Colloguialisms

A colloquialism is an expression common in speech

but not in writing. In modern prose, the distinction

is much Iess rigorous than a few decades ago. There

has, indeed, been a conscious colloquializing of

written prose for over a hundred years.

The difference between colloquial and dialectal

words lies mai nI y in the fact that while a colloquialism

is present in the speech of aIl regions, a dialect word

is employed by speakers of one or more localities, but

never exists in aIl dialects.

avral -- The Dutch expression overal was adopted by the

Russian seamen.in the times of Peter l. This narrow

naval sense of the word (" the work carried out by·

the whole crew," "aIl hands on deck") gave rise to

a colloquial expression in the twenties of the

present century. The noun avral in the colloquial

usage stands for a pressing, urgent task, an outcdme

of bad planning.

baraxol'ce -- This is a diminutive affectionate form of

the noun baraxlo. At present it belongs to the subr

standard Russian vocabulary. (See Ozegov.) DaI'

considered it to be a dialectal word. It was

registered by him in the Arxangel'sk, Siberian and

Orenburg regions. The word baraxlo has two meanings:

1) goods, chattels; 2) trash, old clothes. In

Solzenicyn's tale the first meaning is exploited.

~axmatov asserted that the noun baraxlo was relat~d

35

to dialectal boroMen' (ntravel equipment, Il Il stock, Il

" goods and chattels ll ).34 Recentlya similar view was

expressed by T. B. Sanskaja. 35 However, the&ssttnl0D­

that baraxlo is a cognate of borosen' (Church Slavonic:

bra~1no), and that they both stem .trom the verb brat'

has been disproved by Ju. V. OtkupNëikov.36 He gives

numerous proves :fo~,~he,Mongol origin of the wo~d , baraxl0. Ace ording to him the word stems from the

Mongol baraa xool ("all t~belongings of a nomadic

Mongol when he migrates from one place to another"):

baraa (n goodsn ) + ~ (fi food") •

bedolaga -- With the exception of O~egov1s dictionary this

word is not listed. Dal 1 s dictionary, howe.ver,

includes the word bedolaxa, which is not a dialectal

deviation but a Ukrainism. A. S. L1vov commented

on this wor~ in the fourth issue of Voprosy kul 1tury

~.37 According to L~vov, the word came into u~e

in the forties. It is, there fore , quite clear why

the word is not lis1;ed by USakov, but is in O!egov's

dictionary. The noun bedolaga has a similar standard

Russian synonym bedn.1aga ("miser"). L'vov insists

that bedolaga is not of Russian origine It was

adopted from the Ukrainian language in which there

are such:forms as: bidolaxa, bidolâ"x, bidolaska,

bidol(~nij. The Ukrainian dialects possess such

words as: bidoltga, bidol{!nij, bidol(jéik.

Standard Ukrainian bidolaxa stems from bidolaga.

The change from -~ to,-!! is considered by L'vov

a normal phenomenon, since the suffix -!! is very

productive in Ukrainian (znaxa, komaxa, neudaxa,

nevstaxa, udaxa).

L'vov gives a semantic explanation of the noun

bidolaga. It is a compound consisting of morphemes

~ + ~ + 1ag +~. Whem the suffix is taken away,

the roots ~- and lag- are 1eft. The root lag­

is a frequentative form of the root 1eg-/10g-.

Therefore, bidolaga is a person who has been

aff1icted by misfortune for long time. The Russian

language adopted this dialectal Ukrainian word and

its semantic meaning.

bezopaska -- The colloquia1 opaska ("care," "caution")

gave rise to even more co11oquial bezopaska. The

noun bezopasnost' ("safety,rr "security") is the

standard 1iterary form of the word and a synonym of

bezopaska. The adjective bezopasnyj produced the

1iterary form bezopasnost'. The suffix -ka is -

37

co11oquia1 but productive; thus, it is often exploited

in everyday popular speech. The noun bezopaska,

a1though not registered by dictionaries, was coined

in complete accordance with the ru1es of Russian

word-formation.

brevnotaska -- rr10g-carrying"

Simi1ar1y the noun taska, for.med from the verb

taskat r , is an example of the productive type of

substantives of feminine gender, designating an

action or procedure$ produced by means of adding

the colloquial suffix -!! to verb-roots. 38 The sub~ stantive ~~ must have been in use in the thirties

for it is listed in Usakovts dictionary. It is not

mentioned by Ozegov.

brevnotaska is a compound noun. The compounds of

brevno included in Orfograficeskij slovar t are:

brevnomer, brevnospusk, brevnoukladcik.

gar~tijka -- The colloquial and even slangy word

garantijka is a diminutive form of gar~tija with

an emotional colouring. Although not registered by

the dictionaries, it lives in the speech of workers,

for their earnings are dependent on it and, thus

garantijka is very important to them. 1

(cf. teorijka

-- a standard Russian word; see Orfograficeskij

slovar t )

dvuxsot-, trexsotgrammovka -- "bread ration of 200 or

300 gramsll

Like procentovka (see below) the compounds of grammovka

can be attributed to the colloquial language on the

basia of their formation by means of a colloquial

suffix -~.

de~urka -- The Academy Grammar mentions the noun de~urka

as one of the colloquial nouna of feminine gender de-

noting an object which in standard usage is designated

by a combination of an adjective and a substantive

39

(delurnaja komnata).39 Although used in popula~

speech, dezu~ka is not yet listed in Ozegov's diction­

ary. Howeve~, dezu~ka is listed in the Academy

Dictiona~y as a colloquialism.

dezurn.jak -- "gua~d," "sent~y"

It is not listed in the dictiona~ies. Clea~ly,

howeve~, it is a synonym of dezu~nyj (cf. de!~it~

-- "to watch," "gua~d"). The nouns with the ending

-!!/-jak, when formed f~om adjectives, can belong to

the literary language. Such substantives as bednjak

«bednyjl, bosjak«bosoj), xolostjak«xolostoj)

a~e standa~d literary Russian words. Howeve~, othe~s

are clearly characteristic of colloquial language:

tolstjak~(tolstyj), zdorov.jak<:(zdorovyj), dob~jak

~(dobryj). The noun dezurnjak is certainly a colloquial

designation, a counterpart of standard Russian de!urnyj.

doboltka -- The root of the colloquial verb boltat' (Ilto

s tir") wi th a pre.fix ~- and a suffix -lf!... produced a

colloquial noun doboltka. The noun is listed in Dal's

dictionary. However, doboltka is used by Sol!enicyn

not in the sense given by DaI' (action from the verb

boltat', i.e. "stirring"), but in the sense of

'tresidue."

donce -- This diminutive form of dno ("bottom") is

rarely used. Another diminutive dony~ko is much

ie more common. While donce is absent from Olegov's

dictionary, Usakov enters the form donce with a

remark "rare." The productive suffix-~/-ice was

also exploited by Solzenicyn to forro diminutives

odejal'ce, maslice, fujaslice, voskresen'ice.

instrumentalka -- Ha storeroom for tools"

According to the Academy Grammar the suffix -l!! i8

colloquial. It is usually used in colloquial

language instead of the standard suffix -l'nja

(razdevalka -- razdeval'nja). Although not yet

registered by dictionaries instrumentalka has entered

popular speech, perhaps under the influence of other

such nouns: umyvalka, ~italka, etc.

instrumental'scik -- The dictionaries define the word

as: "maker of tools, instruments," etc. However, in

Solzenicyn's usage instrumental's~ik has a colloquial

informaI meaning: "manager of storehouse for toolS,"

lIin charge of instruments." This meaning is not yet

registered by the dictionaries. It is clearly

derived from the colloquial noun instrumentalka, for

instrumental's~ik is in reality manager of instrument-

~.

karto~inka -- The forro kartoska is known in popular

speech. It has been listed by Usakov. The noun

kartosinka, however, is not listed in any sources.

Although diminutive no uns with the singulative

40

41

suffix -!E!! are attributed to popular speech, they

are seldom separate1y recorded in dictionaries.

However, the suffix -!B!! hints at the fact that the

noun designates one single object and that it has an

affectionate quality. (Bee above sub voce ~uffixation

p. 14.) DaI' lists the noun karto~ina and also the

Pskov area form kartofina. These are similar nouns

to SOlzenicyn's forme However, the affectionate

overtone is not present. The auffix -~ occurs in

the standard kartofelina, meaning na potato."

~ -- "brick work"

This noun is used instead of the normal word kladka.

The noun klad in standard Russian denotes only

"treasure," both in the figurative and non-figurative

senses.

krasninka -- Nouns with the suffix -~, when derived

from an adjective, also have a diminutive quality.

However, adjectival derivatives are weakly productive

in contrast to the very productive nouns formed by

meanS of adding the suffix -~ to a nominal root.

Adjectival derivatives do not designate single objecta

but serve as a means of expressing certain character-

istics attributed to the adjective as weIl.

The form krasninka i3 such an adjectival derivative.

It is not recorded in the dictionaries. However, a

very similar word has been classified by DaI'. Dal's

noun krasnina ("red light") is deprived yet of the

warmth embodied in Sol~enicyn's expression.

lopux Usakov's dictionary lists the adjective lopuxij.

It is a colloquial epithet, a synonym for foolish.

The noun lopux is therefore a colloquial designation

for "simpleton." Found in Sol~enicyn's tale the form

lopux is not given by the dictionaries, except as a

name for a plant ("burdock").

42

mjasinka -- The noun mjasinka is an example of a singulative

diminutive feminine noun. Although mjasinka ("small

piece of meat") is not registered by the dictionaries,

a similar form mjasovinka is given by DaI'.

nedokurok -- The forro olrurok is a more common designation

for "cigarette-end." The colloquial noun nedokurok

is registered in the Academy Dictionary.

nosilki -- The noun nosilki, which in standard Russian

has the meaning "stretcher," "litter," is used by

Solzenicyn in its colloquial sense, instead of the noun

noska ("carrying").

"" obalduj -- Of Turkish origin (Turk. baldak), this

colloquial designation for a fool has numerous ,

variants in colloquial speech: oboltus, obolduj, / oboldoxa. The forro obalduj is interpreted both by

DaI' and U!akov as a colloquial, vulgar expression

for blockhead. (Bee O~egov, s.v. obaldet'.)

43

obogrevalka -- This substantive resembles in form and in

meaning the previously discussed instrumentalka. The

colloquial suffix -lka, which can either indicate an

implement or a location, is in this case an illustrat­

ion of the second usage. It signifies a place with a

heater. The form obogrevalka is not given by diction­

aries. Such substantives as grelka and its dialectal

counterpart grevalka (lia device for heating romns or

beds") are, however, registered by DaI', for instance.

otkazcik -- The noun otkaz!ik (lia person who rejects,

declines everything, or denies oneself everything")

is entered as colloquial both by DaI' and by U~akov.

peresidka -- The verb peresidet'/peresizivat' ("to sit

somewhere longer than intended," "to tarry"), which

is cOllo,quial and characteristic of informaI speech,

produced by means of adding a suffix -ka a colloquial

noun which is especially associated with sitting a

long time in prison. The noun peresidka is registered

in DaI' s dictionary only. (See below s.v. sidka.)

povremMnka -- According to U~akov this is a new colloquial­

ism. Similarly to the noun dezurka (i.e. dezurnaja

komnata) this i8 also a colloquial equivalent of the

adjective + rioun combination (povremennaja oplata).

44

pokazuxa -- The no~ pokazuxa ("show offll ) entered

everyday substandard language not long ago. It was

utilized in writing for the first time in 1960, when

v. P. Ardov entitled his article in a Russian news­

paper Li teratura i ~izn l "pokazuxa.,,40

The noun pokazuxa is recorded in the dictionary of

slang compiled by the Krestinskys. The dialectal

verb pokazatlsja (Ilto present oneself favourably"),

which is listed in U~akovls dictionary, exerted influ-

ence on the formation of this noun.

procentovka -- The substantive procentovka expresses an

emotional, affectionate quality. The suffix -ovka -points out the colloquial nature of the word.

The endearing charac ter of' the word procentovka (Urate

of' paylf) is evident, for the earnings depend on the

fulfillment of the established percantage. If the fixed

requirements are not met a loss of pay is the outcome.

1 puzo -- "belly"

It is registered by aIl dictionaries as a colloquial

counterpart of' brjuxo. A dialect form puzdrJ is known

in certain districts.4l

rastvorome§alka -- "cement mixing machine"

This is a compound noun. The substantive me~alka

(lfstirrer," "agitator lf) is known in colloquial

language and has already entered Usakov's as weIl as

O!egov's dictionaries. Similarly to Instrumentalka

and obogrevalka it consists of the colloquial suffix

-!!!. The suffix is employed here to form a noun

designating implement not location.

sedinka -- This is still another diminutive form which

can be attributed to popular substandard speech. It

is a colloquial designation for a single grey haire

The noun sedina is a standard Russian word from which

the colloquialism sedinka was fbrmed.

45

sidka -- The substantive sidka (lfimprisonmentlf ) slh:emsffDI!JDl

the verb sidet' ("to sit"). According to Usakov the

substantive refers to the action from the verb sidet'

which takes a special meaning: "to sit in detention,

confinement, prison." Constructed by means of adding

a colloquial suffix -ka to a verbal root, the noun is

a typical colloquialism.

slast' -- Formerly chiefly known as a sweet dish served

as a dessert although it also had a secondary figurative

meaning -- "delight,U "pleasure.,,42 Now, the noun

slast' is in colloquial language a synonym for

nasla~denie ("delightU ). Therefore, it was the

figurative meaning that affected the colloquial

language.

smoréok -- still in the last century smor60k was the name

<.-for discharge, ejection from the nose.43 It stems

from the verb smorkat' ("to blow one's nose").

However, the figurative meaning of smorcok was

registered already by DaI'. In the figurative sense

smoréok stands for a decrepit, shrunken person, a

shrimp. This contemptuous meaning of the word is

ascribed to the colloquial language. (See U~akov

and Olegov.)

snaroska -- This is a word which is absent from the

dictionaries. Obviously, it can be regarded as

belonging to the colloquial language, for it ends

with the suffix -2. The suffix -~ can forro nouns

of common gender from verbal (lakomka<lakomit',

poprosajka (poprosajni~at') and adjectival roots

(ne~enka < ne~nyj, nevidimka<nevidimyj). 44 Since A. Sol~enicyn himself defined the noun snaro§ka

as a simulated, feigned spy, one can infer that the

46

.1 ,-noun was forroed from the adjective narocnyj (Itmessenger,1t

"courier"). Therefore the epicene noun snaroska was

forroed according to the basic rules of Russian word-

formation by means of using the adjectival root and

adding the suffix -ka. The prefix ~- is more

difficult to explain. The word May originate from the

expression s naro~nym.

spa.ika -- Originally known only in the sense of soldering,

welding, etc. (the verb spa,iat' = "to weld, Il If to solder"),

47

Iater the substantive spajka acquired a figurative mean­

ing: "union," "friendship." The standard Russian spa­

jannost' ("cohesion," "unity") is a counterpart of the

colloquial spajka. The nouh spajka is listed in O~egov's

dictionary, and given the definition: "friendship,"

"uni ty.1I

su~ilka "drying-roomlt

Here is another example of the colloquial suffix -l!! forming a substantive by adding it to a verbal root.

The standard Russian form su~il'nja was Iisted by DaI'

beside such forms as su~ilo and su!nja. At present

just the forms susil'nja and su~iIka existe The latter

although colloquial is more often used. It can also

Mean an implement or apparatus: "dryer."

tabacinka -- This affectionate diminutive form of tabak

is the designation for one small tobacco leaf.

certl!nys -- "little devil"

This form is not catalogued by Iexicographers. It is

a parallel form of the standard noun detl!nys, a common

designation for aIl young creatures. Since it is a

diminutive it can be grouped with other common sub­

standard nouns, especially so since it has not been

registered by DaI' in the dialects.

48

salman Except for the Academy Dictionary this colloquial-

ism is nowhere to be found. The dictionary defines the

word as a rather inferior tavern, a pub. The word ia

of Turkish origin (see the stress) and an obsolete

colloquialism.

sest8rka -- The dictionaries give Just one meaning of

sest8rka a group of six people, a combination of

six units. However, the Academy Dictionary lists the

obsolete and long forgotten colloquialism sest8rka

and defines it as a servant in a tavern or restaurant,

a waiter. (See below the verb sesterit'.) In this

obsolete meaning the noun ~est8rka is employed by

Solzenicyn.

Vulgarisms

Coarse, obscene and vulgar words and expressions of

the colloquial language are given a common designation

vulgarisms.

Vulgarisms are employed in literature for special

stylistic effects. Vulgarization of the Russian

vocabulary and speech has especially been exploited by

the satiri3ts. Solzenicyn makes use of vulgarisms to

make the speech of his protagonists more expressive of

their humble origins and worthless existence. The MOSt

effective and forceful of the vulgarisms have been

selected from the tale. The nouns are discussed herein.

blevotina -- The verb blevetat' is a dialectal equivalent

of standard Russian mjamlit' ("to mumble").45 In the

last century blevotina did not have a vulgar connotat­

ion. The word was associated with a physiological

fUnction; blevotina was the contents of the stomach

ejected through vomiting. In the twentieth century

the noun blevotina has taken a figurative meaning.

This meaning has been registered by U§akov, who

49

defines blevotina as gadost', merzost' ("abomination").

In U~akov's dictionary the word is labeled as a

vulgarisme

The word blevotina ends with an augmentative su~fix

-lB! which normally expresses derision. Apart from

the semantic meaning of the verbal root the suffixal

function is to make the word vulgar. (See below under

merzotina. )

gad -- In addition to the primary meaning ("reptile"),

the noun gad has taken a secondary personified

meaning -- a vile person, skunk. This secondary mean-

ing must be quite recent, for Dal's dictionary has no

mention of it. However, Usakov as weIl as Ozegov

devotes a" few lines to it. O~egov gives a synonym

gadin a which he classifies as contfuptuous. Sollenicyn

also employs a collective noun gadstvo.

derunok -- This dialectal noun is not listed in any

sources except for Dal's dictionary. DaI' interprets

it as something pungent or strong. He gives the

following sentence as an illustration of the usage:

Taba~ek jarunok, pertik derunok.

der'mo -- This vulgar word is listed by DaI'. Dal's

word has a hard or soft ~, whereas Solzenicyn's

protagonist pronounces it with a soft ~ only, i.e.

der'mo.

zaraza -- DaI' interpreted this word as a synonym of

~uma. It was used until the present century only

in the meaning "epidemic. fI Usakov, besides giving

the primary meaning of this word, lists a colloquial

vulgar epithet zaraza. This epithet is given to an

abominable person, a trouble-maker.

krovosos -- The word krovosos is in its primary sense a

synonym of varnpir ("vampire"). In the popular sub­

standard speech it has acquired a figurative meaning:

a person who extorts from others as much as he can,

a leech.

merzotina -- The augmentative merzotina is not mentioned

50

by dictionaries. However, it is clear that merzotina

stems from merzost' and is a pejorative form of the

latter due to the augmentative suffix -ina. The forro

merzost' (flabomination," "aversionff) stems from the

dialect verb merzit 1 (Ilto i'ill with disgust ff). (See DaI'.)

morda -- "mug"

This is a vulgar expression for "face," tfcountenance. 1t

The primary meaning of the word is the snout of an

animal.

mordovorot -- The noun mordovorot was not registered by

Dal' who did however record similar dialect vulgar­

isms such as mordoxlest and mordofonja. However,

Usakov defines mordovorot as: person with repulsive

appearance.

padal' -- In addition to the primary meaning carrion,

the word padal' can be used in abusive and

contemptuous language as an epithet for a despicable

person.

padlo -- The noun padlo was a dialect expression

registered by DaI' in the district of Tver'. In the

Pskov region Dal' recorded a variant padla. Both

forms are listed in his dictionary and interpreted as

podlec (ltscoundrel," "raseal"). The dialect word

padlo was introdueed into literatv~e by Leskov. Thus

it is Iisted in the Academy Dictionary. U§akov and

O!egov do not mention the word for it is too dialectal

in character. However, the noun padlo is listed in

the Krestinskys' dictionary. It is interpreted there

as "scum" and classified as a vulgarism.

