สัปดาห์ที่ 8 emile durkheim

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สั�ปดาห์�ที่ 8

เอกสัารประกอบการสัอนวิ�ชา 427-303 Sociological Theories

เที่อม 1/2553

เร�อง Emile Durkheim : Introduction

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Emile DurkheimEmile Durkheim

By F. ElwellBy F. Elwell

Rogers State UniversityRogers State University

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Emile Durkheim, 1858-1917Emile Durkheim, 1858-1917

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Major ContributionsMajor Contributions

Several major contributions to Several major contributions to sociology:sociology:– Distinguishing and elaborating the field of Distinguishing and elaborating the field of

sociology from other social sciencessociology from other social sciences– Emphasis on empirical data to lend Emphasis on empirical data to lend

support to theoretical speculationssupport to theoretical speculations– Focus on the division of labor and its Focus on the division of labor and its

consequences for social lifeconsequences for social life– Collective conscience or the need for a Collective conscience or the need for a

common core of values and moral rulescommon core of values and moral rules– FunctionalismFunctionalism

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Social FactsSocial Facts

According to Durkheim, social facts are According to Durkheim, social facts are the subject matter of sociology. the subject matter of sociology. Social facts are “sui generis” Social facts are “sui generis” (meaning of its own kind; unique) (meaning of its own kind; unique) and must be studied distinct from and must be studied distinct from biological and psychological biological and psychological phenomenon.phenomenon.

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Social facts can be defined as patterns Social facts can be defined as patterns of behavior that are capable of of behavior that are capable of exercising some coercive power upon exercising some coercive power upon individuals. They are guides and individuals. They are guides and controls of conduct and are external controls of conduct and are external to the individual in the form of to the individual in the form of norms, mores, and folkways.norms, mores, and folkways.

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Social FactSocial Fact

““A social fact is identifiable through A social fact is identifiable through the power of external coercion which the power of external coercion which it exerts or is capable of exerting it exerts or is capable of exerting upon individuals” (Durkheim, [1895] upon individuals” (Durkheim, [1895] 1982, p. 56). 1982, p. 56).

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Through socialization and education Through socialization and education these rules become internalized in these rules become internalized in the consciousness of the individual. the consciousness of the individual. These constraints and guides These constraints and guides become moral obligations to obey become moral obligations to obey social rules.social rules.

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Human DualismHuman Dualism

““There are in each of us…two There are in each of us…two consciences: one which is common to consciences: one which is common to our group in its entirety…the other, our group in its entirety…the other, on the contrary, represents that in us on the contrary, represents that in us which is personal and distinct, that which is personal and distinct, that which makes us an individual” which makes us an individual” ([1893] 1933: 129). ([1893] 1933: 129).

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““Because society surpasses us, it Because society surpasses us, it obliges us to surpass ourselves, and obliges us to surpass ourselves, and to surpass itself, a being must, to to surpass itself, a being must, to some degree, depart from its naturesome degree, depart from its nature—a departure that does not take —a departure that does not take place without causing more or less place without causing more or less painful tensions” (Elementary Forms painful tensions” (Elementary Forms [1914] 1973, p. 163). [1914] 1973, p. 163).

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““It is not without reason, therefore, that It is not without reason, therefore, that man feels himself to be double: he man feels himself to be double: he actually is double….In brief, this duality actually is double….In brief, this duality corresponds to the double existence corresponds to the double existence that we lead concurrently; the one that we lead concurrently; the one purely individual and rooted in our purely individual and rooted in our organisms, the other social and nothing organisms, the other social and nothing but an extension of society” but an extension of society” (Elementary Forms, [1914] 1973, p. (Elementary Forms, [1914] 1973, p. 162).162).

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Our purely individual side seeks Our purely individual side seeks satisfaction of all wants and desires. satisfaction of all wants and desires. It knows no boundaries. This side of It knows no boundaries. This side of human beings quickly leads to a human beings quickly leads to a condition that Durkheim labels as condition that Durkheim labels as “anomie.”“anomie.”

