REPRODUCTION AND HUMAN

DEVELOPMENT

MODES OF REPRODUCTION **Mode of Reproduction: The

predominant pattern, in a culture, of population change through the combined effect of fertility and mortality.

Fertility: the rate of births within a population or the increase in population over a period of time.

Pronatalism: An attitude or policy that encourages childbearing.

Demographic transition: The change from the agricultural pattern of high fertility and mortality to the industrial pattern of low fertility and mortality.

MODES OF REPRODUCTION (PG. 134)

Foraging Agriculture Industrialism/Informatics

Population growth Population growth Population growth

Moderate Birth and death rates

High Birth ratesDeclining death rates

Industrialized nations-negative population growthDeveloping nations- high

Value of children Value of Children Value of Children

Moderate High Mixed

Fertility Control Fertility Control Fertility Control

Indirect means Low-fat diet of womenWomen’s work and exercise Prolonged breastfeeding Spontaneous abortionDirect meansInduced abortion Infanticide

Increased reliance on direct means Induced abortionInfanticide Pro-natalist techniquesherbs

Direct methods grounding in science and medicineChemical forms of contraceptionIn vitro fertilization Abortion

Social Aspects Social Aspects Social Aspects

Homogeneous fertility Few specialists

Emerging Class differencesIncreasing specialization Midwifery/Herbalists

Stratified fertility Globally, nationally, and locally Highly developed specialization

CULTURE AND FERTILITY An individual’s culture shapes their view(s) on topics of sex,

gender, romantic relationships (marriage), sexual intercourse, contraception, birthing rites and sexual orientation.

Sexual intercourse usually involves private sometimes secret beliefs and behaviors. Anthropologically studying sexual behaviors and practices is challenging. Due in part (Participant observation would be unethical, surveys/interviews are the only ethical way to study sexual behavior/practices)

For females, biology interacting with environment and culture defines when a female is fertile. Biologically this begins with the onset Menarche and ceases with Menopause.

Cultures socialize their children to “adhere,” to an appropriate age for sexual intercourse however cultural rules are far more pliable than those of biological sex. Cultural guidelines vary by gender, class, ethnicity and ancestry.

FERTILITY DECISION MAKING

Cross culturally, fertility decision making begins at the family level and the needs or costs of having children are weighed by the couple and members of the family.

Important factors that influence the desire to have children…

1. children’s labor value

2. Children’s value as old-age support for parents

3. Infant and child mortality rates

4. Economic costs of children

Depending on the division of labor and on the other social features of a cultural group preferences based on the sex of a child vary.

Preferences for sons is widespread, especially in areas South and East Asia (India, Pakistan, China and Korea) but it is not universal. Areas of the Caribbean and Africa have a preference for daughters and in areas Southeast Asia a balanced representation of the sexes within a familial group is preferred.

FERTILITY CONTROL

People throughout history have had ways to influence fertility-- whether it was to reduce it, increase it, or regulate birth rates/spacing.

Indigenous methods include: Plant or animal substances Herbs made into a Tea or taken in pill form Some substances are made into an inhaled vapor, some

Inserted into the vagina and others are rubbed onto the

Stomach.

Induced Abortion: Is cross-culturally practiced and attitudes toward induced

abortion vary from acceptable/ tolerated to opposition and punishment for offenders

Cross-culturally there are several methods employed to induce an abortion. Hitting the abdomen, starving oneself, taking drugs, jumping up and down,

lifting heavy objects, jumping from a height or doing hard work.

INDUCED ABORTION (CONTINUED) Reasoning behind why women seek to induce an

abortion are normally tied to socio-economic factors. Other factors that may influence the reason for an

abortion and include… Religious beliefs (Catholicism, Islam, and Hinduism) Some governments regulate access to abortion (China, One

child per couple policy)

In Japan, decorated statues are placed in a Mizuko in memory of their “returned” fetuses. (142)

**INFANTICIDE Is the deliberate killing of an infant or child. Practiced

cross-culturally however it is rarely a frequent practice.

2 forms of infanticide Direct and Indirect

Direct Infanticide is the death of a infant or child through actions such as beating, smothering, poisoning and/or drowning.

Indirect Infanticide is the death of an infant or child through typically neglect such as exposure, starvation, and allowing the child to get sick and die.

Reasons for Direct Infanticide Child was deformed or ill Infant’s sex Adulterous conception

PERSONALITY AND THE LIFE CYCLE

Personality: is an individual’s patterned and characteristic way of behaving, thinking and feeling.

Enculturation: Also known as socialization, is the learning of a culture through both informal and formal processes.

The Birth Context The cultural context of birth affects an infant’s

psychological development. ( example Maya women of Oaxaca, Mexico.)

Bonding Occurs between parent and infant in the initial months

after birth. Gender in Infancy

How an infant is treated while in the womb and after it is born. This is culturally driven.

SOCIALIZATION DURING CHILDHOOD Socialization of children involves how

children get along/observe others and what kind of responsibilities a child has (chores, tasks, care-taking, school and etc.)

Nurturant-responsible personalities Caring and sharing acts towards other children

Dependent-dominant personalities Fewer acts of caregiving, more acts of

dominance over other children and more need for care by adults.

The type of culture and livelihood a child is socialized in may affect what personality type they have.

SOCIALIZATION DURING CHILDHOOD

ADOLESCENCE AND IDENTITY The transition from childhood to Adulthood involves certain biological and cultural factors. Puberty: is a time in the human life cycleThat occurs universally and involves aSet of biological markers and sexual maturation.Adolescence: Is the cultural definedPeriod of maturation from puberty to theAttainment of adulthood.

“COMING OF AGE” AND GENDER IDENTITY

QUINCEANERA

**GENDER PLURALISM Is the existence within a culture of multiple categories

of femininity, masculinity and blurred genders that are tolerated and legitimate.

**Cross cultural examples

Berdache: A blurred gender category, usually referring to a person who is biologically male but who takes on a female gender role. (Native America- Lakota-Sioux, Winkte/ Zuni, Berdache)

Hijra: In India, A blurred gender role in which a person who is biologically male takes on female dress and behaviors.

Amazon: A person who is biologically female but takes on a male gender role. ( Found in a variety of global cultures and environmental contexts.)

GENDER PLURALISM

ADULTHOOD Depending on the culture you are from one of the

most important Rites of Passage is from childhood to adulthood.

After becoming an adult– individuals typically get married or embrace a spiritual vocation.

Becoming a parent:Matrescence Motherhood, or the cultural process of becoming a

motherPatrescenceFatherhood, or the cultural process of becoming a

father. Couvade: customs that apply to the behavior of

fathers during and shortly after the birth of their children.

MARRIAGE: RITE OF PASSAGE ADULTHOOD