51

paskuda -- This is a dialect wo~d which can be hea~d in

many ~egionsof Russia. DaI' ~egiste~ed paskuda in

southe~n and weste~n pa~ts as weIl as in the Tve~',

Vladimi~, and Olonec ~egions. In Dal's diction~y

paskuda has two definitions: 1) nave~sion,rt

"loathing," and 2) "villain." In the sense of a fouI

mean pe~son the wo~d paskuda ente~ed the colloquial

language and is mentioned as such by Usakov with a

label vulga~.

paséenok -- Evidently pascenok is related to scenok

("puppy") • In colloquial Russian pascenok is a

name for an unfledged youth, a lad. U~akov's

dictionary classifies pa~~enok as a vulgarism and

gives a synonym mal'~iska which also expresses

contempt. In this derisive sense the substantive

pas~enok was introduced to literature by Dostoevskij.

polkan -- It has nothing to do wi th polukon' (l'centaur'')

as has been maintained by some etymologists. It is

a dog's name employed in abusive language as an

expression of contempt for the loathed person.46

salaga -- According to DaI' the sheepskin of a dead sheep

is called in Lower Russia salaga. This word can be

employed in colloquial abusive language for vilifying

purposes. SOllenicyn's salaga is a variant of §alaga.

(See above under Phonetic Peculiarities, p. 7.)

52

svolo~' -- The word acquired a vulgar meaning in the

nin~teenth century. In the times of Peter l it

connoted a motley group of people, for it was derived

f.l'om the verb svolol!'/svolakivat, ("to draglt). The

original meaning: scattered objects or people gathered

together was lost and an abusive word was ~ormed in

its place. In modern Russian usage svoloc' can be a

collective designation for villains and aIl sorts of

disreput$lble people ("canaille") or an epithet applied

to a Mean person ("rotter"). The Krestinskys'

dictionary defines svoloc' as "scum."

smefue~ka -- This is a contemtuous name for a colloquial

substantive smerka (rtmeasure"). The verb smerit', a

synonym of izmerit', produced this colloquialism.

By means of changing the suffix -ka to a dim1nutive­

pejorative suffix -cka and by inserting a vulgar

interjectional morpheme -fuj- to the verbal root

the vulgarism smefue~ka was coined. (See below

ful!mnik and fu,1.)

sterva -- Previously a designation for the animal carcass

and a synonym of padal' in the primary sense of the

word (i.e. carrion), in the nineteenth century it

became a name given to a despicable, fouI person.

53

stervoza -- The variation stervoza is even more derogatory.

Such forms as stervec, stervjatnik, stervjatina are

also known in coarse language.47

fu8mnik The noun fu8mnik is a vulgarisme The noun

pOd"8mnik ("lift," "hoist") in the coarse speech of

Solfenicyn's dramatis personae is transformed into

fu8mnik. The change of the root illustrates the

attitude of prisoner-workers towards such implements

as hoists.

fuj -- This is a round-about expresslon for a similar

phonetic form which is a vulgar designation for the

male organ. The substitution of ~ by f could have

been influenced by the emotional interjection ~J

-- see above under Phonetic Peculiarities, p. 8.

The normal vulgar form has been listed only in

Vasmer's Russisches etymologisches W8rterbuch and

in Dalls dictionary.

xrenovina -- This is an augmentative from the noun ~

which in its primary meaning signifies horseradish.

However, ~ has become a common swear-word. (Bee

below under Abusive Expressions, p. 150.) How often

it is used in common speech can be seen by noting how

frequently it is used by Solzenicyn. Both ~ and

xrenovina are vulgar epithets given to an old and

abominable person.

~uma -- Originally the word was known as a designation

for an epidemic disease, specifically for the bubonic

54

55

plague. In the late eighteenth century it acquired

an abusive connotation. Krylov introduned it as such

into literature and is quoted by Usakov. SUbsequently

it was exploited as an obscene word by other Russian

writers.

cuska -- Although defined as a pig, a swine or the snout

of this animal, the o/0rd cuska can signify a person

acting or looking as a pige This personified meaning

of the word cu~ka is not given by Ozegov, although it

is a very common abusive expression. DaI' lists a dialect

word cuska, known to the people of the Vologda district,

which represents a stupid person, a gawk.

~akal -- "jackallt (in the C aucasus: ~akalka)

This is a 'ersian loan-word. The beast of prey

Canis Aureus can personify a predatory person.

Although the dictionaries do not give the figurative

sense of the word, a person living by plunder can

obviously be vilified by such an epithet.

~u~era -- This is a collective noun denoting rabble,

riff-raff, the dregs of society. This meaning is

registered in Dal's dictionary. The Academy Diction­

ary asserts that the word has both a collective and

non-collective meaning.

56

Thief' s Cant and Camp Slang

Thief's cant is a concealment language. Professional

lawbreakers, beggars, tramps, hobos, paupers and other

representatives of Gorkij's "lower depths" have their own

language, which their fellow countrymen do not understand.

The forced-Iabour camps of the post revolutionary

era, besides being a place of confine~9nt for diverse

political prisoners, also included a large number of

professional lawbreakers whose manner of speech influenced

the vocabulary of the entire camp population. The slangy

speech of the camp inmates is, therefore, studded with

words and expressions which stem from the thief's lexicon.

The camp slang also includes words invented or

modified to express various terms and concepts character­

istic of the pursuits, institutions, occupations,

conditions, climate, etc., which prevail in the forced­

labour camps. A number of such terms were invented and

restricted to one particular camp. However, the majority

of expressions are common to camps aIl over the Soviet

Union, due to the fact that prisoners were not confined

to one particular camp but transferred from one to

another depending on the needs of the Soviet economy and

the condition of the prisoner's health.

The lexicon of camp prisoners is mirrored in

Sol~enicyn's descriptions and in the speech of the

dramatis personae. On the following pages the nouns

57

belonging to this lexicon will be discussed.

balan -- According to Jakovlev48, in whose glossary of

forced-labour camp terms the word is listed, this is

a camp synonym for brevno ("log"). A variant spelling

bollon is accepted.

Sol~enicyn's use of the word does not deviate from this

meaning. The author himself gives an explanation of

this slangy term: S balanami ••• S brevnami, znaéit.

Cp. 27)

balanda -- The Baltic equivalent of Russian lebeda

(Lithuanian: bal~da, Latvian: beluoda)49 was

adopted by the dialects of Rjazan' and Tambov.

The narrow meaning for the goose-foot plant was

changed in these Russian dialects to produce a

designation for soup made of the leaves of goose-foot

or other similar plants. 50 Sol~enicyn describes

balanda as a vegetable soup made of cabbage, carrot,

beets or even nettle leaves. In the Krestinskys'

dictionary the word balanda is defined as a watery soup

given to prisoners.

~ -- According to Jakovlev ~ in the camp slang

stands for illicit connexions.5l The Krestinskys'

dictionary defines it as protekcija, i.e. private

influence used for achieving a purpose. Both Usakov

and Ozegov list the word in their dictionaries. AlI

three dictionaries register the phrase po blatu ("in

unlawful manner") which is also exploited by Solleni­

cyn. The etymology of the word ~ is problematical. v

58

V. Zirmunskij traces the word to the German jargonistic

term platte Ju. Margolin, the author of the book

Putesestvie ~ stranu z~-ka, deduces the word B!!1 from

the Yiddish b'laat, which is of Hebrew origine In the

language of the Bible b'laat meant "secretly.1I52

blatnoj -- This substantivized adjective is a synonym for

.!2!: (ffthieflt ). Adopted from the thief's cant it was

modified by the camp prisoners to signify any criminal

offendet'.53

~ -- This is an abbreviation for B(arak) U(silennogo)

R(elima).54 The description of ~ in Solzenicyn's

tale corresponds to that of Gustav Herling, who

depicts ~ as a prison within the camp. For various

offenses prisoners are taken to this prison and

placed in solitary confinement for a period of 10 to

15 days. Such a prison is a stone construction, with

no windows and unheated. AlI warro clothing is taken

away from the prisoner and he is kept without warm

food for a period of two or three days. Confinement

in such prison is a forro of extra punishment for

misconduct. 55

bytovoj -- This is a substantivized adjective, a short

rorm or bytovoj lager', i.e. an antonym of Osoblag.

(See below.)

vagonka -- The word vagonka is not registered by any of

the dictionaries. However, judging by its usage

vagonka is an equivalent of the standard Russian

ko,jka ("berth"). Vagonka, a shelf-like bunk extending

from the wall, serves the prisoner for a bed. Since

it is not classified by the dictionaries, it must be .

a recent neologism. The suffix -ka indicates that the

word was coined according to the colloquial pattern.

The use of the term is at present restricted to

forced-labour camps only. However, it is quite

possible that the word might spread and become a

general term thanks to its simple structure and

ramiliar sound pattern.

vertuxaj -- This camp expression is a name for a prison

guard. It is listed only in the Krestinskys' diction­

ary. Its structure indicates it is a slangy term re­

stricted to the camp and prison environment.

GULAG -- This is a shortened designation for G(lavnoe)

u(pravlenie) ispravitel'no-trudovyx lag(erej).56

It is classified in the Krestinskys' dictionary and

in the Jakovlev's glossary.

derevjannyj bu~lat -- Being a euphemism for coffin, it

59

is a favorite circumlocution of camp prisoners.

Solzenlcyn utilizes it in various circumstances four

times. This eupbemism bears resemblance to another

synonymous Russian expression derevjannoe pal'to, a

loan-translation from the German h6lzerner Paletot.57

60

desjat' sutok -- This is a camp euphemism for a penknife.

The possession of any sort of a sbarp object is

punishable by ten days of soli tary confinement.

doxodjaga -- This ia a name for a prisoner who has lost

bis strength and has become emaciated trom starvation

and bard working conditions. This slangy term bears

resemblance to other dialect and colloquial words

with the suffix -aga/-1!8!. It ia listed in Jakovlev's

and Krestinskys' works. (cf. doxodit')

~ -- According to the Krestinskys this is a deslgnation

for a one meter ~ong rod, used by the camp authorities

as a measure as weIl as a whipping stick.

~ituxa -- The dialectal word lituxa (Dal~ located the

word in the Penza and Vladimir regions) an

affectionate name for an untrammeled and free life,

was exploited by the thieves. In their language it

was also used as an endearing synonym for life. The

word zituxa was used in the criminals' song called

"Murka, " which became very popular all over RUBsia

61

\ and even spread to other countries.

z~k or z/~ -- It is an abbreviation for zak1juéennyj

("prisoner"). This abbreviation i.s shown in Jakovlev's

glossary and the Krestinskys' dictionary. The term

has become known in the West through the intervention

of Ju. Margolin's book fute!estvie y stranu ze-ka.

(The definition of this term is given by Margolin on

page 20.)

kapt~r -- The word is not listed by the explanatory diction­

aries. However, its presence in the Orfografi~eskij

slovar' russkogo jazyka proves that the word is used

in the Soviet Union. Jerzy Gliksman defines this ter.m

as: "chief of the clothing warehouse.,,58 In Dostoevskij's

"Zapiski iz m~rtvogo doma" an official performing the

same functions is given the name of kaptenarmus. 59

Kaptenarmus, a French loan-word (~capitaine d'armes),

was first established in military usage. When the

word entered the prisons and camps, it must have been

shortened to kapt~r.

The stress shift from the first syllable to the second .,/

(lrâÉtens.rIl1us -- kapt~r) is analogous to the change of /

stress undergone in such words as ~axter -- saxt~r,

and vaxter -- vaxt~r. 60

kaptMrka -- Certainly this word derives frOID kapt~r. It

is a camp designation for storeroom. Although kaptgr

is listed in the Orfografiéeskij slovar', the derivation

kaptërka has not reached the desired stage of accept-

~bility.to be classified in a dictionary.

karcer -- This Latin loan-word is a long accepted slangy

expression for solitary confinement.

polkarcer -- However, polkarcer is a recent neologism

for partial solitary confinement. Each morning the

prisoner is driven out to work. He returns to his

solitary cell in the evening. Although he is

compelled to work, this kind of punishment is less

weakening, for he is allowed normal food rations and

has a chance to straighten his limbs and warm up

while working.

The forro of the neologism offers the best proof for

the slangy character of the word. It ia formed

against the rules of Russian word-formation. (See

under Compounds, p. 23.)

katuska -- A. and T. Fesenko define this word as a

euphèmism for a ten year terro of imprisonment. 61

However, the Krestinskys' interpret the word as a

long term of imprisonment, the specifie number of

years not being given.

kondej -- This is another camp expression for Itsolitary,lt

a recent synonym for karcer. The explanatory

dictionaries have no mention of this word. The only

proof for its existence is its classification in

Russisches Rnckl~ufiges WBrterbuch. The etymology is

unclear.

62

kum -- This is a camp designation for the authorities.

The normal meaning is "god-father lt or "friend,"

unless the word is an abbreviation.

linejka -- The explanatory dictionaries interpret the word

as If a path wi thin a camp .'1 The word has already been

listed in Dalls dictionary. Usakov and the Kratkij

Enciklopedi~eskij .slovar l classify it as a military

terme

materjal'~ik ~- In the slang of the camp prisoners this

is an affectionate synonym for sneg (U snow").

Osoblag -- An abbreviation for Osob(yj) lagCer'), i.e.

a penitentiary camp \1ith hard labour imposed on the

prisoners.

pa,ika -- The standard Russian designation for a bread -"

ration -- paMk, a masculine noun, was changed to

pa,ika by the prisoners. The feminine suffix -~, so

popular in the colloquial language, was also preferred

by the camp inmates.

polpajka -- this is a designation for a half of the bread

ration.

para~a -- In the prerevolutionary era para~a was a prison

euphemism for the toilet. This round-about expression

prevails in the speech of prisoners to this very day.

It was introduced into literature by Gor'kij. The

etymology is unclear, although parala is a feminine

name, a diminutive of Praskov'ja.

64·

pont -- The slangy expression vzjat' na pont means

according to the Krestinskys' perexitrit' ("to outwit").

The noun pont thus stands for deception or pretense.

It has this significance in Solzenicyn's usage.

popka -- The colloquialism popka, listed in U~akov's

dictionary and interpreted as "simpleton," is the

source of this derisive name given by the prisoners

to the camp sentries. This camp term is listed by

the Krestinskys.

predzonnik -- This noun could not be located in the avail­

able sources. Its meaning, however, can be deduced

both from the context and the structure of the word.

The term designates the ground before the camp zone.

pridurnja, pridurok -- The colloquial noun pridur'

(Usilliness rt ) and its derivatives pridurnik and

pridurkovatyj influenced the formation of a camp

term pridurok (colletive: pridurnja). According to

Jakovlev and the Krestinskys, pridurok is either a

prisoner performing administrative functions or else

one, who by assisting the authorities, hopes to

receive some sort of compensation.

rabotjaga ~his colloquial word has been in use for

more than a century. It was listed in the Academy

Dictionary of 1852. 62 However, its meaning has

changed. Formerly a name for a hard working,

diligent person -- in this sense it is still being

used in colloquial Russian, it attained a derisive

overtone in the forced-labour camp usage. In camp

slang rabotjaga stands for a prisoner who has to

perform the hardest tasks. The Krestinskys add to

their definition the fact that a criminal prisoner

seldom works harde Hard work is normally performed

by political prisoners; thus the term rabotjaga is

actually reserved to them.

stukaé -- This is a camp term for informer. According

to Jakovlev a stuka~ is recruited from among bhe

prisoners themselves.

~ -- This is a word adopted by the camp prisoners

from the thief's lexicon. It is a designation for

a criminal. The term is defined both by Jakovlev

65

and the Krestinskys. It is also included in Russisches

RftcklKufiges W8rterbuch.

fitil' -- The Russian word fitil' corresponds to the

English "wick. ft However, its slangy homonym is a

name given to a young prisoner who has lost aIl his

strength in the camp. The word fitil' is, therefore,

almost synonymous with doxodjaga. Jakovlev adds to

66

this definition that the term is usually restricted

to a young criminal prisoner.

CTZ -- The abbreviation for Celjabinskij traktornyj zavod

became a slangy designation for boots worn by prisoners,

for they were made out of old tractor tires. 63

Jmon -- According to Vasmer ~ is a vagabond. It is

of dialect origine DaI' located the verb ~monit'

in Siberia; there it signifies aimless wandering,

rambling, etc. It is problematic whether this form

influenced the homonymous term used by the camp

prisoners. The camp expression ~mon signifies

Itsearch." This definition is given by the Krestinskys;

it accords with Sol~enicyn's use of the word.

spana -- In Siberia the word ~pana is a synonym of

brodjaga, i.e. "tramp." In thief's cant this is

a collective designation for rogues, rascals,

scoundrels and other criminals. This meaning was

adopted in the colloquial language. Whether ~pana

is of dialect origin is doubtful. It seems more

probable that this noun derives from spanskij, i.e.

Spanish.

At present the noun spana is almost a literary word.

It was introduced into literature by Andreev. (See

Academy dictionary.)

Soviet Neologisms

The new social, political and technical concepts,

processes and institutions which sprung up after 1917

were reflected in Russian speech. Numerous new terms

were coined and incorporated in the Russian language.

The linguistic innovations representing new phenomena of

the postrevolutionary period are here given the common

designation of "Soviet neologisms."

Any writer describing the life of the Soviet Union

must make use of these neologisms for the simple reason

that any description of contemporary Russia would be

superficial without them. Such words as kolxoz, sovet,

komsomol, etc., have become as much a part of the

Russian language as the very old words doroga, gorod or

celovek. Therefore, account of a day in the life of a

Soviet citizen is given in terms of the contemporary

Russian language, rich in initial words and stump­

compounds, the typical Soviet linguistic innovations.

The Soviet neologisms utilized by Solzenicyn are

for the MOst part generally accepted terms. Some of

them carry a colloquial overtone. Although Soviet

neologisms are not very numerous, frequent repetition

of some of these words (kavtorang, for instance, is

repeated 22 times) produces an impression that their

use is an important stylistic device.

67

brigadnik -- According to Usakov this is a new term for

a brigade member. Ozegov's dictionary has no mention

of it.

odnobrigadnik -- is not listed anywhere except for

Russisches Rftckl§ufiges WBrterbuch.

!!! -- i.e. zaveduju~c!ij ("manager"). This colloquial

abbreviation was used by Majakovskij.

zavstolovoj -- zaveduju§c!ij stolovoj (flmess manager").

zarplata -- This stump-compound is formed from an

abbreviated adjective and a complete noun: zarabotnaja

plata ("wages").

kavtorang -- In the beginning this stum-compound was

used by seamen alone. Gradually, through the medium

of the press, it was assimilated into the general

language and became a standard 1iterary term.64

KVC -- i.e. k(u1'turno)-v(ospitate1'naja) c(ast').

komvzvod short for komandir vzvoda

It is neither registered by U§akov nor by Olegov.

However, Slovar' sokra~~enij inc1udes the word. So

does the O~fograficeskij slovar'.

kompo1ka -- i.e. kom(andir) polka. A1though 1isted by

Usakov and annotated as new as far back as 1934, it

has not been registered by Ozegov.

68

l' "\" .\

krasnoflotec -- i.e. Boec Krasnogo Voesno Morskogo

Flota. This naval neologism has now become a

generally used terme

69

lesopoval -- A whole series of compound nouns has been

produced with ~-: lesorazrabotki, lesoposadki,

lesomaterial, lesozavod. The noun lesopoval, although

not recorded in the dictionaries, is a similar compound.

medsanbat -- i.e. med(iko) san(itarnyj) bat(al'on).

mexzavod -- i.e. mexani~eskij zavod.

mexzavodec -- This is a derivative of mexzavod.

minonosec -- Originally this compound noun designated

a boat, specifically a torpedo-boat. Later its usage

was extended and the word attained a new colloquial

meaning: any crew member o~ the torpedo-boat.

na~kar -- i.e. naëal'nik karaula (" commander of the

guard").

pomnackar -- pomos~nikt na~al 'nika karaula (ft a.Ss:llS tant

commander of the guard").

normirovlëik -- This is a designa.t1an for a person who

sets rates or norms of production, i.e. "rate-setter."

obogrev -- According to Olegov this is a new specifie term

for heating.

oper -- i.e. operativny.1 upolnomo~ennyj (rtauthorized

agent lt ).

otli~nik -- Originally this was a humorous name for a

pupil who has distinguished himself in school. Then

it acquired a derisive overtone as it began to signify

70

a favorite pupil. Gradually this appellation was

transferred to any favorite. In the twenties the word

otli~nik acquired still another meaning: a distinguished

worker.

pombrig -- i.e. pomos~nik brig(adir~) (ltassistant brigade­

leader").

pombrigadir i.e. pom(o~~nik) brigadir(a)

PP~ -- i.e. Planovo-proizvodstvenna,ia ~ast' ("planning

and produc tion sec tion" ) •

prorab -- i.e. proizvoditel' rabot (ltwork supervisorlt ).

prodsklad

storeU ) •

i.e. prodovol'stvenny.i sklad (ltfood supply

prodstol -- i.e. prodovolfstvennyj stol (tlprovisions

department").

saninstruktor -- i.e. sanitarny.i instruktor ("sanitary

supervisor").

san~ast f -- i. e. sani tarnaja ~ast ' (If sani tary sec tion") •

ataxanovec -- The Donbass miner Aleksej Staxanov

distinguished himself at work and gave his name to

a Maas movement of workers and collective farmers

trying to exceed the set quota of production.