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AnomieAnomie

““It is this anomic state that is the It is this anomic state that is the cause, as we shall show, of the cause, as we shall show, of the incessantly recurrent conflicts, and incessantly recurrent conflicts, and the multifarious disorders of which the multifarious disorders of which the economic world exhibits so sad a the economic world exhibits so sad a spectacle” ([1893] 1933: 5).spectacle” ([1893] 1933: 5).

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AnomieAnomie

Durkheim characterized the modern Durkheim characterized the modern individual as insufficiently integrated individual as insufficiently integrated into society. Because of these into society. Because of these weakening bonds, social regulation weakening bonds, social regulation breaks down and the controlling breaks down and the controlling influence of society on the desires influence of society on the desires and interests of the individual is and interests of the individual is rendered ineffective; individuals are rendered ineffective; individuals are left to their own devices. left to their own devices.

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AnomieAnomie

Because of the dual nature of human Because of the dual nature of human beings this breakdown of moral beings this breakdown of moral guidance results in rising rates of guidance results in rising rates of deviance, social unrest, unhappiness, deviance, social unrest, unhappiness, and stress.and stress.

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AnomieAnomie

"The more one has, the more one "The more one has, the more one wants, since satisfactions received wants, since satisfactions received only stimulate instead of filling only stimulate instead of filling needs" (1951, p. 248). needs" (1951, p. 248).

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AnomieAnomie

““When there is no other aim but to When there is no other aim but to outstrip constantly the point arrived outstrip constantly the point arrived at, how painful to be thrown at, how painful to be thrown back!...Since imagination is hungry back!...Since imagination is hungry for novelty, and ungoverned, it for novelty, and ungoverned, it gropes at random” ([1897] 1951, p. gropes at random” ([1897] 1951, p. 257).257).

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AnomieAnomie

““Unlimited desires are insatiable by Unlimited desires are insatiable by definition and insatiability is rightly definition and insatiability is rightly considered a sign of morbidity. Being considered a sign of morbidity. Being unlimited, they constantly and unlimited, they constantly and infinitely surpass the means at their infinitely surpass the means at their command; they cannot be quenched. command; they cannot be quenched. Inextinguishable thirst is constantly Inextinguishable thirst is constantly renewed torture" ([1897] 1951, p. renewed torture" ([1897] 1951, p. 247). 247).

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AnomieAnomie

““To the extent that the individual is To the extent that the individual is left to his own devices and freed left to his own devices and freed from all social constraint, he is from all social constraint, he is unfettered too by all moral unfettered too by all moral constraint” (Professional Ethics and constraint” (Professional Ethics and Civic Morals, Durkheim [1950] p. 7).Civic Morals, Durkheim [1950] p. 7).

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AnomieAnomie

Durkheim identifies two major causes Durkheim identifies two major causes of anomie: the division of labor, and of anomie: the division of labor, and rapid social change. Both of these rapid social change. Both of these are, of course, associated with are, of course, associated with modernity.modernity.

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AnomieAnomie

An increasing division of labor An increasing division of labor weakens the sense of identification weakens the sense of identification with the wider community and with the wider community and thereby weakens constraints on thereby weakens constraints on human behavior. These conditions human behavior. These conditions lead to social “disintegration”—high lead to social “disintegration”—high rates of egocentric behavior, norm rates of egocentric behavior, norm violation, and consequent de-violation, and consequent de-legitimation and distrust of authority.legitimation and distrust of authority.

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Collective ConscienceCollective Conscience

According to Durkheim, the desires and According to Durkheim, the desires and self-interests of human beings can self-interests of human beings can only be held in check by forces that only be held in check by forces that originate outside of the individual. originate outside of the individual. Durkheim characterizes this external Durkheim characterizes this external force as a collective conscience, a force as a collective conscience, a common social bond that is expressed common social bond that is expressed by the ideas, values, norms, beliefs, by the ideas, values, norms, beliefs, and ideologies of a culture.and ideologies of a culture.