The word s taxanovec gradually bec rune synonymous

with socialist worker.

strelok-pulemetcik w_ This compound means: an infantryman

skilled in machine gun firing.

stro.1materialy -- i.e. stroitel'nye materialy ("building

materials").

tolkac -- According to DaI' tolkac ia a dialect word

s ynonymoua wi th durak (If fool " ) • Around fl a kov i t

also signifies a ruffian. In the twenties the word

tolka6 acquired a colloquial meaning. It became a

designation for a person trying to accelerate the

fulfillment of the plan by resorting to various tricks

and illicit methods.

torforazrabotki -- i.e. torfjanye razrabotki ("peat

explOitation").

trudoden' According to U~akov this ia a new term for

a unit of work on collective far.ms. Ozegov also

records this neologism. The Krestinskys interpret

the term as rabo~ij den', without specifying its i~

connexion with collective farms.

71

, , TEe -- i.e. teplova.ia elektroeentral' ("thermal eleetrie

power station~'.

xleborez -- Usakov defines this word as an appellation

for a person who cuts bread in a public dining place.

xleborezka -- Smlzenicyn uses xleborezka in two meanings:

1) as an implement for the cutting of breadj

2) as a room where bread is being eut. (p. Il)

The second meaning, however, is not eonfirmed by

dictionaries.

celovekovyxod -- It is used as a synonym for celovekoden'

("man-daylf), i.e. unit of work.

~~akoblok -- This is a compound similar to ~lakobeton.

However, being a new building material, it is not yet .,

in the dictionaries. Slakoblok is a substance made

from sand, cement, gravel and slag and molded into

oblong blocks.

Word and .Context

The discussion of semantics should not omit the

impact of context upon word-meaning. Words are almost

72

always found embedded in specifie contexts. They seldom

stand entirely by themselves. Therefore, an analysis of

Sol~enicyn's use of nouns cannot limit itself to a lexical

compilation of vocables only. To make the picture of

Solzenicyn's semantic usage more complete a fewexamples

of contextual influence on word-meaning will also be

cited here.

73

Polysemy is a characteristic feature of human speech.

The Russian language ls 110 exception. Numerous words

have more than one meaning, and this May, on occasion,

create a misunderstanding. Most ambiguities, however,

are clarified by the contexte

One may, therefore, examine some of Solzenicynls

nouns outside their contexte First, the noun otli~nik

may serve as an example. A search in the dictionaries

shows three distinctive meanings of the term: 1) an

excellent student; 2) a favorite of the authorities;

3) a person who has distinguished himself in his work.

These three meanings are actually three different shades

of one terme The primary sense of the word has been

shifted from "an excellent student" to fla favorite of

the teachers" then to any favorite person, and finally

to lia distinguished worker. 1t Through use in various

situations the gap between these three shades of the term

has widened to create three nearly distinct words. Only

when the term otlicnik occurs in a specifie context its

meaning, therefore, can be established. The phrase

otli~nik boevoj i politi~eskij Cp. 34) hints at the third

Soviet sense of the terme

Another example: the noun xrenovina can be applied

in three senses. 1) as an appellation for an old woman

--~ being an old man; (This meaning is synonymous

with a cognate xrenovka and another epithet xry~ovka

~xry~.) 2) as a designation for a large root of

horseradish; 3) in its new twentieth century connotation

as a vulgar epithet expressing contempt.

74

Only the context clarifies the meaning of the ward. In

the sentence Dvadcat' pjat' s polovinoj, xrenovina. (p. 6),

the examined word is used in its third sense.

The noun popka, a camp-slang term meaning a guard,

is a different example of polysemy. It has arisen in a

restricted social milieu. The other common colloquial

use of this term is in the sense of simpleton. The

context clearly shows that the word is used in its slangy

restrictive connotation:

U popok tol'ko ta zabota, ~tob z~ki ne razbezalis' ••• (p. 23)

••• na vsex lesti vy~kax ponki sidjat. (p. 19)

Polysemy can also arise as a result of the figurative

use of the word: a human being can be likened to an

inexhaustible variety of animaIs. Sol~enicyn exploits

this device quite frequently:

Ty xot' vidal kogda, kak tvoja baba polI mlla, ~u~ka? (p. 7)

No on ne bll ~akal daze posle vos 'mi let obs~ix rabot. (p. 60)

In these sentences there is no doubt that the figurative

meaning is intended.

The role of context is even more essential in case

of homonyms. In Russian the spelling of homonymous words

rarely differs. It is true that Russian, unlike English,

possesses far more polysyllabic than monosyllabic words,

and homonyms are especially abundant in languages rich

in monosyllabic forms. Nevertheless, homonymous

75

formations are frequently produced in Russian: ~, ~,

l!!!, moj, ~, doroga, ~, zamok, etc. (In the 1ast

three examples the stress differs. However, these words

when written and not spoken can lead to semantic confusion.)

The twentieth century, especia11y, due to the rapid increase

in abbreviations, has seen a considerable extension in the

creation of homonyms in Russian: for example, ~, ~,

~, !!" ~, .È!1" ~, mE, .Q!Q., etaI. Even the

abbreviations themselves often posses various meanings:

avto- -- 1) avtomaticeskij, or 2) avtomobi1'nyj; BAN ---1) Belorusskaja Akademija nauk, or 2) biblioteka akademii

nauk.

In Sollenicyn's usage various terms are apt to

produce homonymie clashes. The abbreviation ~ (barak

usilennogo retima) wou1d have caused a misunderstanding,

were it not for the contexte Normal1y the word bur is

either taken as a designation for an imp1ement -- auger,

or the name of South African settler -- Boer. However,

by studying the use of Solzenicyn's word the meaning

becomes c1ear:

vkru CP. 5) Tut ~e ) l odin stuka8 sam k na~a1'stvu v Bur ubezal, tam

ego v tjur'me kamennoj i sprjata1i. (p. 28)

The word ~ can also produce a misunderstanding.

Normally this is a designation tor.godfather. However,

the two instances of SOlzenicyn's use of the noun point

to the tact that the meaning is quite different. From

the context the meaning of the noun ~ can easily be

asc8btained:

kto k kumu xodit stucat' (p. 3)

i naëal'nika

Solzenicyn's noun designates a camp authority.

76

Many other noun examples could be given to illustrate

the important ~ole of context in determining the meaning

of a terme

Part 2: Adjective

The adjective shows far less variety in morphology

than the noun. There is in fact one basic system of ad­

jectival declension, with two variants -- hard and soft.

This is the reason why no particular morphological

irregularities can be discovered in SOllenicyn's usage.

The ralatively simple morphological structure of adject­

ives offers few possibilities of deviation from the rules

of Russian word-formation.

(a) Phonetic Peculiarities

The adjectival phonetic system displays less

complexities as welle For instance, there are no stress

shifts in the declension of long for.ms.

The only adjectival peculiarity unfolded in the tale

of Solzenicyn ia the palatalized consonant n'in the

standard adjective derevenskij. Sol~enicyn's adjectival

fo~ is: dereven'skij. This peculiarity might be due to

the fact that the noun derevnja belongs to the group of

few Russian nouns (3 in number) with the suffix -nja

which have the genitive plural zero-ending with the soft

consonant ~'retained. No~ally, the soft consonant ~'

is displaced by a hard consonant n: basnja (basen).

pesnja (pesen). The soft n' is retained in two other

nouns: bary~nja (barysen'). kuxnja (kuxon').

(b) Semantic Features

Dialect

77

gr~banyj -- The dialect verb srebovat', which is used in

Kaluga. Tambov, Orel, and Pskov districts aa a aynonym

of brezgat' ("to be squeamiah," "to disdainlt) ia clearly

a cognate of Solzenicyn's adjective used in the sense of

malicious. Although, besides the verb, DaI' lists

adjectival forms grebovatyj, greblivyj (Kaluga),

grebtlivyj (south), which are synonymous with

Solzenicyn's word, the actual adjectival forro is neither

given by DaI' nor by Preobrazenskij in whose etymologiëal

dictionary the dialect verb grebovat' is also listed.

gunjavyj -- In Tula and Rjazan l areas the adjective

gunjavyj means bare, bald. (See Dal l .) According to

U~akov the word implies a lack of hair, the after­

effect of an illness. It can also mean unhealthy.

In this sense it ls used by Soltenlcyn.

78

The word gunjavyj is often confused with the adjectives

gugnivyj and gugnjavyj. The two are substandard

colloquial and dialectal adjectives, respectively,

referring to burring, guttural pronunciation.

ixij -- This dialect derivative of the pronoun ~ is,

according to Dal ' , characteristic of the eastern parts

of Russia.

udovolennyj -- This dialect word can be found in Dalls

dictionary. It is a synonym of dovol'nyj ('Isatisfiedll ).

It appears to be a past passive participle from a dialect

verb udovolit l ("to satisfyll).

Colloguialisms

bezlirnyj -- The standard Russian adjective nezirnyj

(Ilnon-fatty") is the equi valent of Solzenicyn 1 s adjec t­

ive, formed by means of substituting prefix ~- for

the prefix ~-.

burovaten1kij -- This is a diminutive adjective of endear­

ment. The endearine meaning is due to the suffix

-ovaten r k-i.1, a derivative of -ovat-yj. G.' This diminut-

ive is not registered by the lexicographers. It ia

usually used in informaI every-day language.

ixnij -- In the last century the adjective ixnij, a

derivative of ix, was a dialect word. It was used

in the northern dialects. (See DaI'.) Although a

similar derivative ixij remains a dialect word, the

adjective ixnij spread out in aIl directions to

become a "common colloquial word.

nemyten'kij -- This is an example of a diminutive

79

adjective expressing affection and characteristic of

emotionally coloured colloquial speech. Its meaning:

"unwashed. Il Formations in -en' kij from past participles

passive are very unusual.

novgxon' kij -- This is a diminutive of novy.1 ("newn ).

The affectionate quality is intensified in this for.m.

The suffix -Uxonlkij/~senlki.1 stresses endearment and

characterizes popular style. U!akov lists this for.m

beside novUlen ' ki.1. He annotates both as substandard.

radyj -- This long form is non-existent in standard

Russian. The word rad (lI gl adll ) is one of the three

Russian adjectives lacking a long form: the other two

being gorazd and nadoben. 65 The attributive adjective

rados tny.1 (" joyous lt ) is used in standard Russian.

However, its meaning diverges from the primary word

e

!!à. In dialect and colloquial speech there is a

tendency to replace the predicate by a long forme

80

Only the most frequent adjectives occur in the

predicative form in informaI langUage. 66 Therefore,

by supplanting the short form ~ by radyj,Sollenicyn

has produced a non-standard stylistic effect.

rybkin -- Short-form possessive adjectives ending in -~

derived from animal names of feminine gender ending

in -~/-1! are extremely rare. The Academy Grammar

lists the following: belkin ((belka), indejkin

(indejka), ko~kin (ko~ka), kuku~kin «kuku~ka),

kuropatkin ({kuropatka), perepelkin «perepelka).67

The form rybkin has no mention there. The adjective

rybkin is a derivative of the diminutive noun rybka.

The formaI word for fish is ryba. AlI other predicat­

ive adjectives of this kind listed in the Academy Grammar

were derived from formaI animal appellations. The

adjective rybkin, although coined from a feminine

adjective with the -~ ending, differs from the others

in its emotional value. As a diminutive it belongs

to the informaI emotionally coloured speech.

Vulgarisms

gadskij -- This adjective stems from the noun gad

(II rep tile"). However, adjectives with the suffix

-sk-ij cannot be derived from animate noun which

do not refer to human beings. The two exceptions

68 are: konakij, and avinakij. Therefore, it ia clear

why thia form is not regiatered in Standard Ruasian

dictionariea. From the noun gad the following adject­

ives are know.n: gadkij, gadostnyj, gadlivyj. The

qualitative adjective gadskij is, according to DaI', a

~ünahl1 Slavonie forme Solzenicyn uses this adjective

as a derisive vulgar epithet.

81

puzatyj -- This is a derivative of the informaI colloquial

noun puzo (Ilbellytr). The vulgar appellation puzatyj

refers to a big-bellied person.

Adjectives with the suffix -ij when derived

from an animal appellation can express both a general

and a particular meaning. The adjective soba~ij

is used by Solzenicyn not in the primary sense of the

word, but in its figurative vulgar connotation

applying to a person with canine characteristics.

su~ij -- Like the adjective sObacij this is a derisive

vulgar epithet. The adjective stems from the noun

suka (Ilbi tch") •

svinjacij -- Similarly the adjective svinjacij ls used

in its figurative meaning in the vulgar colloquial

language.

Thiefl s Cant and Camp Slang

v parasnyj -- This adjective stems from the prison ter.m

parasa. (See above under Noun.)

z~kovskij -- The camp slang designation for prisoner

zàk is the originator of the adjectival forme (See

above under Noun.)

Soviet Neologisms

82

avtoremontnye -- Substantivalized adjectives of feminine

gender can serve as designations for various establish­

ments, rooms or buildings. The Academy Grammar lists

the following forms: vannaja, detskaja, dispetcerskaJa,

dusevaja, zakuso~naja, kostjumernaja, kotel1naja,

kubovaja, operacionnaja, pivnaja, pri8mnaja, stolovaja,

uCitellskaja, ~ajnaja.69 The plural form avtoremontnye

is such a substantivalized adjective. A two-word

designation remontnaja masterskaja ('trepair shop") is

the standard counterpart of the more recent Solzenicynls

compound, consisting of the abbreviation !!!2 ( avto­

mobiltnyj) and the complete adjective.

Although in the sense of an adjective the word is

listed in the dictionaries, the substantivalized form

is not mentioned by the explanatory dictionaries.

Another peculiarity of this word is its plurality.

Normally, such designations are singular feminine

adjectives.

-e ]{~ -- This is an initial abbreviation for byysij

v upotreblenii •

., derevoobdelocnyj -- This new Soviet word is normally

used as a aubstantivalized adjective inatead of the

aimilar nominal innovation derevoobdelo~nik ("wood­

worker"). However, SOllenicyn employa the term aa a

deaignation not for a person but for a building

where woodwork is done. In standard Ruasian feminine

substantivalized adjectives are used to deaignate

premisea. The masculine adjective derevoobdelo~nyj

(ltwoodwork shopft) is presumably used becauae the

masculine noun ~ ("workshoprt) is understood.

kavtorangov -- Thia is a derivative of the Soviet neo­

logistic compound kavtorang. (See above under Noun.)

By means of adding the suffix -ov thia possessive

adjective was formed. This suffix can be added to

animate nouns only. The short form adjective thus

formed refers to some particular characteristic.

There fore , in the phrasea kavtorangov dekret or

kavtorangovy vel~i, the adjective refers to kavtorang

Bujnovskij, and not to aIl "kavtorangs." The suffix

-ov is utilized in colloquial speech, in belles-lettres

to render colloquial speech pattern or in certain

fixed expressions: adamovo jabloko, axillesova pjata,

etc. 70 Solzenicyn utilizes this suffix to forro

possessive adjectives from names: Kil'gasov, Cezarev.

levyj -- The standard dictionaries interpret this

adjective either in its primary sense or in the

figurative meaning "radical." However, another

figurative sense of the adjective levyj has been

formed. This to a certain extent slangy meaning

is "illegal." This sense is attested to by A. and

T. Fesenko in their book Russkij jazyk pri sovetax.

mexzavodskij -- This is an adjective derived from the

noun mexzavod. (See above under Noun.)

pombrigadirov -- This is a derivative adjective of the

compound noun pombrigadir. (See above under Noun.)

Due to its structure it belongs to the informaI

colloquial Russian. (Cf. recently discussed adjective

kavtorangov. )

84

t~covakij -- This adjective is derived from the abbreviat-\.

ion TEC. (See above under Noun.)

èlektromontalnyj -- This ia a compound adjective formed

by adding a suffix to the nominal Soviet neologiam

èlektromonta~ ("eleè:tric installing").

Part 3: Adverb

The adverb ia leas complex than either noun or

adjective. The only grammatical category which ia found

in the adverb is comparison. Therefore, it need occasion

no surprise that neither phonetic nor morphological

peculiarities have been noted in Sollenicynfs adverbial

usage.

The investigation of Soltenicyn's use of nouns

showed quite a number of phonetic and morphological

irregularities. The noun, being the most complicated

85

part of speech -- with such grammatical categories as case,

number, and gender, offers more alternatives and possible

anomalies than the relatively uncomplicated adjective,

or still simpler adverbe Whereas phonetic, morphological,

and semantic peculiarities were considered in the use of

nouns, adjectival usage showed no particular morphological

points of interest and merely one phone tic deviation.

Adverbial anomalies are limited to semantics only.

However, the adverbial semantic peculiarities are

not as diverse as those of nouns or adjectives.

Virtually no more than two kinds of adverbial expressions

can be distinguished against five classifications ~~ the

semantics of nouns and adjectives. Since differentiation

between dialect and common colloquial adverbs is not

easy, the two categories will hat receive a separate

treatment but will be grouped together under one single

86

heading -- semantic features.

Semantic Features

begma -- This form has not been registered in any sources.

Dal's dictionary lists the dialect form bezma. The

form begma is used by Soltenicyn as a constituent of

the asyndetic compound begma begut. (See below, under

Syntax and Phraseology.) The verbal adverb begma

assumes the role of an intensifier.

vnatrusku -- This is a nominal adverb, formed by combin­

ing the preposition ~ with the accusative case of the

dialect noun natruska ("unit of measurementn ), listed

in Dal's dictionary. This formation is the most

productive of the nominal adverbs. In standard

Russian there are numerous adverbs with this preposition

and the accusative of a noun. Among them there are such

similar forms as: vnakidku, and vnakladku.

vpolnotu -- This is another adverb of the kind discussed

in the preceding entry. The standard equivalent of

this form is vpolne ("fully").

eled~n -- This dialect adverb is listed in Dalls diction­

ary beside the similar form eleden'. The standard

Russian equivalent is etednevno (llevery day," Ifdailylf).

zamesto -- According to DaI' this adverb is characteristic

of the northern dialects. In the Kursk region a

similar form zamest is used. The standard equivalent

is vmesto ("insteadtt ).

zarane -- This apocopated comparative form of the adverb

is rare in the standard language, the formaI Russian

word being zaranee. However, in the nineteenth

century the comparative degree could also be formed

by means of adding the suffix -e instead of -!!.

87

At present, the suffix -e is added in cases of alter­

nation of consonants: jarko) jarce. Other forms with

the suffix -~ are obsolete.

vpered{ -- This dialect form is an equivalent of the

standard vperedi ("in front ff), and is formed from the

noun perl!d.

gde-tos l -- This is an informaI counterpart of gde-to

(If some\vhere lt ), wi th the not uncornmon colloquial

additive -~.

izdalja -- This adverb, formed by means of adding the

preposition iz- to the genitive singular of the noun

dal' (lfdistance lf ) is a counterpart of the standard - , Russian izdali ("from afar"). The alternative

informaI form is due to the confusion of the root

noun l s base forme Instead of forming the genitive

form of the feminine noun dal' with the ending -i,

the substandard form probably consists of the noun

dale (cf. adverb dalee/dale) with a soft neuter

g~nitive ending -j!.

1B2 -- This adverb is a dialectal counterpart of inogda

("sometimes") •

navykate -- According to U~akov this adverb is rarely

used. The form navykat is more frequent. Both

adverbs are only used in the expression glaza

navykat (e) (ltbulgy eyes").

nàkos' -- According to Usakov this is a dialect word.

The standard Russian vkos' and naiskos', formed by

adding the preposition ~ or ~ to the accusative

case of the noun, are parallel to this dialect

formation. The meaning of the three adverbs:

"obliquely.1I

naotkryte -- This is another now substandard noun with

88

the preposition.!!!. The adverbs otk;rtto and otkrovenno

substitute this informaI form in the standard language.

Naotkryte presumably contains an archaic short forro in

the prepositional singular masculine or neuter.

naprozgg -- In standard Russian the following forms are

used: naprokat, naprol8t, naprolom. The adverb

napro~gg parallels the other three.

naskorjax -- This is a dialectal counterpart of the

adverb naskoro ("hastily"). In Dal's dictionary

another similar adverb naskore is listed. Adverbs

such as vpopyxax are similar in formation.

natixuju -- This adverb, formed by adding the preposition

B! to the accusative case of the adjective tixaja, is

a synonym of potixon' ku (If sIOl-lly") •

89

nevdali -- Such form is not registered in the diction­

aries. Standard Russian possesses two similar adverbs:

nevdaleke, and nedaleko ("not far").

neprijutno -- This colloquial adverb is listed in the

Academy Dictionary alone. It is synonymous with

neujutno ("uncqmfortably"). It may be formed directly

from prijut or else result partly from contamination

with neprijatno.

non~e -- According to DaI' and Usakov this is a dialect

word. Another dialect expression is ~ ("now").

nudno -- This colloquial adverb is interpreted by both

Usakov and Olegov as a synonym of skuëno (llwearily").

nynée -- Nowa colloquial adverb, it is annotated as such

by Ozegov, the word nyn~e was still a dialect word in

the late thirties. (See UJakov.)

obnevolju -- The standard adverb nevol'no is the substitute

of this dialect term meaning involuntarily.

odnovt -- According to the Academy Dictionary this is a

dialect word, a synonym of odnazdY ("once").

/ . pOlubegom -- This adverb is not listed in any sources.

It consists of the adverb begom and the shortened

forro of the noun polovina ("half"). The stress

pattern diverges from the standard. In the literary

form the stress falls on the last syllable.

popervu -- This form is listed by DaI' and given the

interpretation: vpervye ("for the first time") and

napervo also a colloquial word.

poplose -- In addition to the ~utfix -~, which forms

the comparative degree, the prefix E2- is one of

the elements. Due to the prefix the adverb has a

colloquial overtone. DaI' lists a dialectal verb

poploset t ("to become worse," "to deteriorate"), a

derivative of the adverb poplo~e.

ptpustja -- This is a dialectal adverbe The colloquial

language knows such expressions as: popustu, and

popustomu ("in vain").

pospokojnej -- The addition of the prefix E2- to this

comparative adverb produces a colloquial overtone.

pomene -- Instead of the forro pomenee or pomen'se this

dialectal and archaic forro is exploited by Solzenicyn.

90

Still in the nineteenth century the comparative

~ (Illess") was used in literature, especially

in poetry.

prjam -- This form is known in Siberia as an equivalent

of prjarno in the sense of otkryto (tlopenly").

samodumkoj -- Tbis adverb is listed by DaI' only. It

resembles the colloquial noun samodelka. Both words

have been formed in the sarne manner. The meaning of

samodumkoj is: "in one's own reasoning."

sered' -- This dialectal word, listed by both Usakov and

DaI', means: "in the midst of," "in the middle." The

standard Russian equivalent: sredi.

spore.i -- The substandard adverb sporo ("profitably") has

a comparative forro sporej. DaI' annotated the verb

sporit'sja and the adjective sporyj as dialecte In

Usakov1s dictionary these are either dialect or

common colloquial words. For Ozegov the verb

sporitlsja is colloquial, while the adjective sporyj

is substandard.

spotyélivo -- The verb spot(y)katlsja/spot(y)knutlsja

("to stumble") belongs to informaI every-day speech.

Usakov mentions a dialect adjective spotyklivyj. The

adverb spotyClivo is a parallel dialect forme

91

syzdetstva -- This is an exemple of a colloquial adverb

formed with two prepositions ~ and!!. This adverb

is normally rendered in standard Russian by the formaI

phrase s detstva. Other adverbs of this kind:

syzmal'stva, syzmala, syzmalu, syznova, syzdavna.

~alisto This is a derivative of the noun !ag (lfstep").

None of the dictionaries lists this forme There are,

however, Many adjectives produced by means of adding

the suffix -ist-yj to the nominal root: bugristyj,

vetvistyj, volnistyj, skalistyj, etc. The adverb

sa~isto is a similar formation.

sibko -- This was originally a dialect word meaning

"very." As dialectal it was annotated by DaI' and

U§akov. However, Ozegov and the Academy Dictionary

label the word as common colloquial, not dialecte

Therefore, the adverb ~ibko must have entered common

colloquial speech in the last twenty five years.

, estol'ko -- This is an informaI equivalent of the

92

standard vot skol'ko. Usakov lists the adverb ~stol'ko

in addition to the other common colloquial word èsto~'.

(One may compare the relation of ètot to tot.)

1

2

3

4

5

6

NOTES TO CHAPTER II

See index at end for page references to Russian words.

See Dennis Ward, ~ Russian Language Today (London, 1965), p. 156.

93

Grarnmatika russkogo jazyka (M., 1952-1954), l, 141-143.

Ibid., p. 150. For the particu1ar form botinok see a1so D. E. Rozental', Modern Russian Usage (Oxford, 1963), p. 32.

Grarnmatika russkogo jazyka, l, 113-116.

A. N. Gvozdev, Ocerki E2 sti1istike russkogo jazyka (M., 1955), p. 141.

7 Word-formation by means of prefixation a10ne is weak1y productive in present-day Russian. See Dennis Ward, p. 120.

8

9

As far back as the first ha1f of the nineteenth century Russian 1inguist N. Gre~ -- Prostranna a russkaja grammatika, S. Pb., 1827, p. 1 9 -- indicated that diminutive forms prevai1 in the common and co11oquia1 language as opposed to the literary style. Grecls view was supported by other philologists. Quoted after A. I. Efimov, Stilistika xudo~estvennoj ~ (M., 1957), p. 334.

Grammatika russkogo jazyka, l, 266.

10 loc. cit.

Il Grammatika russkogo jazyka, l, 247.

12 A. I. Efimov, Stilistika xudo~estvennoj re~i (M., 1957), p. 320.

13

15

16

17

18

94

Dennis Ward, The Russian Language Today, p. 131.

Grammatika russkogo jazyka, l, 270.

See V. S. Zolotova and E. A. Zaxarevi~, "K voprosu ob èkspressivno okrasennyx nazvanijax lie v slavjan­skix jazykax," in Iss1edovanija E2 èstetike slova i sti1istike xudo!estvennoj literatury. (L. 1964), p.Ilq.

See Asya Humesky, Majakovskij and ~ Neo1ogisms (New York, 1964), p. 34.

See V. S. Zolotova and E. A. Zaxarevi~, p. 117.

Grammatika russkogo jazyka, l, 211.

19 Efimov, Stilistika, p. 327.

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

V. G. Kostomarov, ItOtkuda slovo 'stiljaga ' ?" Voprosy kul'tury reci, No. 2, M., 1959, pp. 168-175.

Ibid., p. 168.

Grammatika russkogo jazyka, l, 270.

See D. N. U~akov, Tolkovyj slovar ' russkogo jazyka, l, M., 1935.

Grammatika russkogo jazyka, l, 226.

D. Ward, p. 226.

A. Humesky, p. 30.

In Solzenicynls text this word occurs on1y once (p. 34) in the genitive singu1ar as komvzvoda. D. I. Alekseev's Slovar ' sokra~~enij cites komvzvod (masculine and presumably declinable) and komvzvifda (masculine indec1in­able). It is not, therefore, clear which base form Sol~enicyn is using.

28 Grammatika russkoso jazyka, l, 241.

29 See L. P. Krysin, "Ume1ec," Vopros:y ku1'turi re~i, No. 3 (M., 1961), pp. 201-210.

30 Ju. S. Sorokin, "Ob obêcUx zakonomemostjax razvi tija slovarnogo sostava russkogo 1iteratumogo jazyka XIX veka," Voprosy jazykoznanija, No. 3 (1961), p. 33.

31

32

33

See Efimov, Sti1istika, p. 320.

See Max Vasmer, Russisches etymo1ogisches W6rterbuch, III (Heidelberg, 1960).

Ibid.

34 A. A. Saxmatov, "K istorii zvukov russkogo jazyka," Izvestija ORJaS, VII (1902), 352-354. Quoted after Ju. V. Otkup~~ikov, "0 proisxotdenii slova barax10," Etimo1ogiceskie iss1edovanija ~ russkomu jaz:yku, No. 5 (M., 1966), p. 73.

35 See N. M. Sanskij, v. V. Ivanov, and T. B. Sanskaja, Kratki etimo1ogiéeskii slovar' ruaskogo jazyka M., 1961). The artlc e on baraxlo was written by anskaja.

36 See his article "0 proisxo~denii slova barax10," in Etimo1ogiéeskie issledovanija E2 russkomu jaz:yku, No. 5 (M., 1966), pp. 73-78.

37 A. S. L'vov, "Bedo1aga," vo~ros:y kul'tury reéi, No. 4 (M., 1963), pp. 161-16 • ----

38 6 Grammatika russkogo jazyka, l, 2 O.

39 Ibid., p. 245.

40 This information was supplied by L. F. Rojzenzon's article "Zametki po russkoj 1eksikografii," pUb1ished in Etimologi~eskie issledovanija E2 russkomu jazyku, No. 5 (M., 1966), p. lOS.

95

41

42

43

44

45

46

47

48

49

50

51

52

53

54

See A. Preobrazenskij, Etimologiceskij slovar' russkogo jazyka, II (M., 1910-1916).

See V. DaI', Tolkovyj slovar' zivogo velikorusskogo jazyka, 3rd ed., III (S. Pb., 1903-1909).

Ibid.

Grammatika russkogo jazyka, l, 228.

See V. G. Orlova, ed., Posobie-instrukcija dlja podgotovki i sostavleniia regional'nyx slovarej russkogo jazyka, A. N. M., 1960), p. 63.

See Vasmer, Russisches Etymologisches W8rterbuch.

See L. Borovoj's article on the subject in his book Put' slova (M., 1960), pp. 349-354.

B. Jakovlev and A. von Burtsov, Koncentracionnye lageri SSSR (Munich, 1951).

See Vasmer, Russisches Etymologisches W8rterbuch.

See DaI', Tolkovyj slovar' ~ivogo velikorusskogo jazyka, I.

See Jakovlev, Koncentracionnye lageri ~.

96

A. and T. Fesenko, Russkij jazyk pri sovetax (New York, 1955), p. 47.

See M. M. and B. P. Krestinsky, Kratkij slovar' sovremennogo russkogo ~argona (Frankfurt/Main, 1965).

See D. I. Alekseev, I. G. Gozman and G. V. Saxarov, eds., Slovar' sokra§cenij russkogo jazyka (M., 1963).

S5 Bee Gustav Herling, ! World Apart (London, 1951).

56

57

58

See D. I. Alekseev, et al., Slovar' sokrascenij.

See Egon von Bahder, "Die russischen Neuw8rter," Ost-Europa, No. 3 (1952), pp. 181-187.

See Jerzy G1iksman, ~ the West (New York, 1948).

59 F. Dostoevskij, "Zapiski iz mertvogo doma," in Sobranie so~inenij, III (M., 1956), 684.

60

61

62

63

6~

65

See V. L. Voroncova, "Vaxter ili vaxt8r?" Voprosy kul'tury re~i, No. 2 (M., 1959), pp. 222-224.

A. and T. Fesenko, p. 50.

See Usakov, Tolkovyj slovar', III.

A. and T. Fesenko, p. 49.

Ibid., p. 22.

Grammatika russkogo jazyka, l, 287.

66 5 A. N. Gvozdev, O~erki, p. 16 •

67 Grammatika russkogo jazyka, l, 327.

68 Ibid., p. 339.

69 Ibid., p. 311.

70 Ibid., p. 299.

97

98

CHAPTER III

Verb -(a) Phonetic Peculiarities

The following'verbal phonetic peculiarities occur

in Sol~enicyn's tale "Odin denl Ivana Denisovica:"

i)

ii)

ill)

iv)

/ zasavZ!;at l instead of " zasovl!;at l

dBrzit instead of derzit

saxnut l instead of salmut l (Aspiration)

gonu instead of gonju

The hard pronunciation is characteristic of the

Ukrainian influence on the Russian for.m. (The

Ukrainian from hnaty is zenu, zenes.)

v) xoc-ca instead of xoéetsja

vi)

When pronounèed rapidly the forro xoéetsja is thus

shortened. Such rapid pronunciation is chara6ter­

istic of colloquial style. l

okunumsi

The consonant m instead of v in this past gerund.

The past gerund has a suffix -.!, -vsi, or -!.!. -The fOrIn -E!, occurs less frequently than -.! and

has a familiar colloquial overtone. 2 In the

dialects of the south and the southern parts of

northern dialects, the Vladimir region, the past

gerund usually ends with _msy.3 Therefore, this

phonetic peculiarity is actually a dialectal

phenomenon.

vii) Verbs as weIl as nouns May show substitution of

99

a vulgar interjection for a more regular phoneme.

Thus, while the verb is still recognizable and

understood, it acquires a vulgar overtone. This

stylistic device is exploited by Solzenicyn in the

formation of two verbs: tuganut' and fuimat'sja.

These two well-camouflaged vulgarisms replace the

infinitives pusanut' and pOdnimattsja. The verb

puganut t is a colloquial perfective and semelfact­

ive equivalent of the standard Russian verb pugat t •

(b) Morphological Aspects

Solzenicyn's tale "Odin den' ••• " shows relatively

few phonetic verbal peculiarities. However, morphological

variants are more numerous.

Conjugation

Intlectional anomalies fr~uently occur in the speech

of the dramatis personae. The use of incorrect verb-forms

is a simple device for capturing and reproducing the mood

of the common uneducated people's speech which is rich

in deviations from the standard. The dialogue of "Odin

den' ••• " contains conjugational anomalies such as:

dolbajut instead of dolbjat

smogajut instead of sm0S!!t

dOSj1jadaet n " dogljadit

ullbitsja It Il ullbaetsja

xos l n Il xoées l

The imperatives are often incorrect:

trog1te instead of trogaJte

n Il trogaj

The form trog with zero-ending and a velar consonant

at the end of the stem is characteristlc of certain

dialects of the Vladimir reglon. The imperative trog

ls usually used in its negative for.m ne trog.4

It is used with the negative predicator by SOllenicyn.

The language of the tale abounds a1so in present gerund

forms which are unused or highly unusual in the standard

language: zdja, E!j!, prol1ja. The monosyllabic verbs

zdat l , E!!!, and ~ do not normally form present

gerunds. 5 The present gerund nosja is also very rare in

the standard language. 6 The present gerund okunaja

does not exist in standard Russian. 7 The present gerunds

sidja and stoja are used nowdays as adverbs only and are

very rare. 8

Except for buduci aIl other gerunds of this type are

either archaic or folkloric forms. 9 Solzenicyn uses the

form stoja~i.

The past passive participles nabratlj and (ne) znato

100

10 characterize popular speech.

Prefixation

Prefixation is a highly productive process in the

verbe The addition of a prefix to a verb usually results

in perfectivizationj thus prefixation is an important

means of word-forroation.

A very common prefix in Solzenicyn's usage ia the

prefix ~-. There are eight verbs of this type among

Solzenicyn's verbal variants. Six of them express total

execution of an action: zakosit', zana~it·, zatursit',

zastojat', zalupat'sja, zaxaltyrivat'. In the remaining

two verbs the prefix signifies commencement: zar'jat'sja,

zauljuljukat'.

The prefix pro- is also weIl represented in Sol!eni­

cyn's usage. It suggests fulfillment of an action:

proaxat', proburkotat', progarknut'sja, prosljunjavit',

pro~epeljavit'.

The prefix ~- is exploited by Solzenicyn for

purposes of expressing the restrictive idea: pomatjugat'­

~, po~akalit', which is normally rendered in English by

the addition of the phrase "a little." The sarne prefix

E2- in SOlzenicyn's verbal formation pomenet· implies

outcome, effect.

The colloquial forro otymat' consists of the prefix

~- which conveys the idea of elimination, withdrawal.

101

The same prefix ~- in the verb otmaxnut'sja implies

responsive action. The verb ot~tukaturit' is also

for.med with the prefix ~- which hints at fulfillment

of the action (in the meaning of "to eat").

Solzenicyn exploited Just one meaning of the very

productive prefix ~-. AlI three verbal forms with this 1

prefix suggest that the action is nearing its completion:

dospevat', doxodit', doxrjastyvat l •

The prefix pod- is utilized in the formation of

the verbs pOdsosat'sja, podstrel1nut', podymat'sja

which display three distinctive meanings of the prefix.

The first suggests approach, the next implies a furtive

action, and the last upward movement.

The two verbal for.ms with the prefix raz/ras---imply intensive action: razzjavit', rasstarat'sja.

Suffixation

A fruitful type of formation used by Sol~enicyn ia

the -~ suffixation. The suffix -~ and its

colloquial covnterpart -anut' convey a humorous,

ironie or contemptuous attitude towards the subject.

Verbs with these momentary suffixes were often coined

by Russian satirists. Majakovskij invented the verbs: Il kolokol'nut', uxa~nut', ornut', progolosnut'. In

SOlzenicyn's usage this verbal formation is represented

by: gaxnut', progarknut'sja, kostyl'nut', maternut',

102

maxnut', umaxnut', otmaxnut'sja, pOdstrel'nut', sumnut l ,

saraxnut l , suranut', kosanut', tolkanut', fuganut'.

Su~fixation-Prefixation

Another device employed by Sol!enicyn is the

~.quent use of re~exive verbs. These verbs are

~or.med by simultaneous prefixation and addition o~

the particle -sja: fuimat'sja, progarknut'sja,

zar'jat'sja, otmaxnut'sja, pOdymat'sja, rasstarat'sja,

rasstaryvat'sja, zalupat'sja, uxajdakat'sja, izgadit'­

sja, pomatjugat'sja, pOdsosat'sja.

(c) Semantic Features

Dialect

gaxnut' -- In the Xursk and Rjazan' regions the noun

gak and its verbal derivative gakat' stand for shriek,

bawl and the action to hem or grunt respectively.

The verb gaxnut' is a variant o~ gaknut'. The

consonant ~ has become aspirated and changed to ~.

gu~evat'sja -- This is a dialectal verb,a variant form

of Dal's gugat'sja ("to rock," "to sway") and

probably cognate with ~.

dol bat , -- Although a colloquial form dolbit' ("repeat

103

over and over again") has become a general Russian

expression, the dialectal forro dolbat', used by

Sollenicyn in his tale, is a Novgorod feature.

zar'jat'sja -- This verb is not listed in the diction­

aries. Sol!enicyn uses it to express the idea of

a commencement (prefix !!-) of an intensive dashing

action. This dialectal verb is a cognate of the

standard Russian adjective r'janyj ("zealous") -­

cf. jaryj ("ardent"), which goes back te the Old

Russian rijati, a forro parallel to the Church

Slavonie rjjati.

The verb rinut'sja ("te rush") originated from the

same oroot.12

zastojat' -- This is a dialect synonym of zascitit',

zastupit', otstojat' ("to defend," "to protect").

According to DaI' the verb zastojat' and a cognate

noun zastoja ("defender") are dialect terms.

~ -- Although this verbal forro is frequently exploited

in literature and often heard in distant parts of

Russia, it is not sanctioned as a general Russian

word. The standard Russian equivalent is kazetsja,

while the general substandard Russian worq ia ka!ia'.

The dictionaries of U~akov and O~egov do not liat

the forro~. It Is still dialectal as it was a

104

century ago, when it was annotated as such by Dal l •

The traquent occurrence of this word is due to the

tact that it is present in such diverse localities

of central Russia as Vologda, Moscow, Rjazan ' , and

Tambov. (See DaI'.) These dialects have exerted

a great influence on spoken Russian.

pogrebovat l -- DaI' registered the verb grebovat' in

the Kaluga, Orel, Tambov, and Pskov districts. Its

meaning is: IIto.be squeamish," "to disdain." This

is a perfective for.m ot Dal's verb, used by Solle­

nicyn in the sense given by the lexicographer.