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““As there is nothing within an As there is nothing within an individual which constrains these individual which constrains these appetites, they must surely be appetites, they must surely be contained by some force exterior to contained by some force exterior to him, or else they would become him, or else they would become insatiable—that is morbid” [1928] insatiable—that is morbid” [1928] 1978, p. 213). 1978, p. 213).

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As the collective conscience originates As the collective conscience originates with society, Durkheim elaborated with society, Durkheim elaborated the cause and effects of weakening the cause and effects of weakening group ties (and thus a weakening of group ties (and thus a weakening of the collective conscience) on the the collective conscience) on the individual in his two works, individual in his two works, The The Division of Labor in SocietyDivision of Labor in Society (1893) (1893) and and SuicideSuicide (1897). (1897).

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In In The Division of LaborThe Division of Labor, Durkheim , Durkheim identifies two forms or types of identifies two forms or types of solidarity, which are based on different solidarity, which are based on different sources. Mechanical solidarity is sources. Mechanical solidarity is “solidarity which comes from likeness “solidarity which comes from likeness and is at its maximum when the and is at its maximum when the collective conscience completely collective conscience completely envelops our whole conscience and envelops our whole conscience and coincides in all points with it.” coincides in all points with it.”

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Collective Conscience: Collective Conscience: MechanicalMechanical

Mechanical solidarity occurs in early Mechanical solidarity occurs in early societies in which there is not much societies in which there is not much division of labor. Such societies are division of labor. Such societies are relatively homogenous, men and women relatively homogenous, men and women engage in similar tasks and daily engage in similar tasks and daily activities, people have similar activities, people have similar experiences. In such societies the few experiences. In such societies the few distinct institutions express similar distinct institutions express similar values and norms and tend to reinforce values and norms and tend to reinforce one another.one another.

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The norms, values, and beliefs of the The norms, values, and beliefs of the society (or the collective conscience) society (or the collective conscience) are so homogenous and confront the are so homogenous and confront the individual with such overwhelming individual with such overwhelming and consistent force, that there is and consistent force, that there is little opportunity in such societies for little opportunity in such societies for individuality or deviance from this individuality or deviance from this collective conscience.collective conscience.

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According to Durkheim, traditional According to Durkheim, traditional cultures experience a high level of cultures experience a high level of social and moral integration, there social and moral integration, there was little individuation, and most was little individuation, and most behaviors were governed by social behaviors were governed by social norms which were usually embodied norms which were usually embodied in religion.in religion.

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By engaging in the same activities and By engaging in the same activities and rituals, people in traditional societies rituals, people in traditional societies shared common moral values, which shared common moral values, which Durkheim called a collective Durkheim called a collective conscience. In these societies, people conscience. In these societies, people tend to regard themselves as members tend to regard themselves as members of a group; the collective conscience of a group; the collective conscience embraces individual awareness, and embraces individual awareness, and there is little sense of personal options.there is little sense of personal options.

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Collective Conscience: Collective Conscience: OrganicOrganic

Organic solidarity develops as a by-Organic solidarity develops as a by-product of the division of labor. As product of the division of labor. As society becomes more complex, society becomes more complex, individuals play more specialized individuals play more specialized roles and become ever more roles and become ever more dissimilar in their social experiences, dissimilar in their social experiences, material interests, values, and material interests, values, and beliefs.beliefs.

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Individuals in such a sociocultural Individuals in such a sociocultural system have less in common; system have less in common; however, they must become more however, they must become more dependent upon each other for their dependent upon each other for their survivalsurvival

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The growth of individualism is an The growth of individualism is an inevitable result of the increasing inevitable result of the increasing division of labor, and this division of labor, and this individualism can only develop at the individualism can only develop at the expense of the common values, expense of the common values, morality, beliefs, and normative rules morality, beliefs, and normative rules of society—the sentiments and of society—the sentiments and beliefs that are held by all.beliefs that are held by all.