(cf. grebanyj, p. 77)

progarknut'sja -- Although the verb garkat'/garknut l

("to ahout") ia a common Russian colloquialism and

has been approved as such by the dictionaries (see

Academy Dictionary, Usakov, O{egov), SOlzenicyn'a

verb progarknut'sJa does not belong to the colloquial

language. It is used perfectively by the writer to

express the meaning usually conveyed in Ruasian by

the imperfective verb rugat'sja. This meaning is

attributed to the verb garkat' in the Vorone~, and

Tambov regions. (See DaI'.)

105

prolepeljavit' -- According to Usakov this is a dialect

word. Although the imperfective sepelJavit' ("to lisp")

is known as a standard Russian verb, the perfective

aspect of the verb is known to cArtain regions only.

suranut' -- This verb is not listed in the dictionaries.

However, DaI' mentions a noun peculiar to the Tver'

dialect only

This noun

v which resembles the verb suranut'.

éuranec -- is a designation for a wooden

ball used in the Russian version of croquet. (See

Dal'.) It is quite possible that luranec is a

derivative of the verb suranut', which, however, has

not been registered by DaI'. If such a verb ever

existed in the Tver' area, it would have meant "to

drive away." This is also the meaning of Sollenicyn's

verb ~uranut'.

surudit' -- This word is probably connected with the

dialectal ~urda-burda. (See DaI'.) The meaning of

the verb: to confuse, muddle, etc.

Colloguialisms

brexat' -- This once dialectal verb, characteristic of

the southern and western regions (see DaI') is at

present known aIl over Russia. Its meaning: to lie,

to tell lies.

burkotat'/proburkotat' -- Similarly, the verb burkotat'

was at the end of the last century known only to the

106

Russians of the south and west. Now it is an

informaI colloquial verb synonymous with another

colloquialism -- burkat'/burlmut' ("to growl," "to

grumble.").

dospevat' -- This is a cOlloquial verb, a derivative of

standard Russian spet' ("to ripen"). Usakov mentions

this colloquialism in his dictionary.

doxrjastyvat' -- Both Utakoy and the Academy Dictionary

list the informaI cOlloquial verb xrjastat' ("to

pound," "to tbrash"). Ozegov lists the verb xrjast­

nut' (" to hi tif) as belonging to informaI speech.

107

The closest meaning to the one expressed by SOlzenicyn's

doxrjastxvat' is given in the four volume Academy ..

dictionary. It ihterprets xrjastat' as: "to break

with a crackle."

zalupat'sja -- This is a synonym of the informaI

colloquial verb zadirat'sja ("to start a brairl") •.

This meaning is given by DaI'.

zauljuljukat' -- In Sollenicynls usage this verb signifies

the start of a jeering action. This interpretation

is also given by Usakov.

kosanut' -- This is an equivalent of kosnut', the suffix

-anut' being an informaI expressive variant of the

s tand~d suffix -~. The wOl'd kosanut' i_ a

derivative of cOlloquial kosnit' ("to linger"), which

is listed by DaI'.

kostyl'nut' -- This substan~ard verb besides meaning to

limp conveys the idea of beating, pounding. This

meaning is given by DaI', Usakov, and the Academy

Dictionary.

maxnut ' /umaxnut ' -- In informaI colloquial Russian this

verb has the meaning to dash, rush, etc. The perfect­

ive forro umaxnut' , which occurs in SOlzenicyn's usage

as weIl, is not registered by the dictionaries.

108

otmaxnut'sja -- This is not strictly speaking a derivat­

ive of the preceding verb, but of its homonym maxat'/

maxnut' ("to wave"). The meaning of otmaxnut'sja is:

"to drive away with a wave of the hand." In Solzeni­

cyn's tale the verb otmaXnut'sja acquired another sign­

ificance: "to answer with a swaying gesture."

otstukaturit' This verb in Solzenicyn's tale, although

homonymous with the standard Russian ot~tukaturit'

{(stukaturit') ("to parget"), conveys a totally dif:fer­

ent meaning __ "to eat hurriedly." It resembles another

colloquial verbal formation with the prefix ~-, namely

otbarabanit'. In standard Russian otbarabanit' is a

perfective form t'rom barabanit' ("to beat the drum").

In substB.ldud Russ1an, however, it means to do

something 1n a hurried manner.

otym.at' -- This 1s an equ1va1ent of the standard Russ1an

otnimat'. According to DaI' otym.at' 1s heard 1n the

southern and eastern d1alects. Usakov considers the

verb to be an obso1ete substandard fo~ of otnimat ' ,

but nevertheless a general Russ1an word. Oiegov,

although he does not l1st the infinit1v otym.at l ,

mentions the informa1 conjugation otym.u, otymes l , etc.

in his comment on the standard verb otnimat l • (See

below podymat l s3a.)

pereminat' -- According to Usakov this verb means to

crumple in aIl direct10ns. Sol~enicyn uses the verb

1n the phrase pereminat' jazlkom, where the whole

expression acquires the meaning "to chew thoroughly."

podstre1 t nut' -- In standard Russian it means to wound

by a shot. However, 1n Sol!enicyn l s tale this verb

is a synonym of vyprosit l ("to beg out"); (cf.

streljat' papirosl ("to cadge cigarettes"). The

phrase streljat l glazami (IIrun onels eyes over") could

have influenced this verbal formation.

podymat ls3a -- According to U~akov this is a substandard

equivalent of podnimat' sja (-"to rise").

pomenet l -- This ia a cognate of menlae ("less"). This

109

substandard verb, although not sanctioned by the

dictionaries, is easily understood because o~ its

simple structure: ~-!!E!-~. It consists of a

verbal prefix E2- expressing commencement of an

action + the root ~ + the verbal suffix -!!!. The verb conveys the meaning to lessen, to diminish.

proaxat' -- This verb has diverse meanings in Russian.

It stema from the emotional interjection ~ and can

have various emotional mean1ngs. In our case 1t 1s

a synonym of pronjuxat l (nto smell outn).

razzjav1t' -- The 1nformal der1sive epithet razzjava

(ngawk"), which is a synonym of razinja, p01nts to

the fact that the verbal form razzjavit' is synonymous

with razinut' (nto open wide"). The dictionaries also

give another synonym o~ razinut' -- razevat', clearly

a cognate of razzjavit'.

rasstarat'sja/rasstaryvatlsja -- Verbs with the verbal

prefix ~-/raz- and the suf~ix -sja express a gradual

growth of intensification.13 Such meaning is conveyed

by the verb rasstarat'sja (nto do onels utmostn), a

form of starat's3a.

110

sovat' na lapu -- This is an informal expression, a synonym

of the standard Russian phrase dat' vzjatki (nto briben).

~araxnut' -- This verb is registered by every one of the

dictionaries and considered by the 1exicographers to

be a part of substandard language. Its meaning: "to

deliver a heavy blow."

sesterit' -- This is a cognate of the obsolete tePom

~estUrka ("waiter"). (See above, p. 48.) Therefore,

sesterit' means to wait, i.e. to serve food.

~ugat' -- Dal' considered this word to be dialectal.

He registered it in the southe~ parts of Russia

and near Jaroslavl'. There he also came upon such

forms as !ugaj and sugalo (both for "scarecrow").

In Usakov augat' is no longer annotated as dialecte

It has become an accepted word aIl over Russia as an

informaI expression for driving away by frightening,

i.e. to scare.

sunmut' This ls a momentary (odnokratnI3) form from

the verb sumet' (rrto make noise").

tolkanut' -- According to U§akov, Ozegov, et al., this

is a colloquial counterpart of the perfective moment­

ary verb tollmut' ("to shove lf ).l4

utolakivat' -- The verb utoloé' (perfective), according

to U~akov, belongs to substandard speech. It means:

"to pound to the very end."

111

Vulgarisms

izgadittsja -- This derivation from the abusive epithet

gad (see above. p. 49) belongs to the vulgar popular

expressions. Usakov interprets the verb as "to become

foul." O~egov lists the form izgadit t only. without

any mention of the reflexive.

maternut t -- Usakov defines this verb as branittsja

materno. i.e. to swear by means of using the word

~ ("mother") and making vulgar references to a

persons ancestry. (Bee below. under Phraseology.)

matjugattsja/pomatjugattsja -- The verb mat.1ugat'sja is

a similar designation for the use of obscene abusive

language. (Bee Dal'.) Dal' a1so mentions another

verb which bears a very close resemb1ance to Sol~eai­

cyn's: matjugkat t •

pOdsosat'sja The meaning of this verb is as fol1ows:

"to cling to someone in a manner of a leech in order

to get sorne gain out of him." (See Dal'.> Exactly

the sarne meaning is expressed by SOltenicyn's verbe

112

prosljun.1avit' -- This perfective verb means IIto say

something in a slobbery manner." Its structure resembles

the structure of a dia1ect verb prosepeljavit'. (Bee

above, p. 105.) Like the latter verb the imperfective

aspect only is given and the prefixed perfective aspect

is not listed in the standard sources. (See Dal',

Usakov, ~d Ozegov.)

su~lt'sja -- A derivative of ~ ("bitch"), it is a

coarse word meaning to quarrel or to talk in a

barking manner. (See Dal'.) In Sollenicyn' s usage

it has the first meaning. In a recent Russian

Academy of Sciences publication on regional words

a verb suait' is given an Interpretation "to scanda1-

l'ze.1I15 The Krestinskys 1ist the verb su~it'.sja which in thief's idiom means "to betray."

fUganut' -- This is a vulgarized form of the verb

puganut' pugat l • The substituted phoneme!B-

stems from the emotional interjection fUI ("faughl"). -(See above'J under Phone tic Peculiarities.)

fUimat'sja -- Similarly the verb fUimat'sja. consists of

the same exclamation of disgust which replaces the

phoneme pod-. (See ab ove under tu3mnik, p. 54.)

cuskat'sja -- The verb cuskat'sja is derived from the

vulgar appellation cuska. (See above, p. 55.) This

vulgar verb means "to go slow."

113

sakalit' -- The epithet sakal given to a predatory person

or "jackal" gave rise to this derivative verb, which

signifies an action that can be attributed to this beast

of prey.

Thiet"s Cant and Camp Slang

doxodit' -- The verb doxodit' normally means to approach

the end. In camp slang i t is a euphemistic term t'or

nearing life's end, i.e. a slow gradual death. (See

above, under doxodjaga, p. 60.)

zakosit' -- The primary significance of the verb: to

seize an adjoining field while scything (see U!akov)

has given rise to this s~angy figurative expression

for to rob, to steal.

zanaéit' -- In thief's cant the verb zanacit' means to

hide cunningly. (See the Krestinskys.) This meaning

of the verb has been adopted by the prisoners from

thief's jargon.

114

zatursit' -- In thief's cant this is still another synonym

of the verb sprJatat' ("to bide").

pajat' -- In standard Russian this verb is a counterpart

of the English verb to solder. (See above under

spajka, p. 46.) In Solzenicynts usage this ia a camp

idiom, a synonym of the standard Russian verb nakazy­

~ (Ilto puniah"}.

stuéat' -- The person who informa 'he authori tiaB wat.l

named by the camp inmates stukac and the cognate verb

stuéat' is thus the counterpart of the standard

Russian donosit' ("to informfl). (See ab ove under stuka~.)

uxajdakat'sja -- The ve~b uxojdakat t (Tve~t), uxondakat l ,

and uxajdakat t (Tambov and Rjazan t ) is used as a

synonym ot the ve~bs dokonat', pogubit l , ubit'.

The ~etlexive torm ot this ve~b is used by Solzenicyn

in the ~etlexive meaning: utomit'sja (Rto exhaust

oneselt"). In camp slang it has become a synonym ot

the wo~d to die. 16

~monjat' -- Since the noun lmon is a synonym ot the

stand~d wo~d obysk (see above, p. 66), the ve~b

~monjat' exp~esses the action: to search.

In the dialects ot Sibe~ia the verb smonit' connotes

the idea of aimless wandering, roaming.

Word and Context

Having discussed the semantic peculiarities of

Sol~enicyn's verb-forms, it is useful again to conside~

the relation of context and wo~d, this time in the verbs.

Solzenicyn introduces a l~ge number of colloquial

substand~d as well as slangy verbs. They otten resemble

standard Russian verbal forma both in phone tics and

morphology. However, their semantic implications dive~ge

trom the stand~d. This phenomenon ia due to the fact

that the slangy or colloquial signiticance originated as

a shift of meaning to a reatricted aphe~e of application.

One May note that aIl of Solzenicyn'a verb-fo~s which

115

present any degree of semantic ambiguity belong either

to the substandard colloquial layer of speech or to the

slangy vocabulary of camp prisoners. Other styles

present no cases of doubtfUl meaning.

Some verb-fo~s can produce great ambiguity when

removed trom their contexte For example, the verb

maxnut l normally connotes the idea of a waving or

swaying action. However, a new colloquial meaning is

attached to this word: to dash, to rush, to go off.

Which of the two senses did Solzenicyn have in mind

can only be ascertained after the word has been examined

in the context:

a takoe a. Ja!

It is clear trom the context that the waving action is

not implied.

A second example is the cognate verb otmaxnut'sja.

116

In its primary sense the verb suggests the driving away

with a wave of the hand. Another standard but figurative

sense hints at the brushing aside of a question or affair,

the dismissing trom consideration. Still another meaning

of the verb in its informaI connotation is to answer or

reply. This third responsive action ia implied by

Sol~enicyn: A nam stolby ne me~ajut,

Kil'gas i zasmejalsja. Cp. 22)

otmaxnulsja

The verb kostz1 1nut l ia known in the info~al colloquia1

language on1y. However, it is app1ied to two distinct

actions: 1) to beat, to pound; 2) to limp, to walk on

crutches. The context excludes any ambiguity. The verb

is c1ear1y emp10yed to convey the idea of beating: y

Kostl1'nul ego Suxov v spinu razok. (p. 38)

117

In the standard usage the verb ot~tukaturit' means to

plaster, to parget. However, when examined in the

sentence, the verb stands out in its different connotation:

to eat hurried1y.

The context shows tbat not the primary standard sense,

but the substandard col10quial meaning is imp1ied.

The verb proaxat' expresses diverse meanings. Thanks to

the numerous emotional overtones in the interjection ~,

the derivative verb can mirror innumerab1e nuances.

To give Just a few: 1) to express surprise by exc1aiming;

2) to sigb; 3) to deliver a hard blow; 4) to make noise;

5) to spend the time sighing; 6) to 10se something.

However, none of these is expressed by the fo11owing

sentence~ Foll-to pro axaI djadja. (p. 32)

Solzenicyn applies the verb in the sense of pronjuxat',

i.e. to sme11 out. Only the examination of the word

within bbe context makes the understanding of the implied

action possible.

118

The forced-1abour camp terms present an ev en c1earer

picture of the importance of context or situation for the

understanding of prisoners' speech. Such verbs as doxodit'

or stu~at' can on1y be understood correct1y when considered

in the contexte Othe~ise the primary sense -- "to approach

the end" and "to knock," can on1y be perceived.

When the sentence is examined, it becomes c1ear that the

verbs refer to a different action:

Na glazax doxodit kapitan, ~~eki vva1i1is' ••• (p. 16)

Ona v tridcat' doxodi1a na ob

Kto k kumu xodit stu~at' (p. 3)

Opjat' budet stu~at' na kogo-to. (p. 12)

On1y now, after the usage has been studied, the meaning

of these two camp expressions for "to die from exhaustion"

and "to inform" can be grasped.

This change of application can be sean in many

other verb-for.ms used by camp prisoners, since the great

majority of them were adopted from thief's cant which

aims at concea1ing the expressed idea from strangers.

The artificia1 language of concealment cannot, however,

be created out of nothing and must consist of numerous

vocables existent in the standard language, their

meaning only being modified: zakosit' ("to steal'? t'rom

standard "to seize a part of the field while scything."

119

Xot' zakosil miski !uxov -- a xozjain lm pombrigadir. (p. 31)

zakosit' b

••• v obed on zakosil ka su ••• (p. 68)

Thus, context plays an important role in the

interpretation of verb-forms. Although homonymy occurs

not as frequently in verbs as in nouns, polysemy is just

as slgnificant a factor. There fore , the study of context

is neceasary for the comprehension of many verba, the

meaning of which can only be confuaed in isolation.

NOTES TO CHAPTER III

1 See Grammatika russkogo jazyka (M., 1952-1954), l,55.

2 Ibid., p. 527.

3 P. S. Kuznecov, Russkaja dialektologija, 3rd revised ed. (M., 1960), p. lIS.

4 Ibid., p. 112.

5 Grammatika ruaskogo jazyka, l, 522.

6 loc. cit.

7 Grammatika russkogo jazyka, l, 562.

8 Ibid. , p. 524.

9 Ibid. , p. 522.

10 Ibid., pp. 510-514.

Il See Asya Humesky, Majakovskij !Eà à!! Neo1ogisms (New York, 1964), p. S1.

12 See N. M. Sanskij, V. V. Ivanov, T. B. Sanskaja, Kratkij ètimo1ogi~eskij slovar' russkogo jazyka (M. -L., 1961).

13 Grammatika rusakogo jazyka, l, 600.

120

14 For the significance of the suffix -anut r see Grammatika russkoso jazyka, l, S40.

16 A. and T. Fesenko, Russkij jazyk Fr! sovetax (New York, 19S5>, p. 86.

121

CHAPTER IV

Szntax and Phraseolosy

1. Syntact1c Pecu11ar1t1es

This chapter will deal w1th the specifie syntact1c

aspect, of Solienicyn's language. Both the lexicon and

the syntax of Sol~en1cy.n's "Od1n den' Ivana Den1sov1~a"

have been influenced by 1nformal everyday speech. This

study will, therefore, be particularly concerned with

the peculiar colloquial aspec~. of SOlzen1cyn's syntaxe

Obv1ously colloquial and dialectal speech affect

the informal spoken language to a much greater·extent

than the written-literary forme This does not mean,'

however, that the spoken language can be equated with

the substandard colloquial speech (prostorecie). But

while boundaries of standard speech can easily be

established in the fields of lex1cology and morphology,

in the sphere of syntax it is hardly possible to draw a

border l1ne between standard and substandard language,

for the basic structure of the substandard is very

s1milar to that of standard Russian. Therefore, the

relevant syntactic peculiarities of spoken Russian will

be discussed in detail and, whenever possible, the

122

colloquial peculiarities will be i11ustrated.

It is occasionally asser~ed that spoken language l is "iree" and does not ~all under any restrictions.

123

This theory is untrue. The "freedom" of spoken language

is imaginary. The spoken language is even more restricted

than the written forme Spoken language operates in ter.ms .

of fixed expressions, for the speaker has no time to

evaluate and determdne which word will prove more

suitable. Moreover, certain components such as particles,

interjections, combinations of both, etc., which prevail

in the spoken language cannot be substituted or omitted

without modifying the meaning o~ the sentence. This is 2 another restriction o~ the spoken language.

The spoken language can be characterized by the

~ollowing ~eatures:

i) elliptical sentences,

ii) parenthetic clauses and phrases,

iii) stereotyped phraseology,

iv) idiomatic expressions which do not lend them­

selves to synchronie logical analysis,

v) repetition o~ phrases used by the interlocutor,

vi) archaic parallelism,

vii) combinations of two verbs in the srume ~or.m,

viii) repetitive compounds,

ix} particles employed as syntactic ~ormatives,

x} interjections which take the ~ctions of other

parts of speech.3

i) E11iptica1 sentences

E1lipsis means incomplete construction due to the

omission of certain constituents which are understood

in the contexte

124

a) The omission of the verb is Most co~on. Such verbal -ellipses abound in Sol~enicyn's "Odin den' ••• ":

CP. 19) vse·

CP. 23) ~~~::;;.o1,.-=--~,.;;.....;;;;~;...;:.c-.-.;:;;;~~=--~: Cp. 24)

p. 34)

b) The subject is not repeated if it was used pr~iously:

Iz tex ostolopovi segodnjasnij naèkar. 1 Zdet. CP. 46)

c) The omission of both subject and ~ prevai1s in

incentive, stimulatlvë sentences:

d) The elimination of the object:

125

e) The omission of a conjunction:

v Estoni!

odvesit'

- 1 ty v kondee. (p. 7)

ii) Parenthetic clauses and phrases

A parenthetic clause is an explanatory annotation

placed within an already complete sentence. Such

clauses are especially abundant in SOlzenicyn's tale

"Odin den' ••• " Thus:

sapku s britoj golovy - kak ni

A

iii) Stereotyped phraseology

Stereotypdd phraseology consists of fixed and

conventional expressions.

Fixed expressions seem to have the structure of a

compound sentence, whereas they are indivisible and

1exica1ly restricted.

A to ni to ni si. (p. 4>

126

A conventional expression (or cliche) isan expression

that has lost its pristine meaning through frequent

repetition and has become tri te. Conversations especial1y

abound in cliches. The reason for this is that the

interlocutor has to fi1l the time during which he searches

for an answer with meaningless cliches.

- Net, baten'ka, - ••• ob"ektivnost' trebuet priznat', 6to Eizen~tein genialen. CP. 32)

- Dozvol'te zametit' - Cp. 40)

Iv) Idiomatic expressions which do not lend

themselves to synchronie logical analysis occur frequently ~ in Solzenicyn's tale:

.t. i po lagernoj privy6ke lezt' glazami kuda ne sleduet, ne mog ne zametit', 8to Nikolaj pisal rovnymI-rovny.mi strockami ••• (p. 9)

- toze lm ne maslo slivocnoe v takoj moroz na vytkax toptat'sja. (p. 10)

S nix 1agerja kak s gusja voda. (p. 18) Zamerznet arestant v snegu - tak ~es ego es'. (p. 21) Da ved' sutka skazat', bOl'ie pol asa vremeni

u pjatisot 8elovek otnjall (p. 46) .t. svobody zdes' ot puza. (p. 59) Ostavit' zdes' - neroven cas, tjapnut, kto

s proverki pervyj v barak vbezit. CP. 63)

v) Repetition of phrases used by the interlocutor

The repetition of individual words or phrases used

by the inter1ocutor is a device similar to the use of

id1.omatic expressions:

"- No slusajte iskusstvo èto ne eto, a kak. - Net uz, k certovoj materi yale '!!k,' es1i

one dobryx ~uvstv vo mne ne probudit." (p. 33)

vi) An archaic para1le1ism is the use of a para11e1

form instead of the subordination of one word to another.

These para1lel constructions serve to make the phrase

more precise and, therefore, more effective. Bere are

Just a few examples of Solzenicyn's use of paral1el

structures:

A iz vaxty, iz truby, dym ne perestavaja, k1ubitsja. (p. lB)

Na skame ke na kazdo letom selo by celovek po pat', no ••• (p. 30)

U vas u samix netS (p. 6B)

vii) The combination of two verbs in the same form

is a feature peculiar to spoken language only. Of the

two verbs one is dependent upon the other. The verb

pojti is most frequently used as the subordinating

component. However, other verbs can also be used for

this purpose: sidet', pytat'sja, pisat,.4 The basic

meaning of the construction is expressed by the sub­

ordinative verbe In literary Russian a construction of

the subordinating verb with an infinitive or gerund

corresponds to a combination of two verbs in the same

forme

127

S~itaetsja invalid, lagkaja rabota, a nu-ka, podi vynesi, na prol'jal Cp. 4)

A san1nstrüktor i ~togoltme delaat: sidit -smotrit. CP. 28)

A zâ1u11s i poprobui - sajcas prideratsja. CP. 52) Idi s8 tar, ne var §'? Cp. 30) Zato ieva 'net brov'ju ili pal'cem pokazet -

baSi, delaj. Cp. ~8)

128

Nu ladno, Ivan Danisyc, beSi, zanimaj. CP. 50) Poka na~al'stvo razbaresja - pritkn1s', gde

po tep le j, sjad', sidi, esce nalomae~1 spinu. Cp. 19)

The comma in the last three examples is a textua1 device.

However, it causes ambiguity by suggesting enumeration.5

viii) Repetitive compounds can be asyndetic

Ceither hyphenated or not), conjunctive or formed with

a connective partic1e: se1-~el, sel i sel, idti tak idti.

They can be produced by reduplication of a word or by

combining different categories of a one-root word.

Asyndetic compounds ara very abundant in everyday

Russian. Proverbial sayings aspecia11y disp1ay a great

variety of them. Asyndetic compounds serve various

functions:

a) A pro1onged action is axpressad by repeating a form

of an imperfective verbe

Bujnovskij ~osilsja-kosilsja na Fetjukova, da i gavknu1. (p. 20)

IIi ko1jaska po 1estnice katitsBa, katits~a. Cp. 46) Sperva fi~icu odnu prjamo pil, 111. (p. 7) Sypjat, sypjat v barak zèki. p. 65)

< A tip1e rapetition of an imperfective verb emphasizas

the prolongation of an action.

ste~', ste~', stel'- - vot i dyrocku za pajkoj sprjatannoj priivatil. CP. Il)

Povar vzjal zdorovyj ~erpacilce 1itra na tri i 1m - v bake me~at', me~at', me!at'. CP. 56)

Asyndetic compounds expressing prolonged action can

a1so consist of fOrmB reinforced by the particle 1.

Teper'-to on, kak ptica vol 'naja, vyporxnul iz-pod tamburnoj krysi - i po zone, i po zone. Cp. 53)

l v mat' ix, i v mat', podb~os~ikov i podnos~ikov. (p. 41)

b) A verb combination can a1so hint at an interrupted

action.

c) Intensity can be expressed by nominal, adjectival,

and adverbial compounds;

Da palkoj, palkoj kogo-to po plecam, po spine, ••• (p. 55)

Lopatu-toJ Lopatu-to on ne zrja prixvatil ••• Cp. 39)

- rastvor, rastvor pod ruku peretaskivajte, zivol ., (p. 38) Suxov ne mog ne zametit', cto Nikolaj pisal

129

rovnymi-rovnymi strockami ••• (p. 9) v

Potom gljadja na be1en'kij-be1en'kij cepcik Vdovuskina, Suxov vspomnil medsanbat na reke Lovat' ••• Cp. 10)

Sneg pri burane melockiJ-meloëkij. (p. 21)

130

A pod potolkom lampo~ka slepen'kaja-slepen'kaja ••• . (p. 53)

l tuda-sjuda, tuda-sjuda posel eju stenu drait' ••• v Cp. 37)

Togda dostal xlebusek v beloj trjapocke i, der~a trjapocku v zapazu~ke, ctoby ni kro~ka mimo toj trjapo6ki ne upala, stal pomalu-pomalu otkusyvat' i ~evat'. Cp. 20)

l lopocut bIstro-bIstro, kto bol Ise slov ska!et. (p. 53) skorei-SkOrej k krYl'cu ••• (p. 55) l sej as !e, sei~as ego podrovnjat', bokom masterka

pOdblt ' , esl ne tak. (p. 38)

or by perfective verbs with the commencing prefix A!-:

Zakolyxalas l , sbilas' s rovnoj nogi, dernulas', zagudela, zagudela - i vot uze xvostovye pjaterki i aered l nix Suxov ne stali dogonjat' idusëix vperedi ••• Cp. 48)

To medlenno tjanulis l k dverjam, a tut kak zagustili, zagustili, da s verxnix koek prygajut medvedjamI i prut vse v dveri uzkie. CP. 63)

d) Brevity of time can be conveyed by repetitive compounds

formed from perfective verbs with the prefix ~-.

The restrictive idea enclosed in the prefixis thus

intensified by the repetition. Such repetitive

compound la usually followed by another verbe

pomal~uet, pomaljuet i v peréatku dy§it. CP. 13) Pokrl al

j pokri8al na~kar "sire sagl" - ponjal:

ne po dut zèki byatrej. (p. 48)

e) Perfective verba forming repetitive compounds can

also convey the idea of intermittance and i~ragular­

i ty of ac tion.

Obo~li, obo~li, vernulis' k dverjam. (p. 67) ••• i s tex por poslo, poslo, 1 vse boll§e takix maatakov - k ras i 1 e j nabiraetsja: Cp. 17)

1 The idea of irregularity can be intensified by

the particle 1:

Otorval, skrutil, podnjal ugolek, ••• - i potjanull i potjanull (p. 34}

l p~gnai, 1 pognal naruznyj rjad k Sen'ke navstreëu. (p. 38)

f) By introducing the particle ~ into the repetitive

compound the contrasting idea ls intensified.

, y

Szadl-to, szadi, eto verno, tQlkacl, no i perednie ne 8Ibko soprotivljajutsja, dumajut v stolovuju vletet'. (p. 55)

g) In an adversative constructlon a repetitlve compound

with a negative predicator E! ia an indicator of

indifference.

Nravitsja tovar, ne nravitsja - a na skol'ko zajavlenie na~al'niku napIsal, na stol l ko i nakupaj. (p. 58)

••• ka~a ne kasa, a idet za ka~u. (p. 8) V kOlonne, kogda pote pIe j, vse razgovarivajut

- krici ne kri~i na nix. (p. 16) Volen ne volen, a ska~i da prygaj, povoracivajsja.

(p. 24) Vypolnil, ne vypolnl1 - katis' v zonu. (p. 27)

131

h) Hesitancy and uncertain negation can also be conveyed

by a repetitive compound with a negative predicator •

••• dumal, sflest l tut te, da naspex eda ne eda, projdet darom, bez sytostl. (p.. Il)

A parikmaxeru, kotoryj ego s bumazkoj breet ••• - mnogo ne mnofo, a tri-~etyre sigaretki toze dat'? (p. 60

Emu ved' let, kavtorangu, sorok ne sorok, a okolo. (p. 41)

132

Asyndetio oompQunds oan a1so oonsist of two different

oategories of one-root words.

Suoh are the compounds of a verb and an adverbial form

ending in -!!I-mja:

Vse ob"ekty begma begut ••• Cp. 44) A Cezar' po4el, sebja ne ronjaja, razmerenno,

v druguju storonu, gde vokrug sto1ba uze kismja kise10. CP. 51)

Another examp1e of an asyndetic compound consisting of

two different categories of a one-root word:

Brigadir si1a, no konvoj - si1a posi1 ' nej. Cp. 42)

Two other examp1es with an adverbial form are:

Odni p1ity v formax 1ezat, drug1e stojmja nastav1enl. (l'. 19)

••• a va10m pova111 narod k vaxte. Cp. 42J

Conjunctive repet1t1ve compounds can be formed with

copulat1ve conjunctions: 1, S!,~; separat1ng con-6 junctions: .!li, li; and conjunction ~.

Repetitive compounds with conjunction ! express prolong­

ation and continuity of action:

A ~uxov 1e~a1 i 1eza1 na sprassovavsixsja opi1kax Bvoego matrasika. CP. 4)

Sli oni dal'Ke i da1'~e i podosli k tomu mestu, gde pod snegom by1i pogebeny l~1ty sbornyx domov. CP. 22)

No oni ni na mig ne ostanav1iva1is' i gna11 k1adku da1'~e i da1r~e. Cp. 38)

. Conjunctive repetitive compounds consisting o~ three

~orms (with the ~irst two being asyndetic) are rarely

used. 7 In SOllenicyn's tale l oame across one such

compound:

S nadziratelja na~inaja, kto posylku pOluéaet, . dol zen davat'« davat' i davat r • (p. 52)

Repetitive compounds with conjunction ! can also

convey the meaning o~ ordinariness •

••• trava i trava, tol'ko zeltaja, pod vid psena. Cp. 8)

Intensity can also be conveyed by these compounds •

••• byla t'ma i t'ma, da popadalo v okno tri zeltyx fonarja. (p. 3)

A na dvor vyjdja, srazu opjat' begom i begom k sebe. Cp. 59)

••• men'(e i men'~e bylo emu povodov ••• CP. 52)

Prolongation and continuity o~ action are also

transmitted by compounds formed with the conjunction ~.

l sidet' emu asée zimu-leto da zimu-leto.

133

Separating conjunctions serve to convey indif~erence.

l srazu vsja brigada, dremala li. ne dremala, vstala~ zazevala i p051a k vyxodu. (p. 12)

A sly~al Buxov, ne znaet - pravda li, nepravda, ~to mexzavodcy ••• (p. 49)

Repetitive compounds with the conjunction kak,~did -not occur in SOlzenicyn's usage.

134

The sole particle serving to form repetitive

compounds is the particle !!!' which is always unstressed.8

Compounds with this particle express inner agreement.

ix) Particles employed as syntactic formatives:

The partdale itself is a short and Indeclinable part

of speech, with no lexical meaning of its own when

isolated, but meaningful in the sentence, where it serves

as a means to express delicate variations in tone.

The majority of constructions do not depend upon

the particle. The removal of the particle does not

change the grammatical meaning of the whole structure.

However, there are structures which are determined by

the particle. Its omission would have broken the whole,

for such structures are syntactically indivisible.

Since the spoken language exploits this particular

function of the particle to a much greater extent than

any other style, the particlels role as a syntactic

rormative can certainly be coosidered a feature of

informaI speech.

Particles when used as syntactic formatives convey

various meanings:

a) Concession and confident statement can be expressed

by sentences with the verbal particle i estl.

Bumaga - ona bumaga i est'. Ona i est' sem'ja, b~igada. Vot ~to ono i est' b~igada. Vot ~to i est' b~igada. U~ka on 1.. est' •

CP. 25) Cp. 33) Cp. 35) (p. 36) CP. 63)

The p~onoun gelona/ono gives a p~ticul~ st~ess to

the statement.

Concession can also be exp~essed by the pa~ticle

p~avda.

Nu, p~avda, pitaetsja Ki~'gas no~mal'no, dve poaylki v mesjac ••• (p. 22)

Po testjanomu delu inst~umenta, p~avda, net, no est' molotocek slesa~nyj da topo~ik. CP. 24)

b) Assumption can be enclosed in a sentence with the

following p~ticles:

the conjunctive pa~ticle ~azve

Da ~azve on bol en? Cp. 12) TeplYj zjablogo ~azve kogda pojmet? Cp. 10) Nu, ska~i, Vanja, es1i b na~al'stvo umnoe bylo -

~azve postavilo by ljudej v takoj mo~oz ki~kami zemlju dolbat'. (p. 22)

the p&.l'ttèile !!B --

~, esli dnem esce ubeg -- d~ugoe delo ••• Cp. 46)

the pa~ticle neboa'

Uxajdakalsja by sam na kamennoj kladke -- nebos'

135

by tixo sidel. CP. 10) A di~ekto~om byl - nebos' s "~abo~ix t~eboval. CP. 38) Nep~ijutno emu nebos'. (p. 40) Vam nebos' to~e-,r-teplu xoc-ca... (p. 48) ••• nebos' nmogo on ob sebe dumaet. CP. 63)

136

the partiele podi --

Vraei-to, podi, eace s postelej ne pody.malis l • (p. 9) .

e) Uneertainty can be transmitted by sentences with

the tollowing partieles:

the particle eto-to

l baraka tto-to ne sli otpirat l •••

Teper. '6to-to ne stal pletku nosit' Oto-to vtoroj proverki net •••

the partiele vrode --

(p. 3) (p. 14) (p. 67)

••• to vrode sovsem zabolel ••• (p. 3) A prjamo na pol kosti plevat' - s~itaetsla

vrode by neakkuratno. (p. 7) Ja vrode ~to ••• bol en ••• (p. 9) Vrode otxo~ij promysel, ~to li? (p. 17) l ot svoix dereven'skix otstavat' vrode obidno. (p. 18) A vse ~ vrode stenka splosnaja stala. (p. 25) S krasninkoj zaxodit i v tuman vrode by seden'kij.

(p. 41) ••• da~e i spat' vrode ne xocetsja. (p. 65) Teper' vrode s obuv'ju pOdnaladilos'. (p. 6)

d) Apprehension and misgiving are expressed by sentences

wi th the compound partieles nu-ka and neuz:

A nu-ka ube~it? (p. 21) ••• neuz on sebe na vole ni pecnoj rabot y ne

najdet ••• (p. 18) Neuz i solnee ixim dekretam podéinjaetsja? Cp. 26)

e) Astonishment ean be eontained in sentences with the

partiele .aB:

liB eto vy, eto vy, rebjatal (p. 40)

f) Decision can be conveyed by sentences with the verbal

partie le davaj:

••• gret'sja im negde, otojti ne veljat, - davaj opjat' za kirku. (p. 22)

••• davajego stojmja v obnimku voz'mem i pojdem. " . (p. 23)

137

Esli nuzno bystrej - davajte bystrejl (p. 39) ••• dava skoree loktjâmI tuda probivat'sja. Cp. 55) Dava romoj esée dve brigadyl Cp. 55) Nu, davaj, davaj, byatrejl (p. 62)

Such sentences with the verbal particle davaj are closely

related to the next group conveting incentive.

g) Incentive and encouragement are intended in sentences

with such particles as ~, and the reinforced nu-ka:

Nu, skazi Vanja ••• (p. 22) iü, mal'cy, nado nosilki koncat'. CP. 26) ~nu-ka podi vynesi ne prol'ja. (p. 4) A nu-ka, snimi pravyj valenokl (p. 49) A nu-ka mesoeek vas dajte mne naverx. (p. 67)

h) Emphasis is given to s'entences with such particles as:

the particle ~ (if it directly precedes the word

which ia being stressed) --

V lagere !2! ~to pogibaet. (p. 3) Vot ètogo-to Suxovu ne ponjat' nikak. Vot etoj minuty gorae net. (p. 12)

the particle ~ (tak tak) --

CP. 17)

Tak on i ~dal. i vs,e zdal.i tek. (p. 52) By10 vremja, tak tak ètogo xleba boja1is'. CP. 14) Tak tak inogda raz"jarjatsja - ne berut begleca

zi vym. (p. 46)

the partle1e ~ --

~ ne xuze vasego, pr~bujte na ~dorov'e! Cp. 61) Da ne prosto k narjadeikam v PPC, kak katdyj - den' xodi t ••• CP.')

the partie1e .!

Solnee .! zakrajkom verxnlm za zemlju us10. Cp. 42)

the partle1e ved' ---Da ved' vsex 1x ne nakor.mis,. CP. 24) Emu ved' let, kavtorangu, sorok ne sorok, a okolo.

CP. 41) Ved' ja ne obmanu. (p. 34) VëdT èto eto za sterva( gad, pada1', paskuda, ---Zagrebanec. Cp. 45) Ved' na uzin kasi net. Cp. 53) Ved' on kazdyj kusok tvoj a~itaet. Cp. 60) -

the partic1e ut --

Uz kavtorang rad by, da net al1. Cp. 41) üi xot' kry~a gori - spe~it' ne nado. (p. 8) X-]! kto i spa1! CP. 67)

the partic1e az ---••• az poka v sto1ovuju devjatyj barak. CP. 4) SuxoV-!! vzopre1. Cp. 37)

the partic1e 12 --

Dver'-to pritjagivaj, ty, pad1o! CP. 6) Oni po-Utram-to ne 1jubjat v karcer brat'. ••• ètogo-to SUXovu ne ponjat' nikak. (p. Da i zdes'~o ne by10. CP. 28) ••• srok-12-Vse f koncaetaja, katuska-12 na

CP. 15) 17)

razmote. Cp. 27)

138

Masterka-to by zrja naverx ne taskal ••• Cp. 36) !nur-to e~e ne natjanut. Cp. 37) Da i lëgo, pravda, k vorotam-to zmetes'? Cp. 47) Nu, priznat'sja, i gor-!g samIX ja ne vidal. (p. 66)

139

i) Evaluation can be given by sentences with the adverbial.

particle ~ attached to anotherparticle:

~ eto ono i est' brigada. Cp. 35)

Evaluation can also be expressed by the particles Y'

m! and ,B!:

Nu, da ~to s gluxogol CP. 35) Nü, zavaruxal CP. 41) Rto ~ ix ustav, starye arestanty znajut. CP. 46)

j) Irony can be conveyed by a sentence with an adverbial

part1cle !2! and another part1cle:

!2! etot-to nas m1g i est'. Cp. 19)

or with the compound partic1e tak i:

Tak i vaja zizn' u z~ka, Suxov privyk. CP. 13)

k) Un1formity of action 1s often tranam1tted when the

adverbial partic1e vsS occurs in the sentence:

VaS ne xote1os', ~toby utro. CP. 3) s:nede1ju xodi1 kak imeninnik, vaS noven1kimi

kab1u~kami poatuk1va1. (P:-6) Duma arestantakaja - i ta neavobodnaja, vaS

k tomu ~ vozvrascaetaja, vsU anova voroBit. (p. 16) K D~ru on vaS apinoj, budto ego i ne vidal. (p. 40) l arazu te-S-~udakom v oCkax, koto~yj v oceredi

vaS gazetu ~ita1. Cp. 53)

1) Consequence ls expressed by sentences with such

particles as!!! and vot i:

ste~', stel', stel' - vot 1 dyrocku za pajkoj sprjatannoj prlxvatil. CP. Il) ~ A pecka vsja krasno naskvoz' svetilas', tak

raskali1i ido1y. (p. 32) ---

m) Conclusion drawn from an action mentloned ear1ier v can be expressed by the particle znacit, which,

according to A. B. Sapiro, is not too widespread. 9

However, Sol~enicyn's usage contains Many examp1es

of this partic1e. It is difficult-to accept the v view that the partic1e znacit is rare1y used in the

1ight of the frequency of sentences such as the

following:

Zna6it, de~url1 ne v otered' on 1 prokralsja tixo. Cp. 4)

••• odnobrlgadnik ego CezaH~ kuri1, 1 kuril ne trubku a sigaretu - znacit pOdstrel'nut' mozno.