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With the loosening of these common With the loosening of these common rules and values we also lose our rules and values we also lose our sense of community, or identity with sense of community, or identity with the group. The social bond is thereby the group. The social bond is thereby weakened and social values and weakened and social values and beliefs no longer provide us with beliefs no longer provide us with coherent or insistent moral guidance.coherent or insistent moral guidance.

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And this loosening lends itself to And this loosening lends itself to anomie. Again, according to anomie. Again, according to Durkheim, if an individual lacks any Durkheim, if an individual lacks any sense of social restraint her self-sense of social restraint her self-interest will be unleashed, she will interest will be unleashed, she will seek to satisfy her own appetites seek to satisfy her own appetites with little thought on the possible with little thought on the possible effect her action will have on others.effect her action will have on others.

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Instead of asking “is this moral?” or Instead of asking “is this moral?” or “does my family approve?” the “does my family approve?” the individual is more likely to ask “does individual is more likely to ask “does this action meet my needs?” The this action meet my needs?” The individual is left to find her own way in individual is left to find her own way in the world—a world in which personal the world—a world in which personal options for behavior have multiplied options for behavior have multiplied as strong and insistent norms and as strong and insistent norms and moral guidelines have weakened.moral guidelines have weakened.

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ReligionReligion

As Durkheim was concerned with As Durkheim was concerned with moral behavior and social justice he moral behavior and social justice he naturally turned to the study of naturally turned to the study of religionreligion

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ReligionReligion

All religions divide social life into two All religions divide social life into two spheres, the “sacred” and the spheres, the “sacred” and the “profane.” There is nothing intrinsic “profane.” There is nothing intrinsic about a particular object which about a particular object which makes it sacred. An object becomes makes it sacred. An object becomes sacred only when the community sacred only when the community invests it with that meaning.invests it with that meaning.

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ReligionReligion

[Religion is] "an eminently collective [Religion is] "an eminently collective thing" (1954, p.47). It serves to bind thing" (1954, p.47). It serves to bind a community together.a community together.

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ReligionReligion

““A religion is a unified system of A religion is a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, that is to say, things sacred things, that is to say, things set apart and forbidden--beliefs and set apart and forbidden--beliefs and practices which unite in one single practices which unite in one single community called a Church, all those community called a Church, all those who adhere to them" (1954, p. 47). who adhere to them" (1954, p. 47).

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ReligionReligion

"The believer who has communicated "The believer who has communicated with his god is not merely a man who with his god is not merely a man who sees new truths of which the sees new truths of which the unbeliever is ignorant; he is a man unbeliever is ignorant; he is a man who is stronger. He feels within him who is stronger. He feels within him more force, wither to endure the more force, wither to endure the trials of existence, or to conquer trials of existence, or to conquer them" (1954, p. 416). them" (1954, p. 416).

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ReligionReligion

"Thus there is something eternal in religion "Thus there is something eternal in religion which is destined to survive all the which is destined to survive all the particular symbols in which religious particular symbols in which religious thought has successively enveloped thought has successively enveloped itself. There can be no society which itself. There can be no society which does not feel the need of upholding and does not feel the need of upholding and reaffirming at regular intervals the reaffirming at regular intervals the collective sentiments and the collective collective sentiments and the collective ideas which make its unity and its ideas which make its unity and its personality. ..personality. ..

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ReligionReligion

““Now this moral remaking cannot be achieved Now this moral remaking cannot be achieved except by the means of reunions, except by the means of reunions, assemblies, and meetings where the assemblies, and meetings where the individuals, being closely united to one individuals, being closely united to one another, reaffirm in common their common another, reaffirm in common their common sentiments; hence come ceremonies which sentiments; hence come ceremonies which do not differ from regular religious do not differ from regular religious ceremonies, either in their object, the ceremonies, either in their object, the results which they produce, or the results which they produce, or the processes employed to attain these processes employed to attain these results. ..results. ..