140

(p. 13) ••• materja1'éiku byl materjal'éikul Sne~ku, znacit.

Cp. 21) Eto opjat', znacit, na vtoroj etaz vse na sebe.

Cp. 23) S babamil ••• S ba1anami, a ne s babami ••• S bre-

vnaml, zna~it. CP. 27) Sove~anie, zna8it, u proraba. CP. 32) ••• u~ es11 rasskazyvat' pustllsja - znacit, v

dobroj du~e. Cp. 33) ••• nel' zja pod" emnika naladi t' • Zna~it, isa~' J

Cp. 40) Vse ob"ekty begma begut ••• ctob ran'se na ~mon i,

zna~lt, v 1ager' ran'se jurknut'. Cp. 44) Tak, zna~it, za kem ja? Cp. 53) l ve1eno emu by10 ruki vzjat' nazad i stojat' tut.

Zna~it, budut pajat' emu popytku k pobegu. CP. 55)

Xoro~o prisli: odna brigada polu~aet, da odna vsego v o~eredi, to!e pombrigadiry u okoska stojat. Ostal'nye, znacit, za nami budut. Cp. 29)

l im, zna~it, ne povez~o, zader!ali toze. Cp. 48) A uiin vam prinesti? Èto zna~it - iz stolovoj

v barak, v kotelke. Cp. 53} ••• pjat' misok vsego, zna~it - poslednij podnos

v brigade ••• CP. 56) l poka vnizu kavtoranga net, znacit soru emu ne

nasype~' ••• CP. 61) U guby krov' razmazana. Opjat', znaéit, pobili

ego tam za miski. (p. 01) ••• i zavernuli oni àtu ~~epot' otdel'no v cigarku

- poprobovat', znaéit, eto za suxovskij taba~ok. v (p. 61)

Nu, a~jnovskij, znacit, vzjal u Cezarja nasto­jas~ego caju gorstku, brosil v kotelok da sbegal v kipjatil'nik. CP. 6l}

Some of the above-mentioned particles belong to

substandard colloquial speech: !f, nebos', znacit,

pravda. lO The last three are especially trequent in

the speech of Soltenicyn's protagonists.

x) Interjections which take over the function of

other parts of speech:

Contemporary grammarians regard interjections as a

necessary element of the spoken language. Such a

prominent Russian philologist, for instance, as V. V.

Vinogradov asserts that the study of interjections is n

Il necessary for syntactic analysis of the spoken language.

Despite its etymology an interjection is not a word

loosely thrown into the sentence. It is not without

grammatical connexion as has been asserted by some

linguists.12 Nor is it a category isolated trom other

parts or speech: the substantivization of interjections

points to a connexion between interjections and other

grammatical categories.

Like particles# interjections are indeclinable

parts of speech# with no lexical meaning of their own but

able to carry emotional nuances. The difference between

interjections and particles lies in the fact that the

latter possess no individual emotive signiricance and

cannot be used independently.

Intonation plays a prominent role in interjectional

sentences. It actually determines the meaning of the

sentence # for the majority of emotional interjections are

capable of expressing various meanings. Intonation is

usually accompanied by gesture and racial expression.

The written language introduces explanatory descriptions

of gesture# mimicry and change of tone in order to

clarify the meaning of the sentence.

Emotional interjections seldom occur as isolated

sentences in present-day Russian. However# imperative

interjections such as brys'l# tErul# ~J# ~l# !!!21. ~l# ~l frequently forro independent interjectional

sentences.13 When used in a sentence# interjections do

not stand apart but participate in the whole structure.

The elimination of the interjections trom the sentence

decreases its degree of erootionality and conceals the

attitude o~ the author towards the action depicted.

The addition o~ an interjection changes the structure

of the sentence. Certain components are discarded

since the interjection, by taking over the function of

other parts of the sentence, causes the deletion o~ the

supr~luous element. As a resu1t the number o~ words in

the sentence decreases. Interjections can a1so function

143

as other parts of the sentence. This is a ~eature peculiar

to the spoken language. I~ met in literature, whether in

the authorls narrative or in the language o~ dramatis

personae, it is very o~ten adopted from popular

proverbs and ~acetious sayings.

In Solzenicyn's tale "Odin den' Ivana Denisovi~aft , ,

such interjections as: !J, ~, and Ea are among the

Most ~requent.

The Imperative interjection ~ is ordinarily used to

attract someone's attention and is thus employed by

Solzenicyn. For example:

, !l, fitili! - i zapustil v nix valenkom. (p. 4) !l, ty, xaxlak, dver' zakryvajl (p. 32) §l, stakanovecl Ty s otvesikom ~pravljajsjal (p. 36) ~~, rebjatal ~tob rastvor v jaséikax ne merz , po dvoe stanem. (p. 36) ~, sto cetvertajal (p. 43) !J, ty, Xe - devjatlsot dvadcat'l (p. 56) ~1 - kriknut' prislos', - ty, ryzijl (p. 65>

The emotional interjection ~ can convey various meanings

depending on the intonation:

regret --

Èx, k peéeeke byJ.. CP. 20) ËX, buranov davno net! (p. 21) ËX, rasstaralis l • (p. 41) ËX, vnatrusku klades l - pozalovalsja âuxov. CP. 59) ESli b arestanty drug s drugom ne su~ilisl - è-èxl ••

(p:--Ji9)

irony -­\ Ex, se je as kogo-to v lob ogrejul

144

ËX, - kricit - der1llla ne zalko! (p. 42) E!, da i povaliliz! povalili z~ki s kry1'ca! (p. 64)

va1ue-judgement , !!, glaz - vaterpasl Rovno! Esée ruka ne staritsja.

(p. 43)

The interjection EB, in addition to its use as an incentive

word, can a1so express such diverse emotions as:

bitterness --

Nu, proscajte bratcy ••• (p. 63) !B, koj-gde, mozet, i tonko, molno by i potol~ëe •••

(p. 4°) reproach --

!2, ne udaj, bratcyJ - ~uxov klicet. (p. 41)

threat --

~J ~l - ry~al nadzirate1 1• (p. 67)'

astonishment

Da BB?I - l suetsja Cezar' v tu ze gazetu. (p. 53)

irony --

Nu, cego ne ponjat'! NU, teper' kto kogol NU kak utrom, v obscem. !B, a ne budet - mne 1ixo kakoe?

(p. 44) (p. 48) (p. 49) (p. 49)

Incentive is seen in the fo1lowing sentences:

verb:

Nu, podvodi mexzavodJ NU, ne gorjuj, rebjataJ Am!, taml v uglul

CP. 51) (p. 35) Cp. 67)

Interjections can fUnction in the sentence as a

Svoimi nogami - da na vol ju, !,? ••• na tebe esce odnu. Na, AIeskaJ - i pecen'e odno emu otda1. l!!, po~a1ujataJ

(p. 27) (p. 27) (p. 67) (p. 3°)

145

An interjectiona1 predicate ia al ways more expressive than

a verbal predicate. Moreover, the repetition of the

interjection intensifies the expressive qua1ity of the

sentence:

Nu na, na' (p. 59) ZapaIi1Ti' kak sobaki besenye, tol'ko

slysno xy-xi! xy-xyl Cp. 43) A-a-al Petr M aly61 Cp. 53) Aj-aj-aj, prosto ne veritsja, ~to gde-to

eâae pekut batony. Cp. 62) Su-~u - sredi rebjat. CP. 33) l srazu su-~u-~u po brigade. Cp. 12)

Interjection can also act as an averbial modifier:

9~ ljut' tam segodnja budet. X-ot vysek da1'nix vdol' zony xo-go

skol'ko topat'. Ux, kak lico brigadirovo perekosi1o. Bereg, solido1om umjagcal, botinki

novexon'kie, ~1

CP. 12)

Cp. 47) (p. 39)

CP. 6)

Interjections can also occur in direct speech: .

.., T'fuI prokljatyel - vyrugalsja Suxov. Kon8ili l mat' tvoju za nogul - Sen'ka

~riéit. - Aidi1 A-a-al - zavop l zéki. - U-u-ul

(p. 67)

(p. 43) (p. 46) (p. 46) U-u-ul - ljuljukaet tolpa ot vorot.

Xu-gu-ul •• kolonna tak i kliknet edinym golosom. (p. 49)

Gejl - kri~it Pavlo sni~u. (p. 37) §m, Bal - otka!ljalsja Suxov, stesnjajas'

prervat' obrazovannyj razgovor. CP. 33)

Verbal interjections constitute a separate branch

of interjections. They differ from emotional or

imperative interjections in that their function is

restricted to expressing modality. They lack emotive

significance. Solzenicyn depicts sudden unexpected act­

ion by means or a verbal interjection:

Kak vskipjatitsja, da dvumja rukami po stolu - xlopl (p. 34)

Da begom k svoej vagonke l da na podporku nogu zakinul - sast'l i u! naverxu. CP. 67)

l esce rastvor masterkom razrovnjav -slep tuda slakoblokl (p. 38)

Sol!enicyn also uses interjéctional verb-forms.

Interjectional verb-forms, in contrast to verbal inter­

jections, have not completely lost their lexical meaning.

They can be employed as syntactic formatives, for they

express modality.

Stez', ste~', ste~' - vot i dyrocku za pajkoj sprjatannoj prixvatil. (p. Il)

146

l b~igada za nim po snegu: top-top, Skri1-Skri1. . p. 12 TOp-toï im !uxov, top-top. CP. 41) A vse : Zxrl_Zyrl, dovide1 kamen l ••• CP. 43) Vidit Suxov - zameta1sja Cez~l, tIk-mlk,

da pozdno. Cp. 63)

The main purpose o:f this chapte~ has been to

complete an accurate ana1ysis o:f the syntactic :features

o:f a new and vigo~ous autho~. A conside~ab1e quickening

o:f 1nte~est in these matte~s among scho1~s is ~e:f1ected

in the g~eat1y increased volume of publications on the

sp~ken language.14 Two decades ago hard1y anything

dea11ng with the syntax o:f spoken language existed.

Any analysis o:fthe syntactic peculi~ities of an author

exploiting the spoken language to such an extent as

Solzenicyn would have p~esented nume~ous problems o:f a

theo~etical nature. Howeve~, at least an app~oach to

these p~oblems can be :found in the new available wo~k!.

(See bibliog~aphy.)

To complete the picture o:f Solzenicyn's usage a few

lines should be added on his p~aseology, bis use o:f

p~ove~bs and abusive exp~essions especial1y.

2. Proverbs

The English word "proverb" cao be t~ans1ated int(\

Russian by two wo~ds: poslovica o~ pogovo~ka.

147

Although there does exist a clear-cut ditterence between

the two, this dist1nct10n is not always observed in

linguist1c literature and trequently the two words are

used interchangeably. To avoid any ambiguity here

def1n1t10n of both te~s 1s requ1red:

a) poslovica is a saying expressing a complete thought

in a full sentence;

b) pogovorka 1s an expressive and imaginative phrase

giving one element of a proverbial oPinion. l5

By the nature of its definition the pogovorka (incomplete

in form and content) can constitute a part of a poslovica.

For instance the saying cudesa v reNete (a pogovorka)

constitutes an element of the poslovica: ~udesa v re~ete:

dyr mnogo, a vylezt l nekuda. 16

Since English makea no distinction between the two

kinds ot proverbial expressions and has no aeparate

deaignations for them, the Rusaian nomenclature is here

retained.

Sol~enicynls tale comprises the tollowing proverbial

expressions:

poalovic~ -- (most trequent)

Ispytok ne ubytok. Rabota - ona kak palka, konca v nej dva. V omut dremucij kame~ki kidat l • Vtoroj raz popade§lsja - opjat l prigrebetsja. ot rabot y losadi doxnut. . Teplyj zjablogo razve kogda pojmet. Ni ukryva, ni greva.

(p. 4) (p. 7) (p. 7) (p. 8) Cp. 10) (p. 10) CP. 12)

éto~upalo, éto kasulo - tomu otzyva net. (p. 17) Za cto ne doplatis', togo ne donosi~l. (p. 18) Bitoj sobake tollko plet' poka~i. (p. 24) Zapaslivyj lu~le bogatogo. (p. 24) Kto kogo smozet, tot togo i glozet. (p. 29) Nu~dy svoej vpered na znaes'. (p. 32) Kto dva dela rukami znaet, tot es~e i desjat'

podxvatit. (p. 39) Smotrit, gde pjatyj ugol. (p. 39) Staryj mesjac bog na zvezdy krosit. (p. 44) Gretomu merzlogo ne ponjat'. (p. 45) Bystraja vo~ka vsegda pervaja pod grebe§ok popadet.(p. 62) Gde zèk ugreetsja, tam i spit srazu. (p. 64) 6to vysoko u ljudej, to merzost' pered bogom. (p. 66) V trube ugol'koj zapisat l • (p. 67)

pogovorki (much less trequent)

Oto po spine, eto po stene. ZaJa~'ja radost'. Dozd' v suxmen'.

CP. 29) (p. 49) (p. 51)

Most of the proverbial expressions exploited by

Solzenicyn in his tale "Odin den l ••• " eonstitute a legacy

of the past. Folk tales, made and handed down among the

eommon people, are studded with vivid epithets and adages.

They serve the writer as a mine of practical wisdom as

weIl as a constant supply of fresh diction.

Solzenicyn employs proverbial expressions in bis own

narrative as weIl as in the speech of his protagonists.

Occasionally he substitutes wor&and changes their order,

making the poslovica more spontaneous: the common

poslovica nSytyj golodnogo ne razumeet, nl7 he alters

twice -- nGretomu merzlogo ne ponjat'," and "Teplyj

zjablogo razve kogda pojmet."

The apt use or proverbial expressions illustrates

the inror.mal conversational character or Sollenicyn's

language.

3. Abusive expressions

Abusive expressions occur in common colloquial

language only. Sollenicyn exploits this characteristic

or the inror.mal style to make the speech or camp

prisoners more expressive or their harsh conditions.

Their hopeless existence is the main reason ror the

constant use or coarse language. From the medley or

vulgar expressions the rollowing three types can be set

apart:

a) obscene expressions rormed with the word ~, which

have a common designation "mat" or "materscina;"

Mat' va~u takl - .., . ••• k certovoj mater~ ••• 1 l v mat' ix ••• Mat'~ju za nogul Povernis', ~ •••

(p. 27) (p. 33) (p. 41) (p. 43) CP. 44)

b) obscene expressions ror.med with the word ~;

nedotyka ~ xrenoval Tak kakogo ! vy xrena miski zanimaete. Net u~, xren vam teper' - pobystrejl Xren tebë-=""n§ire sag" , Xren tebe druz'ja posunutsjal ••• a tebe xren v rot • ••• xub xren.-

Cp. 10) Cp. 30) Cp. 48) Cp. 48) CP. 55) Cp. 61) Cp. 64)

150

c) vulgar expressions fo~ed with the word ~.

k ~ertovoj materi ••• éert ego dernul -

(p. 33) (p. 47)

The uttering of curses is quite frequent in the

tale. Expressions, which do not fall into categories

previously considered, are listed separately here:

na fuja pes ego e~' su~'e vymjal U, gadskaja krov'l svinja~'ja mordal· Drat' ego v lob 8 rastvoroml Da drat' tebja v lob •••. ••• v lob tebja drat'I golovy baran'i ••• 1 Da lapot' emu v rot ••• 1 ••• nomera soba~'i ••• Tak !X, zverejl

(p. 7) Cp. 21) (p. 38) CP. 38) (p. ,39) (p. 42) Cp. 48) Cp. 55) Cp. 55) Cp. 56) (p. 62) (p. 64)

Such is the list of abusive expressions utilized by

Solzenicyn in the tale "Odin den' Ivana Denisovi~a.1t

Although this list is not numerous, it fUrther confirma

the author's preoccupation with common colloquial

language.

151

1

NOTES TO CHAPTER IV

Hermann Wunderlich, Unsere Umgangsprache in der Eigenart ihrer Satzrllsung (Weimar & Berlin, l'8'94) , p. 22.

2 See N. Ju. Svedova, O~erki ~ sintaksisu russkoj razgovornoj reci, A. N. (M., 1960), pp. 6-8.

3 See A. N. Gvozdev, O~erki ~ stilistike russkogo jazyka (M., 1955), pp. 274-286; and Svedova, 08erki, pp. 3-26.

4 See Gvozdev, O~erki ~ stilistike, p. 284.

5 See Svedova, Og'erki, p. 43.

6 Ibid., p. 78.

7 loc. cit.

8 See Svedova, O~erki, p. 94.

9 A. B. Sapiro, O~erki It2. sintaksisu russkix narodnyx govorov, A. N. (M., 1953~~ 288.

10 See Sapiro, Ocerki, pp. 278, 287, 288, 296.

Il V. V. Vinogradov, Russkij ~azik, U~pedgiz (M., 1947), p. 760. His view ls reemp as zed byA. I. Germanovi~, Mezdometija russkogo jazyka (Kiev, 1966), p. 6.

12 Thus, A. M. Pe1kovskij, Russkij sintaksis v nautnom osves~enii, 7th ed. (M., 1956), p. 372. -

13 A. 1. Germanovic, Mezdometija russkogo jazyka, p. 85.

152

14 v. A. A. l.

A. N.

A. B.

N. Ju.

Artemov, Ob intonacii (M., 1953); Germanovil; Meldometlja russkogo jazyka

(KIev, 1966). Gvozdev, O~erki E2 stilistike russkogo

jazyka, U~pedgiz (M., 1955). ~apiro, oaerki ~ sintaksisu russkix

narodnf! govorov, X. N. (M., 1953). ~vedova, 06erk ~ sintâksisu russkoj razgovor­

!ilil ~~ A. N. (M., 1960).

153

15 See M. A. Rybnikova, lzbrannye trudy (M., 1958), p. 515. Quoted after A. Zigulev, Russkie narodnye poslovicy ! pogovorki (M., 1965), p. 340 •.

16 See Zigulev, p. 340.

17 Bee V. l. DaI', Pos1ovicy russkogo naroda (M., 1957), P. 98. .

CHAPTER V

Conclusions

In the course of this linguistic analysis an

attempt has been made to show various aspects of

Solzenicyn1s usage. Peculiarities of lexicon and

syntax have been categorized and examined. Questions

concerning the classification of certain semantic

features have been raised. The origins of many

unprecedented forms have been debated. Chapters II-IV

are totally devoted to these inquiries. However_ no

154

major b~t isolated conclusions were drawn in the main body

of the work. Isolated conclusions must lack perspective

because of the incompleteness of inquiry. Proper

evaluation can only be made when aIl material has been

considered and aIl efforts directed towards the

achievement of relative objectivity.

The first conclusion to be drawn is to the general

nature of Sollenicyn's language. The most distinctive

factor, one which marks both the lexical and syntactic

aspects of Sol~enicyn's usage is the spoken colloquial

element.

The basic colloquial character o~ Soltenicyn's lan­

guage shows itsel~ throughout the tale, which is written

in the manner of ~, that particular Russian prose-form

introduced into more ~ormal Russian literature ~rom

~olklore by the eminent lexicographer and folklorist

V. I. DaI'. Skaz is a fusion of popular and folk1oric ........... expressions with the basic literary element. This very

definition suggests that the popular colloquial element

must constitute an important factor in the language of

the skaz. Therefore, the popular spoken language of ........... SOllenicyn's tale is in accordance with the principles

of this genre.

The syntax of SOI{enicyn's tale is marked by

in~ormal characteristics. AlI ten points used in

Chapter IV for the syntactic analysis are essential

factors in the spoken language. The additional section

in Chapter IV dealing with proverbial and abusive express­

ions further illustrates Soltenicyn's informality of

style. The proverbs used originated in popular speech

and, if found in literature or formaI language, they

perform a stylistic function. With re~erence to the

abusive expressions, these are clearly outside the scope

of any debate, for coarse and obscene words can hardly

be exploited in formaI speech.

The lexical peculiarities present demonstrate even

more clearly the informaI conversational character o~

e. Soltenicyn 1 e language. The grouping of peculiar words

according to their semantic values further aids the

conclusions~ for dialect, colloquial, vulgar and slangy

camp express~.ons can hardly be attributed to any other

but informaI style. As for the Soviet neologisms, many

of them have not yet been sanctioned by the standard

dictionaries. AIso, even the terms registered by

lexicographers are still much more exploited in common

speech than in formaI address. Further, the phonetic

and morphological anomalies in Solzenicyn's usage can

only be considered popular in character, since their

appearance is due to the illiteracy and ignorance of the

speaker who constructs erroneous forma without any

awareness of the fact.

AlI these factors contributing to the informaI

character of Soltenicyn's narrative were considered in

detail in the main body of the thesis. However, the

diminutive category, which constitutes a very clear

characteristic of popular Russian speech, has only been

touched on in the respective semantic subdivisions of

adjectival and nominal peculiarities. Most of the

diminutives in SOltenicyn's tale were not discussed.

Only special cases with unusual meaning or structure

were dwelt upon. Therefore. a general consideration is

now given to diminutives to help draw conclusions

concerning their nature.

156

It lies in the nature o~ the Russian t~ employ

diminutives. Not only the urban idiom o~ the petty

lower-class and the primitive vernacular of the peasants,

but the standard literary language of the intelligentsia

as well is studded with diminutive forms. However, the

literary language employs diminutives only to a very

limited degree. It does not abuse them. A thick

. sediment o~ a~~ectionate diminutive ~o~ characterizes

popular speech and does not penetrate into literary

Russian. Therefore, the existence o~ at least one

diminutive in practically every sentence of the tale

gives fUrther evidence of the popular character o~ the

language of "Odin den' ••• Il A few random quotations

~rom the text containing diminutive ~orms will suffice,

~or there is hardly a sentence with no diminutive

component:

Togda dostal xlebulek v beloj tr!apo~ke i, derza trjapo~ku v zapazu~ke,toby ni kroska mimo toj trjapo~ki n~ upala, stal pomalu-pomalu otkusyvat' i zevat'. Cp. 20)

V janvare solny~ko korovke bok sogrelol CP. 25> Butlat u Dera lagernyj, no noven'kij, ~isten'ki~.

(p. 39 Eto, znacit, no~i~ek daj im skladnoj, malen'kij.

(p. 61)

157

l ukrylsja s golovoj odejal'cem, tonkim, nemyten'kim. Cp. 68)

The language of Soltenicyn is also saturated with

onomatopoeic and expletive elements which have penetrated

e

158

into the tale. It reveals itself in Many imitative and

echoing sounds: Xu-gu-ul Cp. 53), U-u-ul CP. 46) 1 Aj-aj , ,

-ajl CP. 52), A-a-a-al Cp. 53), ~l.·. Cp. 49), am, gml

Cp. 33), M-m-m-ml CP. 13).

In the three instances given below the gradation of the

words and their separation into phonemes is evident:

Raz-beris' po PJat'l Raz-zberls' po pjat'l Ra-a-azberls' po brigadaml

R-razobrat'sja po pjat'l Ra-zobrat'sja po pjat'l·

Tju-urinl -- Tju-rinl

Cp. 55) Cp. 51) Cp. 44)

Cp. 43) (p. 47)

Cp. 39)

Intonation plays an important role in emphatic lan8'@ge,

especially when it refers to a giving of~~rders:

Kqnc{j nocevat·· 'sto- ~etvertajal pâ.-storonis' 1 Mf-arll X-tajdi ot vorotl

.,­V:y:xodil CP. 12)

CP. 51) CP. 49) (p. 47)

Often, Sollenicyn renders the pronunciation in a phone tic

manner:

, ~ E j, s takanovec 1 Ne ljudej a stukativl Da-e-ro61

Cp. 36) Cp. 27) CP. 38)

The first exclamation is an example of the Latvian manner

of speech. The next two examples present the Ukrainian

pronunciation.

Thus it is evident that both the popular manner of

expression, and the informal onomatopoeic mode of

enunciation characterize the language of Sollenicyn's

tale.

159

It has been hitherto assumed that dialect, cOlloqiial,

vulgar, esoteric jargonistic expressions of the underworld,

and Most Soviet neologistic te~ belong to popular speech.

However, doubt may arise about the importance of the role

played by forced-labour camp slang in Sollenicyn's tale.

"Odin den' ••• " is, after all, a detailed study of camp

life. Therefore, one would expect to find within it

extenaive exploitation of the prison-camp lexicon.

However, the influence of underworld slang doea not

penetrate very far. Soltenicyn wrcte this tale for the

average Russian reader. He was too great an artist to

make the mistake of a lesser writer and stud his work

with innumerable slangy expressions that would make the

tale uninte11igib1e to a1l but those who happened to pass

through and survive the camps and prisons of the poat­

revolutionary era.

The camp-slang vocabulary exploited b~ Sol~enicyn

consista of about 50 terms. This is rather a small

number in view of the ta1e'a theme. In a11 approximately

350 words not belonging to the standard Russian vocabulary

occur in Solzenicyn's tale. The camp-slang term~ology

thus constitutes no more than 15 per cent of these wo~ds.

Since the 350 non-standard words embedded in the tale are

only a small part of its total vocabulary, it becomes

evident that the basic element of Solzenicyn's 68 page

literary work is simply the standard language. Thus, the

slangy expressions of the camp inmates constitute a

minimal part of the total. The contrary impression is

due to the fact that somw of the camp te~ are repeated

so frequently that they stand out. The subject-matter

of the tale is, of course, responsible for the frequent

160

repetition of the camp-terms used. Thus itneed oCQasion .' ,

no surprise that the term !!! has been employed 75 times.

After aIl the story does concern a camp prisoner, designated

az~k.

Another important issue ia the question of the

authorship and origin of certain terms. It has been1

indirectly suggested that certain forms attributed to . ,

the colloquial or neologistic style of Russian speech

might have been coined by Aleksand~ Solzenicyn himse~f.

This is a not unreasonable suggestion when words under

discussion cannot be discovered in the dictionaries" ; .1

whereas very similar forms are in fact located there.

It then seemed probable that such words, easily understood

by an average Russian reader, had been coined by the

author in accordance with the normal rules of Russian

161

wo~d-~ormation, so that they pa~allel the standa~d Russian

words whose likeness they bear. In this catego~y o~

Sol~enicyn's neologisms the ~ollowing ~orma may be included:

neuladka, nedoby~nik, napuznik, posylo~nik, bezopaska,

~ybkin, gadskij, naotkryte, natixuju, nap~o~eg, syzdetstv!,

otstukaturit', etc. It is of course impossible to prove

that Solzenicyn invented them, as opposed to his hearing

them trom othe~s when a p~isone~ himsel~.

In every language besides wo~ds used in eve~y-day

p~actice, the~e are also the so called "potential wo~ds,"

i.e. forms non-existent in ~eality, whose use, however,

is possible because of the accidentaI character of wo~d­

formation. Such npotential wo~ds" can actually ba called

"natural wo~ds,n fo~ they often imitate historical

processes in the language and hence forro not quite

imaginary facts of speech, but patterns possible and

fraquently present in certain spheres of language:

dialects, children's language, extinct forms of speech

such as old documents, folktales, proverbs, etc. This

normally hidden potential, absent f~om ordina~y speech

or only hinted at in a covert way, can suddenly appea~

on the surface and be realized when exploited by the

writer who coins neologistic terms by converting the

potential into the actual.

Numerous vocables of SOlzenicyn's tale "Odin den'

Ivana Denisovica" may be such transformations. The fact

that they contorm to ordinary usage, do not stand out,

and seem to be natural constituents of the language is

clear evidence ot the writerls great skl1l in creatlng

or realizlng tresh lexical resources.

162

INDEX OF RUSSIAN WORDS

The fo11owingindex inc1udes a11 words cited

in the present work with their page references

in the F1egon Press edition.

A1e~ka-baptist -- 61 avra1 -- .39, 41 avtoremontnye -- 22, 45, 46 ba1an -- 27, 41 balanda -- 7, 8, 52, 53, 55,

der'mo -- 7, 53, 64 derevce -- 16 dereven'skij -- 18 derevjannyj bus1at -- 18,

27, 48 derevoobde1otnyj -- 16, 49 derunok -- 64 dBrzit -- 35

163

57, 58, 60, 63, 66 baraxo1'ce -- 34 begma -- 44 beaevo~ka -- 16 bedo1aga -- 20 bez~'paska -- 67 bezli:rnyj -- 56

desjat' sutok -- 61 desjatnik -- 19, 23, 32, 39,

41, 45, 47

b1at -- 24 po b1a tu -- 56 blatnoj -- 35, 63 blevotina -- Lj.6 bokovina -- 31 botinkov -- 6 brat-~stonec -- 61 brat-z~k -- 19 brevnotaska -- 27, 41 brexat~ -- 6 brigadnik -- 3, 4, 7~ 12, 30 b/u -- 34 BOR -- 5, 10, 14, 15, 28, 51,

54, 63 burkotat' -- 4, 30 burovaten'kij -- 9 bytovoj -- 27 28 (nastojascego1 ëaju -- 61 ce1ovekovyxod -- 15 '6' ertenys - 25 CTZ -- 6 cuma -- 46 cuska -- 6, 7, 45 cu~kat'sja -- 37

dezurka -- 9 dezurnjak -- 4 dobo1tka -- 8 dogljadaet -- 32, 41 dolbajut -- 22 do1bat' -- 15 (iz) domu -- 17 donce -- 32 dospevat' -- 28 doxodit' -- 7, 16, 35 doxodjaga -- 28, 29 doxrjast1!at l -- 7 dryn -- 41, 67 dvuxsotgrammovka -- 34 dymu -- 25 e~edBn -- 29 ~lektrorabota -- 39 ~lektromont~nyj -- 40 energopoezd -- 19, 28 ~stol'ko -- 31 tamil' ica -- 14 Fetjukov-laka1 -- 1.3 titil' -- 4 fitil'-inva1id -- 58 tuëmnik -- 42

fuganut' -- 4 fuimat'sja -- 6 fuj -- 7 fujas1ice -- .35 gad -- 4, 6, 24, .34, 45, 54,

57, 64, gadskij -- .38 gadstvo -- 42 garantijka -- 27 gaxnut' -- 4.3 gde-tos' -- 20 gohu -- .35 Gopcik-x1opcik -- 25 gorjun 66 gorjunja -- .34 grBbanyj -- 55 grev -- 12 GULAG -- .34 gunjavyj -- 1.3 gu~evat'sja -- 60, 6.3 ino -- 64 instrumenta1ka -- 21, 2.3,

36, 42 instrumenta1 t séik -- 22, 42 ixij -- 14, 22, 26 ixnij -- 44 izda1ja -- 2.3, 5.3 izgadittsja -- 54 kaptër -- 60 kaptërka -- .3, 5, 6, 14, 16,

54, 62 kartosinka -- 57 karcer -- 5, 15, 39, 50, 5.3,

61, 62, 6.3, 65, 66, 68 katuS'ka -- 27 kavtorang -- 16, 20, 24, 25,

26, 28, 30, 31, 35, .38, 41, 42, 4.3, 45, 46, 47, 60, 61, 62, 63, 66

kavtorangov -- 28, 66 kes' -- 14, 22, 24, 43 k1ad -- 39 kompo1ka -- .34 komvzvod -- .34 kondej -- 4, 5, 7, 9, 12,

42 korytce -- 25 kosanut' -- 4, 10 kosty1'nut' -- 38

(ot) kraju -- 9 krasninka -- 41 krasnof1otec -- 4 krovosos -- 40 kum -- .3, 5 KVé -- 8, 44, 53, 54, 60 1edu -- 35 1esopova1 -- 27 1evyj -- 9, 10 1inejka -- 8, 10, 12, 51,

52 1jut' -- 12 lopux -- 59 magara -- 8, 29 mas1ice-fujas1ice 35 maternut' -- 55 materja1'éik -- 21 matjugat'sja -- 43 maxnut' -- 22 medsanbat -- 10 merzavec -- 61 merzotina -- 46 mexzavod -- 48, 49, 51 mexzavodec -- 48 mexzavodskij -- 48, 52 minonosec -- 14, 62 morda -- .37, 39, 54, 6.3 mordovorot -- 54 morozjaka -- 2.3 mjasinka -- 8 nabratyj -- 56 nakos' -- 39 namordnik -- 20 naotk;"~te -- 28 naprofeg -- 39 napuznik -- 14 narodu -- 8 naskorjax -- 6 nasypaet -- 59 natixuju -- 54 navykate -- 39 nedobytnik -- .35 nedokurok -- 1.3 nemyten'kij -- 68 neprijutno -- 40 neu1adka -- 14 neume1ec -- 67 nevda1i -- 36 non~e --8, 19

164

,-normirovlcrik -- 19, 24 nosilki -- 26 nosja -- 58 nosu -- 38 nov&xon'kij -- 6 nudno -- 1$ nyn~e -- 64 obalduj -- 7 obnevolju -- 62 obogrev -- 57 obogrevalka -- 19, 22, 23,

24, 31, 32~ 33, 36, 42 odejal'ce --6~ odnobrigadnik -- 7, 13 odnova -- 11 okunaja -- 56 okun~i -- 7 oper -- 12, 54, 59 Osoblag -- 12, 27, otkaz!'ik -- 10 otkosina -- 58, 59 otlet -- 10 otlitnik -- 34 otmaxnut'sja -- 22 (bez) otryvu -- 40 otttukaturit' -- 8 otymat' -- 49 padal' -- 45 padl0 -- 6, 7, 25, 45, 46,

55, 67 pajat' -- 51 pajka -- 8, 11, 14, 16, 18,

19, 21, 33, 40, 54, 58, 60, 66

parasa -- 3, 4, 5 para~ny j -- ,3 palè'enok -- 45 paskuda -- 43, 46 pereminat' -- 31 (bez) pereryvu -- 36, 37 peresidka -- 26, 27 podsosat'sja -- 13 pOdstrel'nut' -- 13 podymat'sja -- 9, 55 pogrebovat' -- 20 pokazuxa -- 7 (net) pokoju -- 10 polkan -- 54 polkarcer -- 5

polubegom -- 49 pomatjugat'sja -- 23 pombrig --4, 11, 29, 31,

46, 56 pombr1gad1r -- 11 pombr1gadirov -- 11 pomene -- 35 pomenet' -- 8 pomirju -- 4 pont -- 64 popervu -- 14 popka -- 19, 23, 29 poploS'e -- 7 popustja -- 48 pospokojnej -- 27 posudomoj -- 30 posudomojka -- 3 posylo!n1k -- 60 po~akalit' -- 57 poval -- 27 poy.;remèbka -- 32 PPC -- 4, 6, 9, 12, 18, 51 predzonnik -- 15, 51 pridurok -- 19, 29, 51, 53,

58 pridurnja -- 53, 64 prjam -- 28 proaxat' -- 32 proburkotat' -- 30 procentovka-- 18, 24 prodsklad -- 29 prodstol -- 4 progarknut'sja -- 12 prol' ja --4 prorab -- 18, 19, 23, 32,

39, 40, 45 prosljunjavit' -- 13 prosepeljavit' -- 40 provalina -- 37 proxodu -- 25 puzatyj -- 54 puzo -- 28, 37, 59 p' ja -- 62 rabotjaga -- 6, 7, 10, 23,

24, 28, 29, 35, 36, 45, 53, 54

radyj -- 67 rangu -- 20 rasstarat'sja -- 41

165

rasstaryvat'sja -- 44 rastvoromela1ka -- 21 rastvoI'U -- 39 razgovoI"U -- 57 (ni) razu -- 52 razzjavit' -- 31 rybce -- 62 rybldn -- 8 sa1aga -- 39 samodumkoj -- 20 samosadu -- 9 san~ast' -- 3, 4, 7, 8, 9,

·12, 48, 53 saninstruktor -- 28 sedinka -- 37 sered' -- 48 sidja -- 29 sidka -- 5, 6, 50 si10dër -- 55 slast' -- 9 smef'ueéka -- 18 smogajut -- 18 smortok -- 41 snaroè'ka -- 45 sne~ -- 16 soba~ij -- 33, 62 Socbytgorodok -- 4, 12, 18,

22, 43, 51, 68 . Socgorodok -- 17 sovat' na 1apu -- 18 spajka -- 53 sporej -- 36 spotyclivo -- 48 srok€'" -- 40 stakanovec -- 36 sterva -- 45, 47, 54 stervoza -- 46 stoja -- 29 stojaëi -- 47 stre1ok-pulemetcik -- 34 strojmaterial -- 32 stucat' -- 3, 12 stukac -- 27, 28, 59 stupni -- 3 su~ij -- 38 suè"it'sja -- 49 susi1ka -- 4, 54, 65 svetu -- 25

svinjacij -- 39 svolo~' -- 19, 46, 53, 63 syzdetstva -- 22 saka1 -- 13, 20, 34, 47,

60 sakalit l -- 31 sa1man -- 64 saraxnut 1 -- 14 sazisto -- 58 sesterit l -- 52 sestërka -- 28, 29, 32, 54,

55 sibko -- 7, 33, 55 skodnik -- 46 !kva1yga -- 53 ~lakob1ok -- 29, 37, 38 ~mon -- 11, 12, 13, 14, 44, ié' 50, 51, 54, 60, 62,

smonjat' -- 48, 49, 52 ~ana -- 35 sugat' -- 64 S"umnut' -- 30 !iuranu t ' -- 21 ~urudit' -- 64 !usera -- 46 tabacinka -- 13, 34 t@.baku -- 23, 57 TEe -- 15, 16, 19, 21, 23,

\ 32, 33, 35, 37, 40, 41 tecovskij -- 52 terpe1'nik -- 27 to1kac -- 55 tolkanut' -- 4 Cbez) tolku -- 65 torf'orazrabotki -- 17 trexsotgrammovka -- 58 tr japic a -- 21 trog -- 65 trog'te -- 25 trudoden' -- 17 udovolennyj 68 ugrev -- 29 ukryv -- 12, 62 ulybitsja -- 67 umaxnu t 1 -- 22 (net) uporu -- 25 urka -- 63

166

uto1akivat' -- 12 uxajdakat'sja -- 10 vagonka -- 36 46 56 Il, 206

286 616 65, 66, 67, 68 v~~evo~ka-opojaska -- 50 ver~uxaj -- 51 vetru -- 256 58 vka1yvat' -- 4, 246 29 ynatrusku -- 59 voskresen'ice -- 52 vpërede -- 35 vpo1notu -- 30 xalabuda -- 28 xa1turit' -- 37 x1eboz-ez -- 56 x1eboz-ezka -- 46 11, 29 xoc:"ca -- 48 xodu -- 30 xoiàdu -- 25 xoS"' -- 18, 59 x~en -- 30, 48, 55, 61, 64 xz-enovina -- 6 zay -- 54, 55 zayaz-uxa -- 41 zavsto10voj -- 54, 55 zavtz-evo -- 61 zagz-ebanec 45 zakosit' -- 30, 31, 60, 68 zakz-aek -- 42

za1upat'sja -- 20, 21, 52 zamesto -- 4, 17 zana~i t' -- 43 zaplot -- 5 zaz-aza -- 40 zaz-ane -- 41 zarp1ata -- 24, 32 zaz-tjat'sja -- 13 zasavyvat' -- 11 zastojat' -- 18 zatemok -- 67 zatiz-ka -- 29 zatursit' -- 60 zaulju1jukat' -- 43 zaxa1tyrivat' -- 33 zaxz-jastok -- 46 z(k -- 24 zek -- 5, 6, Il, 12, 13,

14, 15, 16, 19, 21, 23, 24, 28, 31, 32, 33, 35, 41, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 51, 53,

\ 54, 57, 646 65, 68 zekovskij -- 14 zjab1yj -- 10 (ne) znato -- 48 zdja -- 53, 56 lituxa -- 6, 60, 66 zizica -- 57

167

168

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~ ~

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