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ReligionReligion

““What essential difference is there What essential difference is there between an assembly of Christians between an assembly of Christians celebrating the principal dates in the life celebrating the principal dates in the life of Christ, or of Jews remembering the of Christ, or of Jews remembering the exodus from Egypt or the promulgation exodus from Egypt or the promulgation of the Decalogue, and a reunion of of the Decalogue, and a reunion of citizens commemorating the citizens commemorating the promulgation of a new moral or legal promulgation of a new moral or legal system or some great event in the system or some great event in the national life?" (1954, p. 427). national life?" (1954, p. 427).

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ReligionReligion

Durkheim then goes a step further. Durkheim then goes a step further. Religion is not only a social creation; Religion is not only a social creation; it is the power of the community it is the power of the community itself that is being worshiped. The itself that is being worshiped. The power of the community over the power of the community over the individual so transcends individual individual so transcends individual existence that people collectively existence that people collectively give it sacred significance.give it sacred significance.

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ReligionReligion

By worshiping God people are By worshiping God people are unwittingly worshiping the power of unwittingly worshiping the power of the collective over them—a power the collective over them—a power that both created and guides them. that both created and guides them. They are worshiping society itself.They are worshiping society itself.

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ReligionReligion

It is religion is one of the main forces It is religion is one of the main forces that make up the collective that make up the collective conscience; religion which allows the conscience; religion which allows the individual to transcend self and act individual to transcend self and act for the social good. But traditional for the social good. But traditional religion was weakening under the religion was weakening under the onslaught of the division of labor; onslaught of the division of labor; what could replace religion as the what could replace religion as the common bond?common bond?

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ReligionReligion

““The great things of the past which The great things of the past which filled our fathers with enthusiasm do filled our fathers with enthusiasm do not excite the same ardor in us...In a not excite the same ardor in us...In a word, the old gods are growing old or word, the old gods are growing old or already dead, and others are not yet already dead, and others are not yet born...But this state of incertitude born...But this state of incertitude and confused agitation cannot last and confused agitation cannot last for ever. ..for ever. ..

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ReligionReligion

““A day will come when our societies will know A day will come when our societies will know again those hours of creative effervescence, again those hours of creative effervescence, in the course of which new formulae are in the course of which new formulae are found which serve for a while as a guide to found which serve for a while as a guide to humanity; and when these hours shall have humanity; and when these hours shall have been passed through once, men will been passed through once, men will spontaneously feel the need of reliving spontaneously feel the need of reliving them from time to time in thought, that is to them from time to time in thought, that is to say, of keeping alive their memory by say, of keeping alive their memory by means of celebrations which regularly means of celebrations which regularly reproduce their fruits. ..reproduce their fruits. ..

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ReligionReligion

““We have already seen how the French We have already seen how the French Revolution established a whole cycle Revolution established a whole cycle of holidays to keep the principles of holidays to keep the principles with which it was inspired in a state with which it was inspired in a state of perpetual youth... of perpetual youth...

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ReligionReligion

““There are no gospels which are There are no gospels which are immortal, but neither is there any immortal, but neither is there any reason for believing that humanity is reason for believing that humanity is incapable of inventing new ones” incapable of inventing new ones” (1954, pp. 475-476).(1954, pp. 475-476).

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ReligionReligion

While men are losing faith in the old While men are losing faith in the old religions, new religions will be born. religions, new religions will be born. For all societies feel the need to For all societies feel the need to express their collective sentiments, express their collective sentiments, ideas, and ideologies in regular ideas, and ideologies in regular ceremony. All societies need a set of ceremony. All societies need a set of common values and moral guidelines common values and moral guidelines to inspire their members to to inspire their members to transcend their selfishness.transcend their selfishness.

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ReligionReligion

While the forms and particular symbols While the forms and particular symbols may change, religion is eternal.may change, religion is eternal.

สัปดาห์ที่ 8 emile durkheim

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